Renewable Energy Strategies for the
Josey Heights Central City Subdivision
Development Project
EAS-200 DESIGN PROJECT FINAL REPORT
EAS-297/497 DESIGN PROJECT FINAL REPORT
Prepared for Coach House Development Partners, LLC.
Ryan Pearson – Marketing
Jennifer Hill – Wind Energy
Sara Driver – Bio Energy
Ashley Ullmer – Solar Energy
Dan Lauber – Photovoltaic,
Geothermal Energy
February 26, 2007
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
Executive Summary
1

Future energy development faces great challenges due to an increasing world
population, demands for higher standards of living, demands for less pollution and a much-
discussed end to fossil fuels.
We at REMLAB Design Group see an extreme need for the implementation of
renewable energies within our cities. This not only for the betterment of mankind, but as
an innovative step towards the future.
REMLAB Design Group has studied with top profesors in Germany, and has been
begifted with invaluable information and renewable energy knowledge. Implementing the
proven designs of German renewables, REMLAB is able to present a fresh view on green
energy design. We seek to implement these technologies throughout areas where
renewable energy is most needed.
Through a mixture of technologies we can provide Josey Heights a complete power
solution. This solution will allow the subdivision to remain completely “off the grid”
(energy self-sufficient).
This approach is not only environmentally sound, but will make Josey Heights a
world renowned subdivision. Any house can have some unique features, but energy self-
sufficiency is something that not every builder offers. We are able to achieve this by
harnessing the power of wind, water, sun and earth.
.
2

Conclusions and Recommendations
Our future is green and our future is now. Through the use of solar, wind, biomass
and geothermal energies on site at Josey Heights, the subdivision can be completely energy
self-sufficient. A green subdivision would not only reflect quality to potential
homeowners, but would consistently hold its value into the future, as energy efficiency is
made a priority in the world. As other builders and landlords have already proven, the idea
of an energy efficient house is highly attractive to a wide variety of buyers. The image
from such a project would reflect on the integrity and values that Coach House
Development Partners LLC has set.
We at REMLAB recommend a complementing mixture of technologies to achieve
these goals. With heavily researched and readily available technology, implementation can
take place quickly. After surveying the Josey Heights site, already existing building
designs have been lightly modified to embrace the renewable technologies. Josey Heights
appears to be the ideal place for such a project, the modern urban subdivision.
3

Table of Contents
Executive Summary I
Conclusions and Recommendations II
Table of Contents III
The Need for Renewable Energy IV
Property Marketing Overview V
Grants/Subsidies Overview VI
Design Details
Wind Energy
Bio Energy
Solar Energy
Photovoltaic, Geothermal Energy
References VII
4

The Need for Renewable Energy
As the world progresses and matures, there is an ever apparent strain on the supply
of energy. The world has become extremely dependant on non-renewable energies, such as
fossil fuels. At the current rate, fossil fuels will quickly be depleted and a lack of energy
could be absolutely disastrous. Without energy, the entire world as we know it would
come to a stand still, and collapse would be inevitable. This dependence has raised
concerns on a global and political scale, causing a new push towards the use of renewable
energies.
Fossil fuels provide the bulk of energy that we consume today. Petroleum based
products are most widely used to power our transportation. With current technology, these
types of fuels are the easiest and most affordable to gather and distribute. According to the
US Geological Survey, world energy production is as follows: Oil 40%, coal 23.3%,
natural gas 22.5%, hydroelectric 7.0%, nuclear 6.5%, biomass and other 0.7%. Even newer
technologies have pushed the limits on fuel extraction, allowing us to dig even deeper into
our mother earth. OPEC (Organization for Petroleum Exporting Countries) predicts that
oil output will double by 2025. It is also predicted that natural gas production will peak by
2020. The largest problem with our most commonly used fuels is the pollution that is
generated in the process of burning them. Oil, coal and natural gas are key contributors to
CO2 and heavy metal release into the environment. This pollution can directly contribute
to the depletion of the ozone layer and global warming. These two topics have affected our
outlook on the future, and brought many people to begin thinking green. Emissions
continue to increase at an alarming rate, and it is predicted we will see a peak within the
next few decades.
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The US is the greatest contributor to CO2 emissions in the world
At the current trending rate, we risk damaging our environment to a point of
disrepair. This damage will surely affect those that rely on it most, and cause changes that
the world cannot handle. It is predicted by the IPCC that by the year 2100, average global
temperature could rise by as much as 11 degrees Fahrenheit. Although this change doesn’t
sound drastic to us, it is predicted to be quite devastating to the environment. The 1990’s
was the warmest decade on record, and the 2000’s are on track to beat that. In the past 14
years, we have seen the top 10 hottest years on record. Already since the year 1910, global
temperature has risen by about 1.5 degrees Fahrenheit. (illus. a2) As emissions double,
triple, and quadruple, so will the global temperature. Another strong indicator of global
warming is the state of our polar ice caps. It has already been shown that they are melting
at an unusual rate, and with continued warming will melt to such an extent that the sea
level will rise. This anomaly will cause inhabited islands and continents to literally be
engulfed by water, causing a migration of people and animals inward. (illus. b2) Looking
forward, the implications of a rising population and less land for this population is
obviously a backward equation. With the melting of the polar ice caps, a 20 foot rise in
ocean water level is predicted, displacing over 100 million people from low-lying countries
such as India, the Netherlands, and China. Imagine the stress and hardships caused by 100
or more refugees. Weather patterns are expected to be affected as well, with an increased
likelihood of droughts, tornados, heat waves, and hurricanes. This change obviously
altering precipitation and agricultural yields. The amount of fertile land and usable water
will decrease as a result of salt water spewing throughout the land. In 2003 a mammoth
heat wave swept through Europe killing 35,000 people, India saw highs of 122 degrees
Fahrenheit, and 200 US cities set all-time temperature records. Could it also just be a
random occurrence that in 2004 the US saw a record high for tornados and Japan saw an
all-time high number of typhoons? Another issue, which many find surprising, is a higher
than normal incidence of polar-bear drownings. These animals are exceptional swimmers,
but with the lack of solid ice in the warming arctic areas, these animals swim as far as 60
miles before often meeting their fate. The extenuating environmental problems that stem
from global warming will be catastrophic.
6

Someday we will run out of non-renewable energy sources like natural gas, coal
and oil. Even before we get to that point though, we will be smothered by the byproduct of
our greed, pollution. Our only option is for a renewable, sustainable future in which we
use Mother Nature and technology to create our own energy. The time of change is now
and by harnessing solar, wind, biomass, and geothermal energies we will ensure a clean,
renewable future for us and our children.
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Property Marketing Overview
To properly position the Josey Height’s homes to buyers, one has to examine the
types of potential buyers that would be interested in an renewable energy efficient home.
When looking to the market of potential buyers for the Josey Height’s homes, the overall
long-term value of each home must be stressed.
One incentive to buyers is the WE-energies energy buy-back plan. A kilowatt of
energy produced from a renewable system is much more valuable then a kilowatt from a
conventional power plant. In another attempt to spur the growth of clean energy in
Wisconsin, WE-Energies has artificially raised the value of a kilowatt of renewable energy,
making the buy-back option appealing to green owners. Buy-back refers to a system of
energy “trade” in which unused energy produced at a home or business can be resold to
WE-energies for redistribution to other places. Resale rates are currently as high as $.225
per kilowatt hour of excess energy. Theoretically, the homeowners within Josey Heights
could reap a profit, receiving a monthly check for their individual energy sales.
With the area in which Josey Heights is located and its targeted type of buyer,
special rate mortgages will be very appealing. Many loan agencies, such as Fannie Mae
offer special rate mortgages for those purchasing a home which is green or energy efficient.
The EEM, or energy efficient mortgage is a federally backed loan that allows buyers a
special rate when purchasing their home. The EEM allows for more buying power, or a
larger mortgage because of the added savings from having low or no utility bills. For the
young professionals that may be attracted to Josey Heights, the EEM is ideal, allowing for
someone with possibly less buying and credit power to afford a house they normally
couldn’t. Coach House Development benefits from this because they can sell the home
more quickly, make it affordable to more people and get attention in a competitive market.
It has been proven true that energy efficient homes have an enhanced image of
quality. If the customer can feel an extra level of satisfaction from their green home, they
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are not only more likely to stay, but also convey their liking to other potential buyers. How
can the houses express a value for features that can't be seen? Each home should contain a
small rating label detailing the renewable energies that are in play and the estimated energy
savings. This will serve as a reminder, and a talking point within the home.
Josey Heights, being an innovative subdivision, may have some new customers
wondering if it’s right for them; the hesitation may lie in the fact they are weary of the
renewable technology contained around and within their homes. We now live in a world
where energy is a top priority, and this reflects in the minds of all of our potential buyers.
Josey Heights homes are sure to stand out in the market as the most valuable homes of
tomorrow.
Grants and Subsidies Overview
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There are a number of highly valuable funding and subsidy options available for a
clean energy project such as the one proposed for Josey Heights. The latest state and
national movements have opened up new routes for energy financing through grants, tax
breaks, subsidies, energy buy-back, cash-back rewards and exceptional loan rates.
Grants should be the first option assessed for funding, as they are essentially free
money. Although one must qualify for state grants, the recent grants announced in the
Midwest have been easily obtainable. Governor Jim Doyle introduced a series of state
grants totaling more than $800,000 as part of his “declaration for energy independence.”
The future only looks better as prominent politicians aim for a 10% national market share
of renewable energy for Wisconsin. Last year, a proposal was passed under the Renewable
Energy Systems and Energy Efficiency Improvements Program, freeing up $11.38 million
in grants and $176.5 million in guaranteed loans for the purchase of renewable energy
systems. Wisconsin's “Focus on Energy” offers a number of programs for one to help
defray the costs of a renewable energy project. The goals of this program are to encourage
energy efficiency and use of renewable energy, enhance the environment and ensure the
future supply of energy for Wisconsin. This state funded group offers grants for systems as
small as 20 Kw; funding up to 35% of the project cost or a maximum reward of 45,000
dollars.
A business and marketing grant is also available for businesses that provide
renewable energy services. A competitive marketing and promotion campaign from
REMLAB for Josey Heights can be funded up to 50% or 10,000 dollars.
10

