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How to make a line follower
Introduction
            What is a line follower?
• Line follower is a robot that can follow a
  path. The path can be visible like a black
  line on a white surface (or vice-versa).




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Hardware Components
•   IR Sensors
•   DC Geared Motors
•   Robot Chasis
•   Microcontroller development board
•   Atmega 8 Microcontroller
•   USB Programmer


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IR Sensor




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Block Diagram
                             Every sensor has three
                             terminals
              VCC            •VCC – to power up the
                             sensor
                             •GND – to provide a
                             fixed negative
                             reference
 Physical
Parameters
             Sensor    OUTPU •OUTPUT – analog
                         T   output of the sensor



             GND
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Working
• IR sensor works on the principle of emitting IR
  rays and receiving the reflected ray by a receiver
  (Photo Diode)




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IR Sensor circuit




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Types of resistor
• Fixed type resistor




• Variable type resistor




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LM358
• The LM358 IC consists of two
  independent operational amplifiers which
  were designed specifically to operate from
  a single power supply over a wide range
  of voltages.
• It have two op-amp
• Single power supply


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LM358 IC




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Internal circuit




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DC geared motors
                      • Motors having external
                        gear arrangement
                        attached with motor.
                      • It has a gearbox that
                        increases torque and
                        decreases speed.
                      • Most commonly used in
                        robotics as they are
                        having considerable
                        torque.


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DC Motors
• Motors which works on dc
  current and gives a
  rotating motion as an
  output.
• In robotics applications,
  they are preferred over
  AC motors as the motor
  and the complete circuit
  require same kind of
  supply i.e. DC supply.


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Chasis
• Provides a base
  to the robot.
• Wheels, sensors
  and controller
  board are
  attached to it.



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IC’s
• L293D
• LM358
• IC 7805(voltage controlled)




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IC 7805
• It is a voltage regulator integrated circuit.
• It designed to automatically maintain a
  constant voltage level




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Features
•   Output current range up to 1A
•   Output voltage 5V
•   Input voltage range up to 12V
•   Short circuit protection




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Transistor
• Transistor are of two types:
     1-> n-p-n
      A straight switch

   2-> p-n-p
     A inverted switch


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n-p-n as a switch
• When base of n-p-n is connected with
  logic high voltage then it short circuit
  emitter and collector (SWITCH ON).
• When base of n-p-n is connected with
  logic low voltage then it open circuit both
  emitter and collector (SWITCH OFF).



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Circuit diagram to show a switching
                          VCC


                                                       Logic   transisto   Motor
                                                               r

                                                       0       off         stop
                                                       1       on          run
       Logic 1
         or        RB
      Logic 0


                              M




                                   GND
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p-n-p as an inverted switch
• When base of p-n-p is connected with
  logic high voltage then it open circuit
  emitter and collector (SWITCH OFF).
• When base of p-n-p is connected with
  logic low voltage then it short circuit both
  emitter and collector (SWITCH ON).



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Controlling Motor Using H-Bridge

• Switches settings for
  rotation:
    S1&S4:      ON    and
     S2&S3: OFF (for one
     direction).
    S2&S3:      ON    and
     S1&S4: OFF (for other
     direction).
• S1-S2: ON or S3&S4: ON
   (can be used to stop the
  motor).
                   (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012   22
H-Bridge Operation

A   B        o/p
0   0        Stop
0   1     Clock wise
1   0    Counter clock
             wise
1   1        Stop




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L293D IC

  EN1                  EN1            Vcc




                       12V            EN2

  12V




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Conti….
• L293D is a dual H-Bridge motor driver.
• So with one IC we can interface two DC motors
  which can be controlled in both clockwise and
  counter clockwise direction
• If you have motor with fix direction of motion
  then you can make use of all the four I/Os to
  connect up to four DC motors.
• L293D has output current of 600mA.
• Moreover for protection of circuit from back
  EMF output diodes are included within the IC.


                (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012   25
Dual H-Bridge Motor Driver IC: L293D

Features:
  • Capable of driving 2
    motors at a time in
    clockwise and anti-
    clockwise direction
    separately.
  • Works as an interface
    for controlling motors
    using lower voltage
    (5V) and running
    motors on higher
    voltage.
                   (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012   26
Interface motor with IC L293D

     EN1                        VCC




     12V                       EN2



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What is a Microcontroller?

