4. Bacaan yang dianjurkan
TURNER, MARK M. AND DAVID HULME.
GOVERNANCE, ADMINISTRATION AND
DEVELOPMENT: MAKING THE STATE WORK.
KUMARIAN PRESS INC., USA. 1997.
RULLY INDRAWAN. EKONOMI KERAKYATAN
MENUJU MASYARAKAT MADANI. IKOPIN PRESS,
2011. BANDUNG
BAHAN KULIAH (LECTURE MATHERIAL).
DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION. PROGRAM
DOKTOR BIDANG ILMU SOSIAL UNIVERSITAS
PASUNDAN BANDUNG, 2009. www.ginandjar.com
www.ginandjar.com4
6. Definisi
6
Modernization is a “total” transformation of a traditional or pre-modern society into
the types of technology and associated social organization that characteriza the
“advanced” economical prosperous and political stable nations of the Western
World.’
(Moore, 1963, p. 89)
‘The questions to ask about a country’s development are three: What has been
happening to proverty? What has been happening to unemployment? What has
been happening to inequality? If all three of these have declined from high levels,
then beyond doubt this has been a period of development for the country
concerned.’
(Seers, 1977, p. 3)
‘… These capitalist contradictions and the historical development of the capitalist
system have generated underdevelopment in the peripheral satellites whose
economic surplus was expropriated, while generating economic development in
the metropolitan centre which appropriate that surplus-and, further, that this
process still continues’.
(Frank, 1971, p.27)
7. Awalnya pembangunan dimaknai sebagai usaha meningkatkan
pendapatan per kapita, atau populer disebut strategi pertumbuhan
ekonomi.
Peningkatan pendapatan per kapita diharapkan masalah-masalah
seperti pengangguran, kemiskinan, dan ketimpangan distribusi
pendapatan yang dihadapi dapat dihilangkan .
Hal di atas tercermin dari pemikiran-pemikiran awal, konsep
pembangunan, seperti teori Harrod Domar, Arthur Lewis, WW Rostow,
Hirschman, Rosenstein Rodan, dll.
Meskipun banyak varian pemikiran, pada dasarnya mereka sependapat
bahwa kata kunci dalam pembangunan adalah pembentukan modal
kapital.
Namun dalam perkembangannya pemikiran itu dikoreksi, dengan
pendekatan yang berbeda. Rentang penekanan pada Modal
Sumberdaya Alam- Modal Kapital- Modal Sumberdaya Manusia- Modal
Sosial- Modal Budaya
Pembangunan Ekonomi
11. Adam Smith (1776) dalam buku “The Wealth of Nations” memulai
pemikiran ekonomi klasik
Harga terbentuk berdasarkan permintaan dan penawaran saat
terjadinya transaksi (mekanisme pasar)
Pengembang pemikiran sistem pasar melalui J.B. Say dan Bastiat
di Perancis; Thomas Jefferson di Amerika Serikat.
Banyak penentangan terhadap ajaran Adam Smith, misalnya dari
Robert Malthus, John Stuart Mill dan David Ricardo.
Sosialisme menjadi lawan paling keras bagi ekonomi pasar Adam
Smith di sepanjang abad sesudahnya
Ekonomi Klasik
12. Ajaran ekonomi pasar dengan invisible hand . Pemerintah tidak banyak mengatur
Melalui Carl Menger di Austria, Leon Walras di Swiss dan William Stanley Jevons di
Inggris. Ketiganya mengembangkan pemikiran “Revolusi Marginal”.
Eugen Bohm-Bawerk, salah seorang rekan Menger adalah ekonom pertama yang
mengkritik keras teori nilai tenaga kerja dan eksploitasi buruh yang diajukan Marx.
Melalui bukunya, Alfred Marshall di Inggris, Frank Taussig dan Irving Fisher di Amerika
Serikat, model ekonomi ala Smith mulai bangun kembali.
Abad 19 kejayaan bisnis-bisnis besar dan raksasa Carnegie dan Rockefeller rontok
menjadi antitesa ajaran Smith.
Kritik-kritik terhadap Smith muncul kembali, sebagaimana yang disampaikan oleh kaum
institusionalis seperti Thorstein Veblen yang memperingatkan tentang adanya bahaya
konsumsi yang mencolok dan kekuatan monopoli.
Sementara itu, di Jerman, sosiolog Max Weber menulis tentang fondasi religius dan
"sangkar besi" kapitalisme.