Tax incentives are plentiful for not only Coach House Development, but for the
eventual owners of each home. Federal and state tax breaks allow for credits, deductions,
exemptions and rebates for the owners of renewable energy systems. The Tax Incentives
Assistance Project allows a one-time 2000 dollar tax credit per home to builders whose
homes are projected to save at least 50% on heating and cooling costs. With current
REMLAB designs, each home could benefit from this credit. Along with these tax
incentives, an installation cash-back bonus is available based on the renewable energy
systems type, size and amount of expected energy produced by the system.
Wind Power in the Josey Heights Project
Completed by Jeni Hill, Civil Engineering BSE
11

1.1 Introduction
1.2 How a Wind System Works
1.3 Grid Connected System
1.4 Wind Speed
1.5 Wind Energy and the Environment
1.6 Large Turbine
1.7 Small Turbine Installed at Each Home
1.8 Manufacturers
1.9 Financing – Government Aid
1.10 Conclusion
1.1 Introduction
Wind is an exceptional renewable energy resource that may be useful for the Josey
Heights development. Wind is a free source of power that can be transformed into energy
that has the ability to pump water and provide electricity for domestic homes. Considering
that the average American household uses about 10,655 kW(hr) of power per year, the
supplementation of wind energy would dramatically lower the cost of energy bills for
those families in Josey Heights by 50%-90% annually.
1.2 How a Wind System Works
A wind system works due by transforming kinetic energy from the wind into
mechanical or electrical energy that can be harnessed and stored for practical use. A wind
turbines primary components are the rotor and blades, which act to convert the wind’s
energy into rotational shaft energy. There is also an enclosure containing a drive train,
gearbox and a generator, a tower that supports the rotor and drive train, and electronic
equipment such as controls, electrical cables, and ground support equipment. Consider
though that there are some turbines that do not require a gearbox.
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1.3 Grid Connected System
Small and large wind energy systems can be connected to the electricity distribution
system within the city. This is called a grid-connected system. A grid-connected wind
turbine can reduce the consumption of utility-supplied electricity for lighting, appliances,
and electric heat. If the turbine cannot deliver the amount of energy you need, the utility
provides a back–up source of energy and makes up the difference for the energy that is
needed. When the wind system produces more electricity than the household requires, the
excess sold to the utility, as a result, the resident profits from the extra energy.
Grid-connected systems can be practical if the following conditions exist:
• You live in an area with average annual wind speed of at least 10 mph
• The utility's requirements for connecting your system to its grid are not prohibitively
expensive.
• There are good incentives for the sale of excess electricity or for the purchase of wind
turbines.
1.4 Wind Speed
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Turbines are completely dependent on the wind speed, therefore there needs to be
an adequate average wind speed in order to guarantee that the system will be able to power
family homes. A very large turbine requires an annual average wind speed of 13 mph. A
small turbine requires an average of at least 9 mph. According to the map of the average
wind speeds in Wisconsin, one can see that Milwaukee has the ability to power and benefit
from small and large wind turbines.
Wind Results in Wisconsin during February 2003
14

15

Miles per Hour (MPH) at 60 meters
10 - 12
12 - 13
13 – 1
Although the table below is dated a few years, it still reflects the current trend for
average wind speeds in Wisconsin. It can be easily seen that the wind is stronger during
the winter months than during the summer months. This is beneficial information because
the winters in Wisconsin are longer than the summers, therefore families would profit from
the wind turbines for the majority of each year.
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WISCONSIN WIND DATA
MONTHLY WINDS IN MILWAUKEE, WI (2000):
Average Prevailing Peak Record
Month
Speed (mph) Wind Gust Gust
Jan 12.5 WNW-12.8 47.0 SW-66
Feb 12.3 WNW-12.4 43.7 W-67
Mar 12.8 WNW-12.7 48.4 SW-77
Apr 12.7 NNE-13.9 49.8 W-67
May 11.5 NNE-13.2 47.8 SW-74
Jun 10.4 NNE-11.3 50.1 W-76
Jul 9.7 SW-10.8 49.2 NW-81
Aug 9.4 SW-10.4 45.2 NW-64
Sep 10.4 SSW-11.0 44.6 NW-62
Oct 11.4 SSW-12.1 43.4 NW-53
SW-56
Nov 12.3 WNW-13.1 46.6
NW-56
Dec 12.3 WNW-12.4 47.3 N-61
Annual 11.4 WNW-10.9 63.0 NW-81
\"Prevailing Wind\" refers to the most frequently observed wind speed and direction.
•
\"Peak Gust\" refers to the mean annual maximum gust.
•
\"Record Gust\" refers to the speed and direction of the maximum gust during the
•
period of record.
**All wind speeds are reported in miles per hour.
\"Record Gust\" refers to the speed and direction of the maximum gust during the
•
period of record.
**All wind speeds are reported in miles per hour.
1.5 Wind Energy and the Environment
Wind energy systems are undeniably efficient and easy on the environment. This is
true because wind energy systems do not generate air or water emissions and do not
17

produce hazardous waste. This benefits the environment because it reduces acid rain which
harms forests and wildlife, smog which affects the health of human beings, and carbon
dioxide which causes global warming. Wind energy also does not deplete natural resources
such as coal, oil, or gas, or cause environmental damage through resource extraction and
transportation. With the addition of wind's pollution-free electricity, we can help reduce
the environmental damage caused by power generation in the U.S. and worldwide.
There are very few minor environmental concerns that arise when using wind as a
source of energy. One of these concerns is the fact that birds occasionally collide with
wind turbines, but turbines are not nearly as dangerous as pesticides, vehicles, cats, high
tension lines, or other tall structures such as buildings and communication towers which
they can collide with. Wind turbines account for less than one percent of all bird
causalities. The overall impact of wind turbines on birds is very low compared all
incidents that cause avian death.
Another concern that needs to be addressed is that of the noise produced by the
wind turbines. Over the years this issue has been largely eliminated through improved
engineering; changing the thickness of the blades trailing edges and by placing the
machines \"upwind\" rather than \"downwind\" so that the wind hits the rotor blades before it
hits the tower. Wind turbines produce noise that is between 40-50 decibels, which is
equivalent to a human whisper, and the small turbines produce less noise than a common
washing machine.
1.6 Large Turbine
Our first option is to install one larger turbine that would be able to produce enough
energy to power all of the homes in the Josey Heights subdivision. There are many
benefits to installing a large turbine versus many smaller turbines. One advantage is that
larger machines are usually able to deliver electricity at a lower cost because they have a
better cost to output ratio. Larger machines are particularly well suited for offshore wind
power also. The use of many smaller turbines is generally not as efficient because of the
cost of additional foundations, roads, electrical grid connections, and components in the
turbine. The costs of foundations do not rise in proportion to the size of the machine, and
maintenance costs are independent of the size of the machine. In higher populated areas it
18

may be difficult to find multiple sites to install smaller turbines on, plus a large turbine
Estimated Cost and Payback of a 600kW Turbine
with a tall tower
600 kW Turbine $450,000.00
uses the existing
30% Installation Costs $135,000.00
wind resource
Total Investment $585,000.00
more efficiently.
Large Wind
Current Income and Expenditure per Year
kW hours of Power 500-750 kW*hr
Income = 1,500,000 kW @ $0.05 per kWh= $75,000.00
Size of Turbine D = 48 m h = 100 m - 150 m
1.5% of turbine price for operation & maintenance $6,750.00
Wind Speed Needed 13-15 mph
Total Net Income per Year $68,250.00
No. of Houses that All homes in Josey Heights.
Can be Powered
Cost of Energy Less than $0.05 but the price depends
on the daily output.
Cost of Turbine $400,000.00 - $600,000.00
Cost of Installation Could be as much as $1 million
Payback Period 20 - 30 years
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1.7 Small Turbine Installed at Each Home
There are also advantages though to installing a small wind turbine. Small wind
turbines would work well in residential areas because they make very little noise. A typical
residential wind system makes less noise than the average washing machine.
Small turbines can vary in height depending on their surroundings, dependant on the most
efficient placement. In some cases it is necessary to raise the wind turbine above turbulent
wind flows generated by trees and obstacles on the ground. Taller towers also raise blades
above air turbulence, allowing the turbines to produce more power. Generally, wind speed
increases as the height of the turbine raised, and increasing speed increases wind power.
Relatively small investments put towards increasing the tower height can yield high rates
of return in power production. When installing a wind turbine, it is necessary that the
bottom of the turbine’s blades should be at least 10 feet above the top of anything within
300 feet. Well-sited small wind turbines can usually pay for themselves within 15 years.
Varying Height/Wind Results (10 kW*hr Turbine)
Tower height (feet) Wind speed (miles per hour) kWh/year
60 7.3 2,709
80 9.3 6,136
100 10.7 9,338
Varying Expenses (10 kW*hr Turbine)
60’ 80’ 100’
Expense tower tower tower
Excavation for foundation and backfilling $800 $800 $800
Firm up foundation, pour concrete $960 $960 $960
Concrete and rebar $750 $750 $750
Wind turbine and inverter $24,750 $24,750 $24,750
Shipping $800 $800 $800
Tower $7,400 $8,100 $9,200
20
Shipping $900 $950 $1,000