 A microcontroller (sometimes abbreviated µC
  or MCU) is a small computer on a single IC
  containing a processor core, memory, and
  programmable input/output peripherals.

 It is a decision making device used widely in
  embedded systems and all intelligent
  devices.
                (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012   28
Difference between Microcontroller
         and Microprocessor

 Microcontroller has I/O ports, Memory,
  timers etc all integrated on chip itself

 In Microprocessors, I/O ports, memory,
 timer etc are to be connected externally

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Microcontrollers                   Microprocessors
• Full fledged PC!               • Separated units
• ROM, RAM, Flash,               • Higher resources
  CPU, ALU, on-chip              • MCU – (everything in
  peripherals                      point 2)
• Lower resources



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Typical MCU based solution




Microwave Oven




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MCU Ports
• Ports contains pins of
  the MCU
• Can be turned ON or
  OFF by the program
  – ON = 1 (in TTL 5V)
  – OFF = 0 (in TTL 0V)
• Input mode – values can
  be read
  – Above threshold = ON
  – Below threshold =
    OFF



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AVR ATmega8 Microcontroller




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How AVR ATmega8 got its
             name?
 It was developed by Atmel Corporation

 AVR implies it belongs to AVR family.

 ‘8’ in Atmega8 means this microcontroller
  has 8Kb of flash memory


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TYPES OF PACKAGES

 28-lead PDIP (Plastic Dual In-line
  Package)

 32-lead TQFP (Thin Quad film Package)



               (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012   35
How ATmega8 PDIP Package looks
            like?




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How ATmega8 TQFP Package looks
            like?




         (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012   37
Pinout of ATmega8




   (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012   38
PORT B(PB7-PB0)
 It is a 8-bit bi-directional I/O port.
 It can be used either as a input port or as
  output port ( direction must be specified in
  programming).




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PORT C(PC6-PC0)
 It is a 7-bit bi-directional I/O port.
 It can be used either as a input port or as
  output port ( direction must be specified in
  programming).




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PORTD(PD7-PD0)
 It is a 8-bit bi-directional I/O port.
 It can be used either as a input port or as
  output port ( direction must be specified in
  programming).




               (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012   41
Microcontroller development board
• Used to interface
  motors, sensors and
  various other
  devices with
  microcontroller.
• Components like
  resistors, capacitors,
  power supply are
  attached to the
  microcontroller via
  development board
  for its working.

                     (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012   42
USB Programmer
• Used to burn code
  from laptop to
  memory of
  microcontroller.




             (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012   43
Two sensor line follower




 Left     Right      Directi         Left       Right
Sensor   Sensor        on           Motor       Motor
  0        0         Forwar          +12V       +12V
                       d
  0        1 Copyright, roboVITics club 2012
           (c)
                         Left            -12V   +12V    44
(c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012   45
(c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012   46
(c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012   47
(c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012   48
Getting Started
Selecting Hardware                Selecting Software
• PC / Mac                      • OS – Windows / Mac
• In-System                       OS / Linux
  Programmer (ISP)              • “Free” Compiler
• Target Board (MCU             • “Free” Programmer
  Dev Board)                      Software
• Lastly, a MCU!!


             (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012       49
Softwares needed
• AVR Studio – for programming
• Compiler – for compiling the code
• eXtreme Burner or avrloader – for buring
  code generated to microcontroller.




              (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012   50
Step 1




(c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012   51
Step 2




(c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012   52
Datasheet
• Manufacturer gives information regarding the
  product to its users
• Data given is in detail
• Features, Technical Specs, Design, Register
  Summary, Expected Usage, Troubleshooting,
  Pin details, etc.
• Best source of info!!
• All electronic components have a datasheet for
  them
• Google them out!!
                 (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012   53
Pin Configurations




Atmega8   (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012   Atmega16/32   54
AVR Studio
• Most popular C compiler for AVR
• Its official!
• Unlike other compilers/emulators, its totally
  free
• The code written will be common to all AVR
  mcu’s
• AVR Studio 4 has been used
• AVR Studio 5 beta and AVR Studio 6 has
  been released

               (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012   55
INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEM
               AND
           EMBEDDED C