13. Resesi ekonomi besar pertama terjadi tahun 1929, menjadi kritik besar
bagi dunia kapitalisme pasar bebas Adam Smith.
Para ekonom neoklasik berhasil menangkap perbedaan halus antara
penawaran (supply) dan permintaan (demand), tetapi mereka gagal
menguak rahasia "koneksi uang" (money nexus) yakni hubungan vital
antara ekonomi mikro dengan ekonomi makro.
Ludwig von Mises, dengan bertumpu pada karya besar Knut Wicksell
dari Swedia, akhirnya berhasil menjembatani jurang pemisah antara
mikro dan makro tersebut, dalam karyanya yang berjudul Theory of
Money and Credit.
Ekonom klasik yang membela kebijakan laissez faire (ekonomi pasar)
diserang kaum sosialis dan Marxis, muncullah John Maynard Keynes
(neo Klasik).
Ekonomi Neo-Klasik
14. Model Keynesian tidak mensyaratkan nasionalisasi atau kontrol
pemerintah secara ketat atas penawaran dan permintaan.
Permintaan konsumen, pembiayaan defisit, pajak progresif dan fiat
money (yakni mata uang yang disahkan secara hukum oleh otoritas legal dan tidak
harus ditopang atau bisa dikonversikan ke bentuk, emas atau perak); yang berperan
penting di masa resesi ekonomi dan mengurangi pengangguran.
Paul Samuelson dari MIT, mulai memperkenalkan alat baru al., angka
pengganda (multiplier), kecenderungan konsumsi marginal, paradoks
penghematan, permintaan agregat dan C + I + G.
Alat yang diperkenalkan oleh Samuelson ini memperkuat aliran
Keynesian. Ia merefleksikan puncak teorisasi ekonomi dan model
matematika ekonomi.
16. 16
Teori model pertumbuhan bertahap linear
Linear Stages of Growth Models
(1950-1960an)
Teori dan pola-pola perubahan struktural
The Structural Change Theories and Pattern
(1970an)
Revolusi ketergantungan internasional
International Dependence Revolution (1970an)
Kontra revolusi pasar bebas neo klasik
Neoclassical Free Market Counterrevolution
(1980an)
Teori pertumbuhan ekonomi baru atau
endogen New or Endogenous Theory of
Economic Growth (1990an)
17. Linear Stages of Growth Models
(Rostow)
3-17
Masyarakat
Tradsional
Masa pra take
off
Masa take off
Menuju
Kedewasaan
Masyarakat
produksi dan
Konsumsi
21. The Lewis Model of Modern-Sector Growth:Two-Sector
Surplus-Labor Economy
3-21
22. The Lewis Model Modified by Labor saving Capital
Accumulation: Employment Implications
3-22
23. The International-Dependence
Revolution: Radical/Marxist Model
3-23
Model Ketergantungan Neo-klasik
Unequal power, core-periphery
The false-paradigm model
Using “expert” advisors
Teori Dualistik Pembangunan
Superior and inferior elements can coexist;
center-periphery (sociologist’s view)
Conclusions and Implications
No insight on development, empirical evidence
24. The Neoclassical Counterrevolution:
Market Resurgence
3-24
Perubahan dengan Model Statisitik
Pendekatan pasar bebas
Pendekatan pilihan publik
Pendekatan Market-friendly
Teori Pertumbuhan ne-klasik tradisional
Model Solow
Kesimpulan dan Implikasi
Penyelenggaraan kelembagaan dan politik dalam
pembangunan
25. New or Endogenous Theory of
Economic Growth
25
Pertumbuhan endogen selalu memperhatikan faktor
eksternal dan penentuan tingkat hasil investasi
permodalan.
Pertumbuhan endogen mempunyai kesamaan
dengan Neoklasik terutama dalam fungsi produksi
aggregat,tetapi untuk pertumbuhan endogen tidak
ada penurunan skala hasil seperti model Solow.
Model Pertumbuhan Endogen
Y = AK
Dimana Y adalah output, k adalah persediaan modal,
dan A adalah konstanta yang mengukur jumlah
output yang diproduksi untuk setiap unit modal.