Tower wiring $800 $860 $930
Wiring and electrical supplies $1,800 $1,800 $1,800
Electrical labor $1,200 $1,200 $1,200
Crane $750 $750 $750
Installation labor for tower, turbine, $5,000 $5,300 $5,500
commissioning, mileage, and expenses
Sales tax @ 6% $2,755 $2,821 $2,906
Total $48,665 $49,841 $51,346
From the tables above one can see that adjusting the height of the tower has a vast
affect on the output of the tower. Proportionally, a slightly larger initial investment can
yield a great increase in energy
Small Wind
output. With the more energy kW hours of Power 5 kW*hr – 15 kW*hr
Size of Turbine D = 8 m or less h = varies
that the turbine puts out, the
with location
more energy that is unused and
Wind Speed Needed 10 mph – 12 mph
the homeowner can then profit No. of Houses that One house hold can be
from that extra energy. Can be Powered powered by a turbine of this
size
Cost of Energy Less than $0.05 but the price
depends on the daily output.
 $3,000.00 - $5,000.00 for
Cost/Installation every kW of generating
capacity
 $15,000.00 - $75,000.00
Payback Period Approximately 15 years
• Bergey Windpower Co.
Manufacturers (OK)
Fuhrlaender Wind Turbine
•
Co. (RI)
Global Wind Technology
•
(CA)
Innovative Technologies
•
Manufacturers Group (TX)
Point Power Systems (CA)
•
Southwest Wind Power
•
Co. (AZ)
Wind Turbine Industries
•
Corp. (MO)
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1.8 Manufacturers
There are not any manufacturers in Wisconsin that supply the actually turbines, but
there are a variety of places that provide parts and services:
Seventh Generation Energy Systems
Product types: Wind energy systems (small and large), hydro energy systems
•
(small), Tribal and Local Government Energy Planning.
Address: Belleville, Wisconsin USA
•
Agape Productions, LLC-dba: EcoBuildSupply.com
Product types: Appliances, deep cycle batteries, battery charge controllers, battery
•
chargers, hydro energy systems (small), inverters, cables, wind turbines, and wind
tower kits.
Cazenovia, Wisconsin USA
•
Bay Winds
Product types: Jacobs 20 kW wind turbines.
•
Address: Appleton, Wisconsin USA
•
Midwest Energy Solutions, Inc.
Product types: Wind energy systems (large).
•
Address: N19 W25105 Bluemound Road, Pewaukee, Wisconsin USA 53072
•
Telephone: 262-746-9762
•
Powertrain Engineers
Product types: Wind energy systems and components (large), hydro energy system
•
components (large).
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Address: W293 N3819 Roundhill Circle, Pewaukee, Wisconsin USA 53072
•
Telephone: 262-369-0256
•
Tower Tech Systems, Inc.
Product types: Wind energy towers and structures (large), wind turbines (large),
•
wind energy system components (large).
Address: Manitowoc, Wisconsin USA 54220
•
Wisconsin Wind & Power Systems
Product types: Wind turbines (small), deep cycle batteries, wind energy towers and
•
structures (small), wind energy towers and structures (small), meters and measuring
equipment.
1.9 Financing – Government Aide
Implementation Grant
Focus on Energy offers an Implementation Grant to provide financial support for
large renewable energy projects (greater than 20 kW or 5,000 therms per year). Eligible
wind systems may receive grants of up to 25% of project costs with a maximum of
$35,000. The amount is based on the estimated annual kW per hour generated or thermal
energy saved or utilized. Businesses, individuals, organizations, institutions, municipalities
or tribal governments located in the service territory of a participating electric or natural
gas utility are eligible. The renewable energy systems can be completely off-grid.
Loan Program
Low-interest loans, ranging from $2,500 to $20,000 for financing wind projects on
existing owner-occupied single-family and duplex homes are available. A participating
contractor must install eligible systems. Loan terms vary from 3 to 10 years with an
interest rate of 1.99% APR. Customers must be located in the service territory of a
participating electric or natural gas provider. Applications for low-interest loans are
available at many locations.
1.10 Conclusion
Wind power, primarily small wind turbines, would be the most beneficial for Josey
Heights. One should not rule out the benefits of large wind power either. There are a few
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other design ideas that were ruled out in this design process. One of those options was the
thought of installing vertical wind turbines. This became impractical because the cost of
maintenance on vertical turbines is quite steep and the last vertical turbine was
manufactured in 1997. Another option was to install a few 100 kW turbines to power
between 9 to 13 homes each, but we felt as though this would make Josey Heights look like
too much of a wind park rather than a subdivision. Wind Power is clean, renewable and
efficient. It’s also becoming a more cost effective way to generate and purchase electricity
as natural gas prices rise.
Biomass Energy in the Josey Heights Project
Completed by Sara Driver, Civil Engineering BSE
2.1 Introduction
2.2 How can a Landfill Create Energy?
2.3 Location of the Micro Turbine
2.4 The Types of Micro Turbines
2.4.1 Costs
2.4.2 Vendor for Micro Turbines
2.5 Conclusion
2.1 Introduction
Imagine this, every time the garbage truck comes and picks up your garbage you
are helping provide energy for yourself. After the garbage truck picks up the garbage it’s
brought to a landfill. The landfill is full of garbage decomposing creating methane gas. In
2004, 34% of human generated methane in the United States was from landfills. Methane
is a potent gas, more than 21 times more potent than carbon dioxide. Methane is a
powerful greenhouse gas which hurts the earth’s environment, but there is a way of
stopping the methane from entering the atmosphere and that is by using it to create energy.
2.2 How can Landfill Create Energy?
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Step 1: Garbage is collected
Step 2: garbage decomposes
which releases methane
Step 3: Pipes underneath
collect the gas
Step 4: Gases are pumped to a
micro turbine
Step 5: The Micro turbine
powers a generator
Step 6: The resulting energy is
then fed into the grid
2.3 Location of the Micro Turbine
Since Josey Heights is located within the city, there is no way of having a landfill at
a nearby distance. The landfill that is located closest to the subdivision is Orchard Ridge
Landfill in Menomonee Falls, 11 miles away from the subdivision. The Orchard Ridge
Landfill also happens to be the largest landfill in Wisconsin after its expansion in 2005.
The landfill has 145 acres and there is 4,805,000 tons of waste in place. REMLAB will
make a proposal to the landfill owners, allowing for joint benefit. The trash that is picked
up from Josey Heights would go directly to this landfill for decomposition. The methane
would be captured and converted to usable energy for Josey Heights and Orchard Ridge.
The extra electricity would either be used by the landfill or the landfill would receive credit
for selling the electricity. Orchard Ridge Landfill does not currently have a micro turbine
system on their land. Orchard Ridge is a perfect location due to its massive size and well
situated location.
2.4 The Types of Micro Turbines
There are two different sized micro turbines that would suit the
needs of the 53 homes within Josey Heights. An average micro turbine is
no bigger than a refrigerator and weighs about 900lbs. There is 30 kW and a
60 kW micro turbine for our design. The 30 kW costs $30,000 and the 60
kW costs $60,000 for the necessary equipment. A 30 kW micro turbine will
25

