2. 2
How do children learn?
Through active exploration?
Through direct teaching?
Through cultural exchange?
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3. 3
Learning Theory
Theorizes that development occurs primarily through
experience
Emphasis is on environmental influences on development
Personality is learned rather than inherited
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4. What is learning? 4
Learning is a “more or less permanent change in behavior that
occurs as a result of practice or experience”
Learning increases the probability that a behavior will occur again
in the future
Watson described children as “lumps of clay” ready to be shaped
by the environment
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5. 5
Method of Development
Classical Conditioning occurs when a previously neutral
stimulus becomes associated with a conditioned response
through pairing with an unconditioned stimulus
Unconditioned stimulus: spanking
naturally produces an unconditioned
response – pain & crying
When spanking is paired (immediately
preceding or concurrent with) a
neutral stimulus, the neutral stimulus will
being to take on the same properties
as the unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned stimulus: Dad’s red shirt
produces fear and crying
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6. 6
Method of Development
Skinner focused on children’s spontaneous and active
behavior and the results that it has on the environment
Operant Conditioning occurs when a behavior produces a
response that is reinforcing or not
Increasing Behavior
Positive Reinforcement: results in an
increase in future behaviors
Social reinforcers: attention, smiling,
and praise
Tangible Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement: results in
an increase in future behaviors
Escape from a negative response
Avoidance of a negative response
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7. 7
Summary of Learning Theory
Development is:
Incremental Process: Development occurs in a quantitative
manner that is continuous
Nurture is more heavily emphasized than Nature as the
mechanism of development
Development is a mainly passive process - the individual is
strongly affected by environmental contingencies
For the rest of class we will look at how the “self” develops
Consider the implications of Social Learning Theory on the
development of the self
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8. Does all learning occur through 8
direct experience?
No! Albert Bandura is most closely associated with the
phenomenon known as Vicarious Learning (or social learning)
“no trial” learning
Models are observed by others who cognitively process the
models’ behavior and its consequences
Miller and Dollard describe imitation as the most powerful learning
process
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9. Example of Vicarious 9
Learning
How does this relate to child learning and long term child,
adolescent, and adult behavior outcomes?
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10. Self-development across 10
time
Self-awareness and identity develop across the lifespan in a
gradual process
Precursors
By the end of the sensorimotor stage, as a child experiments with
systematically acting on the environment, this marks the beginning
of the “I” identity- that of being an agent
Joint attention and Social referencing
representational thought (memory of self over time)
Sense of self as unique and other
Rudimentary perspective-taking
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11. 11
The self-system
“I” – self recognition, the knowing of oneself as
unique from others (rouge testand universality of this
developmental process)
Social referencing also indicates the understanding of the
difference between “I” vs. “you”
Self concept – observations of self as “Me”
Bowlby- concepts develop through referencing and
comparing oneself with attachment figures
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12. Features of the developing self- 12
concept
By age 3
self-concept is based on concrete, physical descriptors
Gender
Race
Skin Color
Ethnicity
By age 7
more advanced self-concept that includes abstract, social, spiritual
characteristics
Helpful
Friendly
Shy
Smart
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13. 13
Self-esteem
Self esteem – evaluation of one’s self-concept or
attributes
Cooley – “the looking glass self”
Self-esteem comes from observing others’
appraisals/judgments of one’s attributes
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14. Self-control 14
Self-control is:
1. The ability to stop one’s own behavior
2. The ability to do something that is not preferred
What is necessary for self-control?
Established identity
Judgment (ability to consider consequences)
External Motivation
Control of attention/impulses
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15. 15
Self-regulation
Self-regulation is:
1. A more flexible ability to engage in socially approved behavior
(without an external monitor)
1.consider situational demands when making behavior
decisions
2.to shift intensity, frequency, and duration of verbal and
motor behavior given the situation
What is necessary for self-regulation?
Established perspective-taking
ability to consider broad social consequences
Internal Motivation
Self-consciousness- Having an emotional response to
wrongdoing results from a recognition that “I” may have a
different goal than “you”
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16. 16
Self-regulation
Why is regulation of one’s behaviors and emotions an essential
developmental task?
Marshmallow Task
Shame, guilt, or embarrassment experienced when breaking a rule
functions as a punisher that results in socialization and learning
Similarly, positive reinforcement for appropriate behavior increases self-
regulation and social behavior
What are developmentally appropriate expectations for self-
regulation?