27. Classic Development Paradigm
Improve level of individual real income passed
economic growth
Creates justice of distribution of earnings and
exploiting of economic sources ideally and
functionaly to increase capacity of produce and
human resource
28. Neo liberalism Paradigm
Opinion of neo liberalism ideology, development must be
based on economic growth, this economic macro is
assumed, will have give multiple effect (trickle down effect)
to the increasing of prosperity and increasing of work field.
the assumption is the development on transaction of
financial products will flow directly to investment in real
sector, in the hope that it can provide employment and
diminish unemployment;
in fact, the number of poverty is increasing from year to
year while unemployment also the same fate. Then the
occurrence of economic power concentration on number of
people creates a new class in the form elite corporation
mastering production structure and using up distribution of
resource and cleanses domestic resource, so that it
causes environmental and social demage.
30. i
expanding to
Eastern Europe
expanding to
Latin America
Regional FTAs
NAFTA
Population: 448.6 million
GDP: US$17,029.1 billion
EU
Population: 491 million
GDP PPP: US$ 15,150.7 billion
CHINA
Population: 1,341.4 million
GDP PPP : US$ 10,084.4 billion
JAPAN
Population: 127.4 million
GDP PPP : US$ 4,308.6
billion
ASEAN
Population: 589 million
GDP PPP: US$ 5,689.2
billion
FTA Canada – Chile 1997
FTA : Chile – Mexico
1999
FTA : USA – Chile 2004
FTA : USA – Singapore
2004
FTA : USA – Australia
2005
FTA : Mexico – Japan
2005
FTA : Chile – Brunei – NZ
– Singapore 2006
MERCOSUR
Argentina, Brazil,
Paraguay, Uruguay
FTAA
(by 2005)
under negotiation
NAFTA
U.S.A.,
Canada,
Mexico
SAPTA
Bangladesh, Bhutan,
India, Maldives,
Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka
China - ASEAN FTA
ASEAN-Japan
Comprehensive Economic
Partnership (AJCEP)
Japan-Korea FTA
(under negotiation)
Japan-Mexico EPA
(signed agreement)
Japan’s Bilaterals:
•Japan-Singapore
EPA
•Japan-Philippines
EPA
•Japan-Thailand EPA
•Japan-Malaysia EPA
•Japan-Indonesia
EPA
AFTA
Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines,
Singapore, Thailand, Brunei, Vietnam,
Laos, Myanmar, Cambodia
India - ASEAN FTA
EU-MEXICO
FTA
EU
25
countries
ACP-EU
Countries in Africa and
the Caribbean
(approx. 70 countries)
Japan-
Mexico EPA
(signed
agreement)
Japan-Korea-China
FTA
(under negotiation)
Australia-New Zealand-ASEAN FTA
Korea - ASEAN FTA
31. Social Development Paradigm
Purpose of development is creating a life with
justice, thereby redistribution with growth
(RWG) is necessary;
Earnings distribution method with curve
Lorenz model, and measurement through Gini
Index;
Then, developed approach of Basic Human
needs;
Lameness, unemployment, and poverty is the
enemy of development.
33. Michael P. Todaro (2000)
Firstly, in ethical review, the state clearly fails to translate justice
principles when talking side is given to a few member of citizen.
Secondly, gap will only cause less possibility for poor people to
obtain credit.
Thirdly, based on observation and empiric data taken from third
world, the owner of legal capitals in local level cannot be much
expected to increase capital stock which can extensify
production sector and give way to a new work field.
Accumulation of wealth is not used at all to enrich investment in
the country, instead it is creates capital flight to other countries.
Fourthly, the low of earnings of most of citizen will only create
public with low level quality of life. This condition means the
more minimum level of their economic productivity.
Fifthly, all optimasized business for capitalization of most citizen
will give effective stimulus to for empowering of domestic trade.
So economic growth and national income will experience
significant improvement in the long run.
34. Development of Human Paradigm
Purpose of development extends human choice (
Ul Haq,1995). Healthy human, smart, and
prosperous;
Hollistic concept (1) rising productivity, (2)
equality of opportunity averaging, (3)
development continuity, (4) human empowermed;
UNDP develops Human Development Index of
(HDI)
35. Sustainable Development Paradigm
Sustainable Development is an approach process
“socio-ecological”, meaning a development process
which to have characteristic fulfillment of human
needs while observing and maintaining the quality of
natural environment.
One of factor which must be faced to reach
sustainable development is how restore
environmental destruction without sacrificing the
needs of economic development and social justice
as a mean of achieving (Brundtland Report from PBB,
1987).
Development is not only comprehended as economic
growth, but also as a means of reach intellectual
satisfaction, emotional, morale, and spiritual.
37. Continual development, on its application is
integrating from economic problem, social and
environment.
integration of policy from 3 aspect, found on
development policy which is yielded by all
state level, either national, regional or local
level.