power about 20 homes and the 60kW willpower about 35 homes. Three 30kW turbines
would properly suit the needs of the Josey Heights subdivision. Three micro turbines and
equipment would take up very little of the available room at the Landfill. One 60kW and
one 30 kW does not give quite enough to support Josey Heights in times of peak energy
usage.
2.4.1 Costs
The Josey Heights project will have three 30kW micro turbines, with an up-front
cost of $99,000. This includes all hardware, associated manuals, software and initial
training. The cost for site preparation and installation ranges from 30%-70% of the up-
front cost. Our site install cost is estimated to be about 55% of the initial cost because it is
a much older landfill with not the most ideal ground soil conditions. The additional cost
comes is because it may take more work to lay down the pipes and capture the gases. The
long-term maintenance costs for the micro turbine is $0.005-$0.016 per kWh of energy
created.
Microturbine
Initial Cost 99,000
Installation and Site
Preparation 54,450
Total 153,450
Table 1: Cost of Micro Turbines for Josey Heights
The cost per house is $2895.29. This will be added on to the initial value of the house.
The average electricity bill in Milwaukee is $69.37. With an interest rate of 7%, the
payback period will be over 4 years.
Initial Value 2895
Electricity Bills 832
End of Year Value(1st Year) 2228
Electricity Bills 832
End of Year Value (2nd
Year) 1507
Electricity Bills 832
End of Year Value (3rd Year) 729
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Electricity Bills 832
End of Year Value (4th Year) -112
Table 2: Payback Period for each Household
After the 4th year the residents of Josey heights are responsible for just maintenance cost
which is again $0.005-$0.016 per kWh.
2.4.2 Vendor for Micro Turbine
Capstone MicroTurbine has had the most national exposure and product feedback
to date. The Capstone Micro turbine has been used at landfills in Sauk County, WI,
Burbank, CA, and Sheboygan, WI just to name a few. Capstone MicroTurbine qualifies
their systems to the UL-1741 standard, now recognized as the USA’s nationwide grid
interconnection requirements for renewable energy. Alliant Energy is a local company that
is a dealer of Capstone micro turbines and can provide installation/mainthenance. Alliant
Energy has utility operation facilities in communities throughout, and headquarters in
Madison, WI. The only problem when dealing with the Alliant Energy Company as
opposed to WE-Energies is that Alliant would require the Josey Heights be connected to
their power grid. There will be a slightly greater cost to the Josey Heights subdivision
because of the fees associated with grid hookup. The decision that needs to be made is
whether to go through Alliant and pay the extra fees, or go to Capstone directly and still
have the ability to connect to the WE-Energies grid.
2.5 Conclusion
Using landfill gases is not only a cheap energy sources but it is also helping control
the amount of greenhouse gases we release. Using this form of renewable energy serves a
dual purpose: cutting down on methane emission and eliminating the use of fossil fuels in
our community. This form of renewable energy has a short payback time and will also not
require equipment within Josey Heights that would affect its original design.
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Solar Energy in the Josey Heights Project
Completed by Ashley Ullmer, Industrial & Manufacturing BSE
3.1 Introduction
3.2.1 Roof-Integrated Collectors
3.2.2 Individual Installment for each Josey Home
3.2.3 Proposed Individual Collector Locations
3.3 Proposed Elementary School Installment
3.4 Solar Mining Company Vendor
3.5 Full Spectrum Solar Vendor
3.6.1 Estimated Cost for Individual Installment
3.6.2 Estimated Cost for Elementary School Installment
3.7 Driveway Thermal Collectors
3.8.1 Warmzone Vendor
3.8.2 Estimated Cost for Driveway Installment
3.1 Introduction
Consider an average household’s energy consumptions. As of 2001, 40.2% of one
home’s annual electricity bill rallied up from costs to power air conditioning, furnaces,
water heaters, and HVAC systems (EIO). Such a whopping percentage ought to be
trimmed down, and several renewable energy technologies now exist to help accomplish
this. Enter: solar thermal collectors.
From an aerial perspective, a solar thermal collector looks identical to a solar panel,
using the sun’s light rays to collect electricity directly. However, a solar thermal collector
has an organized maze of longitudinal piping underneath its insulated aluminum box,
topped with tempered glass. These pipes are insulated and contain an antifreeze plus water
mixture. The tempered glass absorbs the sun rays and channels them into solar energy, or
heat. The heat is transferred to the antifreeze mixture through the walls of the piping. This
now-heated fluid flows down through the walls of the home, to a liquid-to-liquid heat
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exchanger, typically located in the basement. After passing through a series of pressure
relief valves, expansion tanks, pressure gages, tempering valves, and thermometers, an
optimum temperature (representing heat and energy) remains with this antifreeze mixture.
When it enters the heat exchanger, the exchanger transfers the antifreeze mixture’s heat by
convection to the water located in a water storage tank adjacent to the mounted exchanger
apparatus. The cooled antifreeze mixture is pushed back out to the piping underneath the
solar thermal collector so it may be heated again. Simultaneously, the heated water is
supplied to a third storage container, the conventional water heater, where it is pumped
back up to the home through the plumbing systems. The home is now ready to use hot
water.
This entire cycle is called a closed-loop system, since the piping is all connected
end-to-end. Note that once the warm water is piped up through the home, the cold water
supply is returned to the water storage tank. A new rotation of heated antifreeze mixture
from the collectors has already been prepared and sent through the mounted heat
exchanger, ready to transfer the heat to the water (Focus on Energy).
Diagram of a closed-loop solar water system, taken from Focus on Energy WI
Dependent upon the particular manufacturer of the collector, the glass is coated in
various silicon alloys, which act as a highly efficient absorber coating. This allows the
panels to work off of sun light, not heat; therefore, the solar thermal collectors are all-
season apparatuses.
The solar thermal collector system has maximum success when facing south. Peak
sun hours are from 10 AM through 2 PM, where the light rays are the most intense and
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more solar energy can be pulled from them. Seasons have an effect on the sun’s path, too:
in the summer months, the sun rises as far north of east, but sets as far north of west. As
the months progress into winter, the sun’s path winds towards the southern hemisphere of
the earth, where it rises as far south of east and sets as far south of west (Kaler).
Diagram of summer and winter paths of the sun, taken from The Celestial Sphere
Considering this science and proven reliability in the Wisconsin climate, three
different concepts using the solar thermal collectors were developed for the homes in Josey
Heights: roof-integrated panels, wall-integrated panels, and free standing panels.
3.2.1 Roof-Integrated Paneling
The first concept utilizes roof-integrated panels, or panels that are mounted and
bolted flush against the roof tiles of a home. The surface area of the rooftop of a home is
highly applicable, since the pitch of the roof puts the collectors at an acute angle with the
earth, but still remains perpendicular to the sun’s rays. This allows for optimum exposure
and ability to channel that solar energy. The second concept utilizes façade-integrated
panels, or panels that mount vertically on the exterior walls of a home. Having the
appearance of floor-to-ceiling windows, the dark glass panels hang on the home around the
geometry of actual windows, chimneys, vents, and the home’s framing. The third and final
concept uses dual-axis tracker panels, or free-standing panels that mount on a singular pole,
which can be inserted into the ground.
These panels are smaller and usually only come in sets of two. Since they are not
attached directly to the home, they require more piping and transportation of the heated
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antifreeze mixture to the plumbing system. This distance allows for more susceptibility of
heat loss through transfer from the system to the surroundings. However, the dual-axis
trackers offer an option that none of the stationary-mounted collectors can: they can rotate
on their mount to follow the sun’s changing position in the sky due to the earth’s daily
rotation about its axis. Using their own angling towards the sun, the dual-axis trackers are
able to collect more direct sun rays, thus also collecting more solar energy.
3.2.2 Individual Installment for each Josey Home
If these solar thermal collectors were to be implemented in Josey Heights, the roof-
integrated panels are the most appropriate, based on the architecture of each of the four
Josey Heights homes and the zoning of each yard. The façade-integrated panels are also
appropriate, but not efficient enough because of a lack of large unused surface area on any
wall of a Josey Height’s home. The dual-axis panels, clever as they may be, did not meet
the demands of each individual home’s projected heated water usage.
The roof-integrated panels promise the most direct-exposure to the sun’s rays, and
their appearance with respect to the rest of the home seems the least intrusive. Some more
traditional homeowner may not feel gadgets on their home are attractive. A roof-integrated
system might be more acceptable instead of the more-noticeable façade systems or yard
apparatuses. Comparing the geometry of the roof lines of each of the four home models
(The Alexandria, the Bayberry, the Covington, the Dover), it is feasible that the roof-
integrated systems could be installed in the same location on each home, thus creating a
sense of unity and camaraderie about the subdivision.
Installation of the panels on the roof of each home must derive from the location of
the plumbing walls within each home. Dubbed the Straight Line Theory, the greatest ease
of transferring the heat from one locale to the next was based off of the shortest distance
possible between two points: a straight line. After all, the more piping involved and the
more exposure to cooler surroundings, the larger chance of erroneous heat loss from the
system.
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Diagram to explain the Straight-Line Theory
The goal of the Straight-Line piping is to have the solar thermal collectors as
vertically aligned above the heat exchanger in the basement as possible. With this, the
piping carrying the heated antifreeze mixture can make an immediate and fast route down
to the heat exchanger, where it can transfer the heat to the water. Knowing that the water
must travel back up to the home through its plumbing walls after it is heated from the
exchanger, it’d be most efficient for the water to run from the exchanger right up into the
plumbing wall.
Therefore, choose a location for the solar collectors on the roof, and a location in
the basement for the heat exchanger, such that they are collinear with the plumbing wall.
Let the plumbing wall stand as the common vertical axis for each end of the closed-loop
system. Note that gravitational potential energy helps the system, to move the antifreeze
mixture from a positive height, down towards the earth and the basement, where the heat
exchanger is located.
Hypothesized locations for the solar thermal collectors are outlined for each of the
four Josey Heights models here, based on the Straight-Line Theory.
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3.2.3 Proposed Individual Collector Locations
The Alexandria:
First Floor Plan
Second Floor Plan
The suggested placement of the solar thermal collectors on the roof and facades of the
exterior of the home are on the rear right-hand side of the home, where the plumbing for
the first-floor kitchen and second-floor master bath match up identically.
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The Bayberry:
First Floor Plan
Second Floor Plan
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The suggested placement of the solar thermal collectors on the roof and facades of the
exterior of the home are on the right-hand side of the home, where the plumbing for the
first-floor kitchen, half bath, and second-floor main bath match up.
The Covington:
First Floor Plan
Second Floor Plan
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The suggested placement here of the solar thermal collectors on the roof and facades of the
exterior of the home is on the left-hand side of the home, where the plumbing for the first-
floor kitchen and second-floor main bath match up.
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The Dover:
First Floor Plan
Second Floor Plan
The suggested placement here of the solar thermal collectors on the roof is centrally
located, due to no obvious collection of plumbing against a common wall. The mixture in
the pipes along the center/peak of the roof can equally branch out to all far corner walls of
the home that carry pipes.
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3.3 Proposed Elementary School Installment
All installation for the fifty-three individual homes in Josey Heights set aside, the
subdivision’s surrounding buildings were considered. Bordering the northeast corner of
Josey Heights is the Lloyd Street Global Education School. The school instructs students
from kindergarten through fifth grade under one roof, which has a surface area of roughly
32,500 ft2. A large grid of solar thermal collectors could be placed on the rooftop of this
school, and piped over to the subdivision to further offer heated water to the homes.
Proximity of the elementary school
Two vendors were contacted after these two different roof-integrated systems were
proposed: either the collectors could be installed on each individual home throughout Josey
Heights, or one main grid of the collectors could be installed on the rooftop of the
neighboring school, causing no modifications to be performed on the Josey homes.
3.4 Solar Mining Company Vendor
The first vendor is the Solar Mining Company, based out of Green Bay, WI. While
no financial information was available from the company, it is known that the company
engineers, manufactures, repairs, and researches new solar thermal collectors all under one
roof at their Green Bay location. The company also sells heat exchangers and wall-mount
air systems to match their collectors. Products for residential, commercial, municipal, and
contract-based consumers are available. Installation by their technicians is usually done
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from start to finish within one week (Solar Mining Company). CAD drawings for each of
their collectors are posted on the company’s internet website, and different collectors are
used for different-sized projects. 78-square foot collectors are used for the smaller
residential projects, while 120-square foot collectors are used for larger residences. 278-
square foot collectors match smaller commercial projects; mounting stands for both
residential and commercial projects can be purchased. There are two options for the
mounting stands: one is manufactured to mount the collectors at 45˚ and the other is
manufactured for 60˚ setups. Solar Mining Company will design a custom system from
scratch for any customer, allowing a very intimate relationship to be established between
the homeowner and their innovative energy-conscious system.
3.5 Full Spectrum Solar Vendor
The second vendor is Full Spectrum Solar, based out of Madison, Wisconsin. The
company sells solar thermal collectors and offers installation, consultation, repair, and site
assessments for single-family residential, multi-family residential, commercial, and new or
existing construction. The company holds numerous certifications, including one with the
Focus on Energy program in the state of Wisconsin. This alliance offers discounts on site
assessments, as well as cash back rewards from the Focus on Energy institution.
The solar thermal collectors the company has to offer are flat-plate frame collectors
produced by HelioDyne. 26-square foot, 32-square foot, and 40-square foot modules are
all offered; customers pay in a range of $80.00 to $120.00 per square foot to cover all
costs: material, manual labor, installation; this is pending the size of the installation project
(Warnick, Full Spectrum Solar). Considering engineering economics and fixed costs of a
company, the smaller projects are more expensive per square foot, due to the need to cover
those fixed costs. Larger projects are often cheaper, since the fixed costs can be paid over
more square footage.
Full Spectrum Solar claims that its products will cover 75% of the hot water needs
for the average domestic household (Warnick, Full Spectrum Solar). Installation follows
the 20 gal/day rule of thumb, where the company instructs the homeowners to consume as
close to 20 gallons of water a day. If a residence is known to be conservative and consume
less than 20 gallons a day, a closed-loop system will be installed to meet the demands of 10
to 15 gallons a day. Consequently, if a residence is known to be generous and consume
more than 20 gallons a day, a 35-gallon capacity system can be installed. For comparison
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to Josey Heights, Full Spectrum Solar has a completed standing project in Madison: Troy
Gardens. The subdivision is located on 31-acres of urban property and “integrates mixed-
income green-built housing, community gardens, an organic farm, and restored prairie and
woodlands” (Friends of Troy Gardens). 64-square foot and 80-square foot modules were
installed on each house, for a total expense of $7,000 to $8,000.
For this project’s regard, calculations of the costs for each of the two roof-
integrated designs for the Josey Heights development were both completed based on Full
Spectrum Solar’s quotes.
3.6.1 Estimated Cost for Individual Installment
Initially, the total useable roof square footage on each of the four Josey Heights
models was calculated. However, the calculations proved that a mere one-fourth of the
surface area only needs to be used, and a large surplus of kilowatts will be produced by the
solar thermal collectors.
Therefore, one-fourth of the square footage for each of the four homes was paired
against the cheapest rate that Full Spectrum Solar offered: $80.00 per square foot. The
total price for each of the four homes was calculated, and an average cost of $20,350.00
thus obtained from that average. The average calculation needed to be used as a projection
since not all plots in the Josey Heights subdivision are currently purchased and declared as
any one of the four home models.
The total sticker price to install a solar-thermal system fifty-three times (one for
each individual home) is $1,078,550.00.
Using the kilowatt-hour rates of each collector and multiplying it by the number of
days in a year, the number of kilowatts produced annually was obtained: 3,796 kWh from
the 32-square foot collectors and 4,745 kWh from the 40-square foot collectors. According
to the United States Energy Information Administration, 9.1% of one household’s annual
kilowatt-hour consumption of electricity was used for water heating purposes in 2001
(EIO). This equates to about 969.05 kilowatt-hours for just water heating, when
considering the national average of total energy consumption to be 10,655 kilowatt-hours
per year. Hence, 969.05 kilowatt-hours were multiplied by the WE Energies rate of
$0.09988 per kilowatt-hour plus a monthly $6.70 service fee, to result in a calculation of
$459.54 for an annual water heating bill based on a conventional system equivalent to a 32-
square foot collector’s capacity. A $554.33 per year bill was obtained as a cost from a
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conventional electric-water heating system that is equivalent to the 40-square foot collector
system (Public Service Commission of Wisconsin).
After deducting the $2,500 Focus on Energy WI reward (25% of the total project
cost, or $2,500, whichever comes first) from the average total cost of installation per home,
the projected number of years of using ‘free energy’ to heat one of the Josey home’s water
was found. If the smaller collectors are implemented on each of the homes, approximately
39 years are required to pay back the initial installation fees. However, if the larger
collectors are utilized, approximately 33 years are required to pay off the installation costs.
The spreadsheet including all of the calculations, formulas, and assumed constants is
provided.
3.6.2 Estimated Cost for Elementary School Installment
A series of estimated costs were performed for the second roof-integrated
proposition: using the large surface area of the Lloyd Street Global Education School. The
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variance in amount of square footage used is meant to demonstrate how much the costs can
fluctuate:
Note that even the smallest proposed square-footage use (1000 ft2) produces a total
annual kilowatt-hour count more than twice the needed amount of annual kilowatt-hours
for the entire subdivision. Thus, using the rooftop of the school seems to be a more
attractive implementation than using the rooftops of every individual Josey Heights home.
Total square footage of the school’s rooftop is 32,500 square feet. If all 32,500 ft2
were to be used, at the same $80.00 per square foot quote, a whooping $2.6 million
installation fee would result. Obviously, the installation fees decrease as the square-
footage size decreases, with $80,000 being the cost of a 1,000-square foot system.
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Both the 32-square foot collectors and the 40-square foot collectors (and their same
respective rates, 10.4 kWh/day for 32 ft2 and 13 kWh/day for 40 ft2) were considered for all
the proposed square-footage usages, thus providing the annual kilowatt-hour output. With
a calculated annual bill of $5,210.20 to heat just water for all fifty-three homes, the
projected number of years required to pay off the initial installation costs were obtained.
An outlandish 493 years are required to pay off a solar thermal collector system that spans
the entire surface area of the school’s roof. The number of years continue to drop as the
fractions of used surface area drop, until a most-reasonable 12 years of required usage will
entirely pay off the costs of a 1,000-square foot system.
This means that after twelve years of usage, the school’s rooftop will be channeling
heat for the water for all 53 homes, for free. No electricity bill (for water heating usage
only) will apply to the homeowners. The results are much more impressive and realistic,
compared to the projected finances of installing separate solar thermal systems fifty-three
times.
3.7 Driveway Thermal Collectors
An entirely new concept was born as a hybrid child from this project and products
for the already-existing in-ground electric heating systems. Think about how warm it gets
in the summer seasons so that one can “fry an egg on the sidewalk.” Sizzling warm, with a
large surface area of black asphalt; the color stands as a target for the sun’s rays.
This wives’ tale was taken and turned on its side: driveways and asphalt surface
areas could be used as grounds for a solar-thermal system, too! Although frying an egg
uses only the summer months and the sun’s heat intensity, the solar thermal collectors can
still function in any season because they rely on the sun’s light, which is present regardless
of the atmospheric temperature.
Also realizing that the driveways of each of the homes in Josey Heights are at the
same altitude as each of their respective homes (and therefore same gravitational potential
energy and fluid pressure), it would be feasible for a grid system of pipes with an anti-
freeze mixture to run under the paved driveway. Using a three-way coupling to keep the
splice of the pipes connected to a bottleneck that sends the antifreeze over towards the
home, the heated anti-freeze mixture could flow at-level with the raised basement of the
home to reach the heat exchanger inside. From there, the closed-loop conversion process
could occur.
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Three-way coupling to transfer anti-freeze mixture from driveway to home.
The only indication of any science taking place would be the need to pave some of
the tempered glass and silicon squares into the driveway itself, since those circuits are the
required components of the collectors to turn the sun’s light rays into heat.
Proposed idea to use driveway surface area for solar-thermal collectors.
3.8.1 Warmzone Vendor
Since this is a new idea, no one vendor was found that sells a product to specifically
suit the demands of a driveway solar-thermal collector. However, a national chain called
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Warmzone was contacted, for their reputation in producing a brand of electric and hydronic
snow-melt systems for driveways and sidewalks.
Warmzone is headquartered in Salt Lake City, Utah, but has technician locations all
across the nation. The technician closest to the Josey Heights subdivision is also a
distributor of Warmzone’s hydronic products: the Wirzbo water-based piping system that
keeps a driveway heated. Warmzone does also sell in-ground in-home floor heating
systems, under a product line called Radiant Heat; interior heating cables and roof-heating
systems are available as well.
Their under-driveway heating coils can withstand various pavement materials, like
asphalt, concrete, stone, or brick, for both residential and commercial landscapes.
However, the company ships the products to the customer’s location, leaving the customer
responsible for installation. The customer may install it themselves, or hire a general
contractor in their area to come and install it professionally. Installation manuals are
readily downloadable off of their website, where the products can be purchased.
3.8.2 Estimated Cost for Driveway Installment
Warmzone quotes $6.00 to $9.00 per square foot of piping for a driveway kit, and
shipping charges to transport the materials to any location within the continual United
States is $25 per box of coils, or about 200 square feet’s worth of coil (Warmzone). Using
the average of this quote ($7.50 per square foot) against the estimated square footage of
each of the driveways in Josey Heights, a total price for each driveway was calculated, as
seen below:
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Note that no payback rate was calculated, since no actual system exists at this point
in time to extrapolate how many kilowatt-hours could be produced and channeled into heat.
Dimensions and kWh rates are needed, to figure what size will produce what power, to
deduct from the annual need of kilowatt-hours to heat water for one home.
The Warmzone Company does not heavily support its hydronic products at this
time, due to their major inefficiency. While their conventional electric-powered wires can
turn on and off based on a censor that keeps the driveway heated when any sign of
precipitation falls on it, the water-piping systems must stay warm constantly because of the
power and time it would take to heat the water enough to deter any accumulation of rainfall
or snow on a driveway. In order to stay heated around-the-clock, the hydronic systems
require a boiler, which must always run to produce the heat. Maintenance is also rigorous:
every year the pipes need to be checked for corrosion, and the acidity of the water must be
checked with a pH test.
However, how much of these discriminatory factors could change, if an antifreeze
mixture was sent through the double-walled pipes instead? No water would come into
contact with the driveway pipes, thus eliminating the use of a boiler for the fluid. The
water would only be introduced to the system inside the home, where it would obtain the
heat extracted from the heat exchanger and water storage tank.
The Florida Solar Energy Center has completed experiments on driveway and
tennis court solar collector systems, but failed to publish conclusive answers on their
efficiency. “To date there is no data to support the efficiency of a solar ‘collector’ installed
in a pool deck, driveway or tennis court. The Florida Solar Energy Center tested products
from four different manufacturers. None of the four are currently certified” (The Solar
Company).
However, more research could easily be put forth on this issue, thus offering
another facet to solar water heating systems. A residential dwelling has characteristics that
are capable to host many different energy sensors and converters; we as residents just need
to continue the push to discover them all. Roof-integrated systems, façade-systems,
driveways, yards, mirrors, windows, water sources…the definitive list will eventually
become endless, for the favor of Earth’s natural resources and our living in comfort, not
scarcity, for generations to come.
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4.1 Introduction
4.2. PV Panels
4.3 System Design
4.4 Energy Output
4.5 Analysis and Recommendations
4.6 Costs
4.7 Contacts
4.1 Introduction
Photovoltaic (PV) cells operate somewhat similarly to batteries except that instead
of using chemicals to push the electrons to one side a PV cell uses the energy in light.
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In conductors like metals, electrons aren’t tied strongly to a single atom, they move easily
through the metal. Atoms in insulators hold tightly to their electrons, so it’s hard to get
electrons to move through them. Solar cells use a special material called a semiconductor
which has properties between a conductor and an insulator, where the electrons are held to
the atoms, but not too tightly. Special chemicals called dopants can be added to the
semiconductor to tip the balance.
When light strikes a PV cell, some of that light is absorbed by the semiconductor
material. When the energy of the photon is absorbed into an atom in the semiconductor, it
is enough energy to pop off an electron. The electron floats around in the material until it
finds an atom that is missing an electron, and it joins up with that atom. This happens in
virtually every material when exposed to light, it’s not very useful though, since the
electrons just move randomly and recombine before we can make use of them. If we want
to make use of these electrons, we need to stop them.
Due to the special properties of semiconductors, a PV cell also has an electric field
in it, which forces the free floating electrons to move in one direction. Now all the
electrons end up on one side of the cell, and a whole bunch of protons missing electrons are
on the other side – just like in a battery.
An important property of semiconductors is that by adding specific impurities,
called dopes, to the material, it is possible to give the material a static positive or negative
electric charge. A solar cell is made of two or more layers, the junction of the layers acts
as a check valve for electrons. If light knocks loose an electron close enough to the
junction, it crosses and can’t get back. Just like in a battery, there are now extra electrons
(-) on one side, and extra protons (+) on the other.
4.2. PV Panels
Photovoltaic, or PV, is the technology to convert light directly into electricity.
With all of the incentives currently available, installing solar power is becoming quite
lucrative. With solar panels on the roof of a building, and an inverter to convert the DC
power generated by the panels into AC power, the electricity can be sold to the power
utility during their peak demand hours.
One of the challenges facing the PV industry right now is meeting the current
demand for PV systems. Due to many countries offering incentives, and utilities offering
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feed-in tarrifs, the demand for PV panels has outstripped supply, especially for the silicon
crystal material they are made from.
PV Panels
The Watts Peak (Wp) power output of a Solar module is technically defined as the
number of Watts Output when it is illuminated under standard conditions of 1000
Watts/meter2 intensity, 25°C ambient temperature and a spectrum that relates to sunlight
that has passed through the atmosphere (AM or Air Mass 1.5). This means that the Wp
rating of a system is accurately comparable across manufacturers and PV technologies – all
other factors being held constant, two different systems with the same Wp rating should
produce the same output.
The efficiency of a panel describes how much of the solar radiation that hits the
panel actually gets converted into energy. In order to make sizing and designing systems
easier, PV systems are specified in watts of peak output. This rating means that regardless
of module efficiency, systems of the same Wp rating will produce the same power, all else
being equal. The panel efficiency then relates to the area that the systems must cover in
order to produce the rated power, higher efficiency panels cover a smaller area than low
efficiency panels of the same rating. Efficiency becomes important in installed systems
when installation space is a limiting factor in system design.
For installed applications, PV panels are sold in basic building blocks, which may
be connected together to form a larger total system. The most common form of solar panel
system are module based, with the individual solar cells connected together and mounted in
a rigid rectangular frame. This system is nearly always the most cost effective system
available today. The individual panels may be mounted nearly anywhere using brackets
that clip to the edges of the panels. The panels usually are installed by a solar contractor,
though are sometimes installed by the roofing or other contractor since mounting them
takes little special experience. The electrical part is best left to a certified installer,
however. Connecting the chosen solar panels in the correct circuit is essential for getting
the system to produce its rated output.
Building-integrated panels are a more aesthetically pleasing option, though the cost
of the panels can be significantly more than stand-alone panels, though integrated panels do
replace standard building materials, so material cost savings can help offset the price
premium.
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All grid connected PV systems must contain a power inverter. This converts the
DC generated by the panels to AC, which is compatible with the power grid and typical
household appliances.
4.3 System Design
Installation is important with solar panels, the location, orientation, and electrical
connections all make a difference in the performance of the panels. The optimum output is
achieved with panels that have a completely unobstructed view of the sun all day, and are
mounted on a tracker to keep the panel oriented directly perpendicular to the incoming rays
of sunlight as the sun moves through the sky. When it is not practical to mount the panels
on a tracker, then the most efficient fixed installation is facing due south and elevated at an
angle roughly equal to the latitude. In Milwaukee, the latitude is 43°. Even more
important is the elimination of shading on the panels, a single shaded panel can
significantly reduce the output of the entire chain. This is because when a PV cell does not
get enough light to produce electricity, it becomes resistive and starts to consume the
power produced by the other cells it is connected to. To prevent this, solar panels are
connected in a string with shunting diodes which allow the current to bypass the shaded
cell, this way the output drops only by the production of that one cell plus the losses in the
diode.
4.4 Energy Output
Estimating the output of panels can be complicated, and many variables must be
considered. Estimation can be done using the calculator at
http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/calculators/PVWATTS/ . This calculator makes the estimation
based on actual solar intensity data in many locations around the country that includes
average daily sun hours, average weather, etc. The calculator takes the size of the system,
how it is mounted, and the estimated losses through the energy conversion process (called
the DC to AC derate factor). The derate factor is defaulted to 0.77 (77% of power
produced by the panels gets converted to AC power). For purposes of estimation for grants
and other incentive programs, a 0.8 factor is typically prescribed. The derate factor can be
calculated more precisely using a calculator provided at the site. Using the default values
for Milwaukee, WI, with a fixed mount in the ideal position, the annual output is estimated
to be 1227 kWh per kWp (kilowatts peak) of installed capacity.
50