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17. Conscience: The Beginnings 17
of a Moral Self
Internalization of Morals: process by which children
adopt adults’ standards and rules as their own
Conscience: feelings of discomfort or distress when
rules are violated
As early as age 2 children begin to show early signs
of self-control and distress is a standard is violated
Often show “committed compliance”- eagerness to comply with
parent(s)’ requests
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18. Parenting serves a self-socialization 18
function
self-worth (Erikson) develops from:
Allowing toddlers to exert developmentally
appropriate independence (autonomy v. doubt)
socializing a child about acceptable and unacceptable
behaviors
This is primarily accomplished by parents
through
Warmth – responsiveness and child-centered interactions
Control – restricting a child’s independence as needed
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19. Baumrind Parenting Styles and 19
child outcomes
High Warmth Low Warmth
High Control
Authoritative Authoritarian
Low Control
Permissive Neglecting
Culture matters! How a child appraises the presence of
warmth and control affects child outcomes
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20. Four Parenting Styles 20
Authoritative style – highly responsive and
highly demanding. Create positive emotional
climate for child, promoting autonomy and
supporting assertiveness and individuality.
Associated Outcomes:
Most positive
Self Regulation
High self-esteem
Socially successful
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21. Four Parenting Styles 21
Authoritarian style – low on responsiveness,
but highly demanding. Do not create
positive environment for child or encourage
individualistic strivings. Tend to exercise
control, making maturity demands and
requiring conformity to rules.
Associated Outcomes:
Well controlled behavior with authority figures
Less self-regulation when adult not present
less social competence with peers
Prone to bullying
More irritable, angry, conflicted
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22. Four Parenting Styles 22
(cont.)
Permissive Style – moderately to highly
responsive to child, but low on
demandingnessExercise less control than
other parents, putting fewer maturity
demands on child.
Associated Outcomes:
Impulsive
Low self-reliance and agency
Higher aggression
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23. Four Parenting Styles 23
(cont.)
Neglecting-Uninvolved Style – low on
responsiveness and low on demandingness.
Invest little time or attention to child and
largely parent centered in their concerns.
Associated Outcomes:
Impulsive and uncontrolled behavior
Low self-esteem
Higher rates of behavior problems
Higher rates of internalizing problems
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24. Influence of temperament on 24
psychosocial development
Children have differential susceptibility to parenting styles in
early childhood just like in infancy:
Those with easy temperaments tend to respond similarly to
parenting styles that have a range of warmth
Authoritarian
Authoritative
Those with difficult temperaments have better outcomes with
parenting that is high in warmth
Authoritative
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25. Decreasing behavior 25
Extinction: Removal of reinforcement (positive or negative) that
results in the gradual non-occurrence of previously established
behavior
Power assertion: using loss of privileges to control behavior-
Time Out
Love Withdrawal: using interactional consequences to control
behavior – Ignoring
Punishment: Addition of a negative stimuli that results in a decrease
in future behaviors
Power assertion: using physical consequences to control
behavior- Spanking
Induction: Explaining why a behavior was not appropriate
What do you think about using any/all of these behavior
560management techniques?
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26. Parent Child Interaction 26
Therapy
Developed by Sheila Eyberg for children with disruptive behaviors and
ADHD
Average 13 sessions
Designed for parents and children ages 2-8
Core assumptions
Disruptive behavior in children is a marker for poor outcomes in later
childhood and adulthood
Parenting Styles affect child behavior
Maladaptive (coercive) parent-child interactions lead to increased disruptive
behavior and family discord
Behavior change in children will occur in response to the interaction children
have with their parents
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27. Changing Behavior to Change 27
Beliefs
Teach and Practice Child-Directed Interaction Skills
Parents learn effective communication and praising skills
PRIDE SKILLS
Praise
Reflect the child’s statements
Imitate the child’s play
Describe the child’s play
Enthusiasm
Parents also learn to ignore minor negative behavior
By doing practices, parents gather data on positive interactions with their
children
Parents integrate this data into their view of their child and of themselves as
parents
Behavioral rehearsal (and reinforcement) increases the chance parents will
repeat these positive interactions in the future.
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28. 28
Increasing effective behavior
management
Teach and Practice Parent-Directed Interaction Skills
Parents continue to use positive communication skills
Parents learn effective commands and effective responses to child
behavior in the context of play
Commands are polite & direct
Commands are specific & state what is expected
Commands are age appropriate
By doing practices, parents and children establish consistent
routines
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29. Application to Treatment 29
How might you use this information about self-
development and the influence of social learning in
working with younger and older children?
What does it mean for parenting?
What does it mean for teaching and counseling?
How might this information be used in social policy reform?
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Editor's Notes
Meet John Watson (Left) and B.F. Skinner (Right)
A major test of developing theory of mind- understanding of I vs. you is using social referencing with gaze