Observe the substance and process that must
be done hence, the effort to create and to
apply development cannot be discharged from
dynamics of public administration.
38. Development in Perspective of Islam
Khursyid, affirms that it is a must for us to leave all global
growth models focussed the attention at realization of
average earning level maximally as the only economic
growth indicators”;
Al-`Audhi haves a nation, “Actualy economic growth meant
in broader Islamic perspective is broader than just
increasing the average earnings of each individual.
Dunya refuses the average earnings individual as
economic growth indicators and gives other solution
named of al-miqyas al-Islami (measuring instrument of
Islam economic growth). This measuring instrument is real
condition of each in public mirrored the service and goods
that is possibly obtained by them.
39. Development in Democracy Paradigm
Amartya Sen ( 2000) describes democracy as main
corridor in comprehending poverty problem. Amartya Sen
idea has also inspired many ideas about how to
understand the bad side of democracy which jives birth to
unjust. These are caused by among others, limited
opportunity and poor people voices in delivering their
aspirations which can cause dilution of many economic
growth target’s programmes.
Interrelationship between democracies with prosperity of
public through market economics has in such a way grown
and tested for over 200 years in western countries. In such
a way tightly interrelationship both the things so that in the
development improvement of prosperity of public have also
been made barometer of whether or not democracy
process occurs. It means, democracy process has yet to
be staled good if it can not bear improvement of prosperity.
40. New International Development Ideology: MDGS
“WE WILL SPARE NO EFFORTS TO FREE OUR
FELLOW MEN, WOMAN AND CHILDREN FROM THE
OBJECT AND DEHUMANIZING CONDITIONS OF
EXTREME POVERTY, TO WHICH MORE THAN A
BILLION OF THEM ARE CURRENTLY SUBJECTED.
WE ARE COMMITTED TO MAKING THE RIGHT TO
DEVELOPMENT A REALITY FOR EVERYONE AND TO
FREEING THE ENTIRE HUMAN RACE FROM WANT.”
(MILLENIUM DECLARATION, 2000)
41. THE MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS (MDG)
WERE DERIVED FROM THE UNITED NATIONS
MILLENNIUM DECLARATION, ADOPTED BY 189
NATIONS IN 2000. MOST OF THE GOALS AND
TARGETS WERE SET TO BE ACHIEVED BY THE
YEAR 2015 ON THE BASIS OF THE GLOBAL
SITUATION DURING THE 1990s.
42.
43. Aspek Konsep pembangunan Konsep pemberdayaan
Bentuk program Crashed program yang bersifat
jangka pendek, temporal, dan
parsial.
Empowerment jangka menengah dan
panjang, berkesinambungan, dan utuh.
Arus ide Topdown, terutama dari pemerintah
mulai dari perencanaan,
pelaksanaan, dan indikator evaluasi.
Bottom up. Masy sebagai pelaku aktif,
pihak luar = fasilitator.
Pembagian dana Semua dikuasai pelaksana
dari luar.
Ada blok dana sendiri untuk masyarakat
Struktur kekuasaan Didominasi oleh pemerintah dan
elite lokal.
Kekuasaan terdistribusi di seluruh lapisan,
termasuk perempuan dan lapisan termiskin.
Asumsi terhadap
program
Merupakan aktivitas pokok. Hanya sebagai strategi antara untuk tujuan
yang lebih luas dan panjang
Bentuk evaluasi Sentralitas. Hanya mempelajari
hambatan-hambatan yang dijumpai
dalam pelaksanaan.
Perlu evaluasi normatif dan hasil untuk
memahami kedalaman permasalahan.
Pengguna hasil
evaluasi
Hanya untuk pelaksana
(pemerintah).
Untuk seluruh pihak yang terlibat, terutama
untuk masyarakat yang diberdayakan.
Objek evaluasi Terutama hasil yang dicapai pada
pemanfaat.
Seluruh pihak: donor, lembaga pemerintah,
pembina, pelaksana, dan pemanfaat
Paradigma Pembangunan
ke Pemberdayaan
44. Pemetaan
Potensi
Analisis Potensi
Penyusunan
Desain Model
Sosialisasi dan
Diseminasi
Pembentukan
Kelompok
Usaha Produktif
dan Kreatif
Penguatan
Kelembagaan
Keuangan Mikro
Berbasis
Kelembagaan
Koperasi
Konsultasi dan
Pendampingan
Monitoring dan
Evaluasi
Tindak Lanjut
dan
Pengembangan