4.5 Analysis and Recommendations
Considering all the technologies available in addition to the many financial
incentives for PV systems, installing a PV system today can be completely economical.
The total cost
Table 4.1 – Solar Panel Price Comparison
H W A
Mfr Model (in) (in) (sqft) Power sqft/kW Price $/W
Aten ATPV-42 49 25 8.51 42 202.55 $126 $3.00
Photowatt PW750 48.7 21.8 7.37 85 86.74 $365 $4.29
Sharp ND-167U1 52 40 14.44 167 86.49 $737 $4.41
Industry Average Feb 07 $4.88
Kyocera KC200GT 56 39 15.17 200 75.83 $948 $4.74
HIP-205BA
Sanyo 3 52 35.2 12.71 205 62.01 $1,112 $5.42
Uni-Solar SHR-17 5 86.4 3.00 17 176.47 $110 $6.44
Table 4.1 compares the size and prices of several best-in-class solar modules. The Aten
ATPV-42 is the cheapest per watt, made with inexpensive and inefficient thin film cells;
the thin film cells are readily available with no material supply issues like crystalline cells,
but the low efficiency vastly increases the area needed by the cells. The amorphous silicon
cells also claim to produce nearer to the rated output under less than ideal conditions (such
as cloudy or hot days) than traditional cells. In Wisconsin, where overall solar irradiation
is generally lower, this could be a real advantage. The Photowatt PW750 is the next best
priced module available, it is a conventional crystalline module. The Sharp ND-167U1
panels are available in matching triangular modules, which are aesthetically pleasing on the
diagonal edges of a hip roof. The Kyocera is one of the most popular lines of solar panels.
The Sanyo HIP-205 is one of the highest efficiency panels currently on the market. The
Uni-Solar SHR-17 are roofing shingles with integrated solar panels, they are made from
thin film PV cells so they are flexible but also have a very low power density. Good
architectural shingles run about $60 per square (100 square feet), while the solar shingles
run $3667 per square, so material savings reduces the price by about 1.5%, or about $1.65
per shingle. Also shown in the table is the February 2007 average cost per watt of panels
on the market http://www.solarbuzz.com/ModulePrices.htm. Solar panels typically come
with a 20 to 25 year warranty, though this may vary by brand and model. Life expectancy
51

for panels is typically over 25 years, many systems are still in operation today after over 30
years.
Table 4.2 shows the best prices available for several SMA brand grid-connected solar
Table 4.2 – Solar Inverter Price Comparison
power inverters. The
Mfr Model Pwr (W) Price $/W
table also shows the SMA SB3800U 3800 $2,224 $0.59
SMA SB6000U 6000 $3,799 $0.63
February 2007 Table 4.3 – 2kW System Cost
InverterIndustry Average Feb 07 $0.70
SWR1800 AVG SWR1800 SWR1800 SWR1800
average cost SMA SWR-2500U-SBD 2100 $1,833 $0.87 $ 1,664
Inverter $ $ 1,664 $ 1,408 $ 1,664 $ 1,664
SMA SHR-17 SWR-1800U 1800 $1,664 $0.92ATPV-42
per watt of Panels AVG ND-167U1 PW750
SMA 17 SWR-1100U-SBD 167 1100 $1,459 $1.3342
Panel Pwr 2000 85
systems
(W)
available. In
Panel $ $ 110 $ 9,760 $ 737 $ 365 $ 126
general, cost Panel Qty 118 1 12 24 48
Insp/Inst $ $1,000 $1,000 $1,000 $1,000 $1,000
per watt
Cost $ 15,597 $ 12,168 $ 11,508 $ 11,424 $ 8,712
decreases as $/Wp $ 7.80 $ 6.08 $ 5.75 $ 5.71 $ 4.36
rated power increases. SMA is a well respected manufacturer of inverters, supplying 60%
of the world’s demand for solar power inverters. Modern inverters can generally be
expected to need replacement after 10 years of operation, and with the present rate of
improvement in reliability of inverters, the replacement inverter can be expected to last the
remainder of the system’s 25 year life.
Table 4.3 shows the estimated system cost for a 2kW PV system. This final price is based
on a fixed assumption of $1000 to cover mounting hardware, installation and inspection of
the system. These prices are based on the best price found publicly online, they do not
represent retail cost from a certified designer/installer or quantity discounts.
The total annual power production can be calculated from the information above, using the
PVWatts application. A 2kW system installed in Milwaukee may produce around 2554
kWh per year. If the power is consumed by the house, at the present electricity price of
9.9¢ per kWh gives $253 in annual savings on the homeowner’s electricity bill. The best-
case scenario, the ATPV-42 panels, will recover their cost in 34 years at this rate. The
actual recovery rate is significantly better than this because of numerous incentive
programs that both decrease the initial cost, and increase the profit made by the panels.
4.6 Costs
52

A full grid-connected system requires many building blocks to be considered in the
design and installation of the system. The source of the system are the PV cells, which are
available in several configurations and technologies. To get the greatest ROI, solar panels
must be chosen for a minimum price per peak watt.
An important law to know about in Wisconsin is that no city, county, or housing
organization may make any law restricting the use of renewable energy technology on
houses. Anyone can install renewable energy technology on their own house, and no
neighborhood association can stop them.
The attitudes toward solar energy today are changing as the technology has shown
consistent progress and it proving to be more and more economical. Due to these shifting
attitudes, many incentives have been created to encourage property owners to install solar
electrical generation systems. Today, it is possible for PV systems to be cost competitive
with the electrical utility by taking advantage of these many incentives. As technology
improves, PV systems promise to be directly competitive with traditional fossil fuel
methods of electricity generation.
WE Energies currently offers a solar buy-back incentive program that offers a
guaranteed 22.5 ¢/kWh, over twice the price of purchasing electricity from the utility
(presently 9.9¢). The customer signs a contract to sell their production to WE Energies,
and they will buy it at the solar buy-back rate. The contract lasts for 10 years and cannot
be exited by WE Energies, only the customer may opt-out of the contract.
Wisconsin Focus on Energy is a state-sponsored program to encourage energy
efficiency and renewable generation, they offer several incentives for PV systems. The
first of the incentives is a cash-back reward which pays $1.50 per kWh of projected annual
production, up to 25% of the project cost, not exceeding $35,000 for systems under 20kW/
yr. The system must be installed by a NABCEP certified installer who provides at least a 2
year warranty on labor, all equipment must have at least a 1 year warranty, and the
application must be approved before any purchases are made and work completed within 1
year of the approval date. The second incentive is their Site Assessment Program, which
funds 60% of the cost of a site assessment which typically costs $300 to $400. A site
assessment includes a site visit by an expert and provides the customer with a detailed
report of the findings. A site assessment is highly encouraged when applying for the Cash-
Back rewards. In addition, homeowners may get $50 toward educational workshops
offered by the Midwest Renewable Energy Association (MREA). A businessperson may
53

receive up to $300 towards classes and tests leading to certifications in renewable energy.
All Focus on Energy grants are given on a competitive basis, and the grant application may
be denied or approved at less than the requested amount.
Wisconsin law protects and encourages the development of PV technology. Wis.
Stat. § 236.292 and Wis. Stat. § 66.0401 et seq. allow property owners to apply for permits
guaranteeing unobstructed access to solar and wind resources. Under Wisconsin tax code,
photovoltaic systems are exempt from property taxes, the addition of PV equipment to a
home should not increase it’s assessed taxable value Wis. Stat. § 70.111. Wisconsin
From the Federal government, any subsidy received from a public utility will not be
included in taxable income 26 USC § 136 (2005). Section 206 of the Tax Relief and
Health Care Act of 2006 (H.R. 6111) gives a provision for a 30% tax credit, up to $2000
for PV systems.
According to a study published by the Appraisal Institute, the reduction of annual
household energy consumption can have a significant effect on the home’s appraised resale
value. In general, they observed a $20 increase in the home’s appraised value for each $1
reduction in the home’s annual energy bill. The authors believe that this is because after
tax effective interest rates on home mortgages have traditionally been around 5%. If $1000
is reduced in the operating costs of the home, and instead put towards debt at 5%, the
homeowner can afford $20,000 more debt load at the same monthly cost of ownership.
The homeowner pays more to the bank and equally less to the utility, but the total cost
stays the same. (The Appraisal Journal (October 1999), by The Appraisal Institute,
Chicago, Illinois, “More Evidence of Rational Market Values for Home Energy
Efficiency” http://www.icfi.com/Markets/Community_Development/doc_files/apj1099.pdf
)
Additionally, having a PV system and/or other renewable energy technologies may
make the homebuyer eligible for Energy Star or other energy efficient mortgages, which
allow a greater debt-to-income ratio and may also have lower interest rates or closing costs.
http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy00osti/28336.pdf There are also a number of other financing
options for homeowners to finance the cost of the PV system
http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy99osti/26242.pdf
Now we can revisit the PV system costs after applying each of these economic
factors. Table 4.4 shows the same 5 systems, and applies some of the economic incentives
mentioned above. The estimated energy production and annual return is the same for all
54

the systems, since they are all rated for the same output. At 2kWp, the system should
produce 2254 kWh of power a year. At 22.5 ¢/kWh, this results in a generated income of
$575/yr. Next the financial incentives are applied against the system costs. The Focus on
Energy grant makes a significant contribution to some of the systems, the solar shingle
system is the only one that gets the $1.50/kWh rate, all the rest are limited to 25% of the
system cost. The federal tax credit hits its $2000 cap for all systems. The total savings
range from 37% for the shingles, to 47% for the ATPV-42 system. With the ATPV-42
system landing below $5000, it becomes an acceptable option for homebuyers. Now if we
look again at the payback period, it can be as little as 8 years. Looking at the effect of the
reduced net energy bill on the value of the home, counting 20 times the annual energy
savings, results in
Table 4.4 – 2kW System Cost After Incentives
an increase in ND-167U
resale value of Panels SHR-17 AVG 1 PW750 ATPV-42
Cost $ 15,597 $ 12,168 $ 11,508 $ 11,424 $ 8,712
over $11,000. All
of the systems fall kWh/y 2554 2554 2554 2554 2554
$/kWh $ 0.225 $ 0.225 $ 0.225 $ 0.225 $ 0.225
below this level
$/yr $ 575 $ 575 $ 575 $ 575 $ 575
after taking the
FoE $ 3,831 $ 3,042 $ 2,877 $ 2,856 $ 2,178
available
Fed Credit $ 2,000 $ 2,000 $ 2,000 $ 2,000 $ 2,000
incentives, Final Cost $ 9,766 $ 7,126 $ 6,631 $ 6,568 $ 4,534
$/Wp $ 4.88 $ 3.56 $ 3.32 $ 3.28 $ 2.27
making the
addition of any of Payback(yr) 17.0 12.4 11.5 11.4 7.9
Prop. Value $ 11,493 $ 11,493 $ 11,493 $ 11,493 $ 11,493
these
PV systems immediately
profitable upon the sale
of the house.
It is still far more important and economical to save energy than to produce it. The
energy saved by replacing one 100W incandescent bulb with a $5 compact fluorescent bulb
is the same as the energy a $500 photovoltaic system can produce.
http://www.focusonenergy.com/data/common/dmsFiles/W_RW_MKTG_consumersguidet
osolar.pdf In evaluating a PV system, the first step should always be considering energy
conservation and efficient utilization.
55

4.7 Contacts
H&H Solar Energy Services, Inc
2801 Syene Road
Madison, WI 53713
Phone: 608-273-3434
Fax: 608-273-9654
http://h-hgroup.com/solar/index.php
Solar Ready Homes
http://www.focusonenergy.com/data/common/dmsFiles/R_EH_MKFS_RenewableReadyN
ewHomes.pdf
56

5.1 Geothermal Source
5.2 Heat Pumps
5.3 Cost and Energy
5.4 Contacts
5.1 Geothermal Source
The temperature of soil several feet below the surface is significantly moderated,
varying seasonally with the air temperature but remaining closer to the average annual air
temperature. Underground temperature also lags behind air temperature by nearly three
months, reaching its coldest temperature once the air has begun to warm in the spring, and
staying cool until the beginning of fall. By using the more moderate temperatures of the
earth beneath a house, a homeowner can significantly reduce their need for energy to heat
and cool their home.
5.2 Heat Pumps
Residential heat pumps have been around for decades and have proven their durability over
time. In fact, most homes already have a heat pump – a standard air conditioner is a heat
pump. An air conditioner is a single direction heat pump, it only operates transporting heat
from indoor air to outdoor air through heat exchangers. The large ‘air conditioner’ unit we
see outside a home is just the heat exchange unit to dump the energy from inside to the
outside, the unit also typically contains the air conditioning system’s compressor. Though
a typical cooling-only air conditioner is technically also a heat pump, in building
applications, “heat pump” is only used to refer to systems that can reverse direction and
provide heating in the winter.
The efficiency of a heat pump can be confusing if you're not careful what you
specify. A heat pump moves energy from one place to another (i.e. from the air outside to
the air inside). If you think of a heat pump as a furnace heating your house, it would
appear to have more than 100% efficiency, since 100 Watts used by the heat pump might
produce 400 Watts of heat in your home, it appears to have a 400% efficiency. The heat
pump did not create energy, this violates the laws of thermodynamics, it merely transported
400W of energy from the air outside to the air inside, and it took 100W of work to
57

transport it. Since you don't pay anything for the thermal energy taken from outside your
house, we tend to forget that part of the equation.
It's like free firewood, you don't need to pay for the wood, just to transport it. A
cord of wood can contain 20,000,000 BTU of energy, a gallon of regular gas has 126,200
BTU. So you burn 8 gallons (1 MBTU) of gas transporting the wood, and get 20 MBTU of
energy to heat your house with, it could appear that the truck has 2,000% efficiency, since
it produced 20 times more energy than it used, but it is obvious why this isn’t true. The
efficiency of heat pumps can be thought of the same way – for practical purposes, you can
say it has greater than 100% efficiency, but it’s not really creating energy from nothing.
The efficiency of a heat pump is inversely related to the temperature gradient to be
overcome. In conventional heat pump terminology, the difference in temperature between
where the heat is extracted – the “source” – and where the energy is delivered – the “sink”
– is called the temperature “lift”. The lower this difference in temperature, the higher the
efficiency of the heat pump. It is for this reason that GSHPs have significantly higher
efficiencies than air-exchange heat pumps. In the summer, instead of moving heat from the
70° house (actually, a central-air system requires a cold-side temperature much lower to
effectively dehumidify the air, to cool the house using only the limited air volume passing
through the system, and to absorb enough energy from the air during the short time it
passes through the heat exchanger, so the air conditioner must pull the temperature down
much further, typically to 45°F). On a hot summer day, with the outdoor temperature
around 95°F, and assuming the condenser is 25°F warmer than the outdoor air (120°F),
results in a difference between hot and cold sides of 75°F. Research has shown that each
1°F reduction in this temperature difference increases efficiency by 1%.
http://www.fsec.ucf.edu/en/publications/html/FSEC-PF-302-96/index.htm
http://www.canren.gc.ca/prod_serv/index.asp?CaId=169&PgId=1023 (efficiency stuff)
Another major advantage of heat pumps, especially in heating applications, is that
most heat pumps come with a secondary heat source that operates when the heat pump
system cannot meet the heating demand. A system designed to meet 50% of the peak
heating need can meet the energy needs 90% of the time. This allows the installed size to
be much smaller, saving on initial cost, while also saving energy with a smaller system,
smaller ground loop, and the heat pump operating closer to its peak efficiency range. http://
geoheat.oit.edu/software/ghpeak.pdf
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5.3 Cost and Energy
Now, first we make some assumptions on the energy losses of the house. Using the energy
estimator at http://www.heatload.com/, after entering all the room information for both
floors, it estimates about 50 kBTU in energy loss on a -4°F day, this represents the worst-
case scenario for the home, it must have enough heating capacity to stay comfortable. This
in turn can be related to the energy lost relative to the number of degrees the house must be
heated above the outdoor air temperature. For these calculations, it gives 0.7246 kBTU/°F.
Daily temperature data for Milwaukee was obtained from
http://www.soils.wisc.edu/wimnext/asos/SelectDailyGridTemps.html for the years
2000-2006. Analysis of the data shows that there are an average of 6350 Heating Degree
Days per year, which is consistent with figures from other sources. A Heating Degree Day
(HDD) is each degree below 65°F the average daily temperature is, so a 35°F day would be
30 HDDs. This is a useful measure for yearly energy consumption. The data also shows
that only 33 HDD, or 0.5% of the annual total, come from temperatures below 10°F. This
counts the sum of degrees below 10°F for all days below 10°F. For HDD below 20°F,
there are 186 per year, or 3%. Finally, there are 625 HDD below 30°F, or around 10% of
the total HDD.
This means that we can safely size the heat pump to meet the demand for a 20
degree day, and it will cover 97% of the home’s energy demand. The system could be
designed even smaller, for 30 degrees, and still meet 90% of the heating demand. The rest
of the heating demand can be covered by the backup heat system. Although the backup
system is far less efficient, it only is required to operate a portion of the time, and only to
cover the energy the heat pump cannot produce when operating at 100% capacity. In this
way, a smaller heat pump system may be used, saving money especially on the cost of well
drilling be reducing the number of wells required.
For a single 5 ton system, the estimated cost would be about $14,000 more than a
conventional heating/cooling installation. There are a number of ways to make this more
reasonable. First, up to $2000 per home is available to developers who reduce the energy
consumption of their homes 50% below the average. Manufactured homes may get $1000
for a 30% reduction, or $2000 for 50%. The main cost factor in the geothermal system is
the cost of installing the wells. A rough estimate is that one drilled well will be required
for each ton of heating/cooling required, and each well runs $1800-$2200 according to
59

various quotes. The best way to reduce the cost is by reducing the size of the system
required, just as in solar energy, conservation is cheaper than production. A well-designed
2200 sq. ft. house can have energy needs significantly less than 5 tons, and by taking
advantage of a backup heater, the geothermal system can be designed for heating with an
outside temperature of 20°F, and use the backup heater on the few days per year that get
colder. These together can reduce the cost of the system significantly. Another major
source of cost savings for the Josey Heights project is that there are so many units to be
built, if the wells are all drilled at once, they will be significantly less expensive than
drilling a few at a time.
Heat pump systems are excellent for use with radiant hydronic heating systems
because they readily produce hot water which can be used to heat radiant floors. Another
energy and cost-saving feature of heat pumps is that the waste heat from their compressors
can be used to help make hot water. During the summer, hot water is essentially free, and
in the winter the heat pump can assist the standard water heater.
5.4 Contacts
HC Energy Solutions, LLC
Tom Stover
300 Mandan Dr.
Waukesha, WI 53188
Phone 414-659-5153
Fax 866-750-8169
E-Mail tomstover@wi.rr.com
First call heating and cooling
http://firstcallheating.com/index.html
Joel Venn
joel@firstcallheating.com
office: 262-634-9025
262-634-9026
cell: 262-770-0040
Rozga Plbg & Htg Corp
1529 S. 113th St
West Allis, WI 53214
60

414-258-9911
John Pipkorn <heatguy@rozgacorp.com>
61

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