          (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012   56
What is Embedded C?
• Embedded C is nothing but a subset of C
  language which is compatible with certain
  microcontrollers.
• Some features are added using header files like
  <avr/io.h>, <util/delay.h>.
• scanf() and printf() are removed as the inputs
  are scanned from the sensors and outputs are
  given to the ports.
• Control structures remain the same like if-
  statement, for loop, do-while etc.
                 (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012   57
Development process of Embedded C
                 projects
• Write C programs in AVR Studio IDE(Integrated
  Development Environment)
• Compile them into a .hex file using the AVR-GCC
  compiler (which integrates into AVR Studio)
• Simulate the target AVR program and debug the code
  within AVR Studio
• Program the actual chip using the USBasp device, which
  is attached to our target board with a special 6-pin cable
• Once programmed, the chip runs the program in your
  circuit

                    (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012   58
Registers to Communicate with I/O
                Ports
 To communicate with the ports of
  Atmega8, we use three registers:
 PINx
 PORTx
 DDRx

Where x would be either B,C or D.
              (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012   59
DDRx Register
 It stands for Data Direction Register.
 It is used to define Port as Input or Output.
 In order to make Port as Input Port:
  DDRx=0x00 (In Hexadecimal)
   DDRx=0b00000000(In Binary)
 In order to make Port as output Port:
  DDRx=0xFF (In Hexadecimal)
   DDRx=0b11111111(In Binary)
               (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012
                                             60
PORTx Register
 If DDRx=0xFF(Output port)
 Writing logic 1 to PORTx will make output
  high i.e 5v for that particular pin.

 Writing 0 to PORTx will make output low
  i.e 0v for that particular pin.


               (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012   61
Continued..
 If DDRx=Ox00(Input port):
 If corresponding PORTx bit is set to 1,
  Internal pull up resistors are enabled i.e if
  we do not connect this pin to anything it
  still reads as 1.
 If corresponding PORTx bit is set to 0,
  internal pull up resistors are disabled i.e
  the pin will enter a high impedance state
  and will become unpredictable.

                (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012   62
PINx Register

 It reads data from the port pins.
 If any/all bits of DDRx is set to 0(input)for
  a particular pin, we can read data from
  PINx
 If any/all bits of DDRx is set to 1(output),
  then reading PINx register gives the same
  data which has been output on that
  particular pin.
                (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012   63
For Details, visit


             maxEmbedded.com
               A guide to robotics and embedded electronics
                          AVR Guide and Tutorials
Basics of Microcontrollers, Sensors, Timers, ADC, Serial Communication, etc




                       (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012                    65
maxEmbedded blog




   (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012   66
Online Stores
•   store.extremeelectronics.co.in
•   nex-robotics.com
•   embeddedmarket.com
•   rhydolabz.com
•   thinklabs.in
•   sparkfun.com



                 (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012   67
Suggestions and Doubts are welcome
           That’s all for today
                             Thank you




24 hour helpline
9566758862

P.S. Its not toll-free!                               For more info, visit Mayank’s blog
                                                                   maxEmbedded. com
                      (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012        © maxEmbedded68    2012

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How to make a Line Follower Robot

  • 1. How to make a line follower
  • 2. Introduction What is a line follower? • Line follower is a robot that can follow a path. The path can be visible like a black line on a white surface (or vice-versa). (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 2
  • 3. Hardware Components • IR Sensors • DC Geared Motors • Robot Chasis • Microcontroller development board • Atmega 8 Microcontroller • USB Programmer (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 3
  • 4. IR Sensor (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 4
  • 5. Block Diagram Every sensor has three terminals VCC •VCC – to power up the sensor •GND – to provide a fixed negative reference Physical Parameters Sensor OUTPU •OUTPUT – analog T output of the sensor GND (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 5
  • 6. Working • IR sensor works on the principle of emitting IR rays and receiving the reflected ray by a receiver (Photo Diode) (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 6
  • 7. IR Sensor circuit (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 7
  • 8. Types of resistor • Fixed type resistor • Variable type resistor (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 8
  • 9. LM358 • The LM358 IC consists of two independent operational amplifiers which were designed specifically to operate from a single power supply over a wide range of voltages. • It have two op-amp • Single power supply (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 9
  • 10. LM358 IC (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 10
  • 11. Internal circuit (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 11
  • 12. DC geared motors • Motors having external gear arrangement attached with motor. • It has a gearbox that increases torque and decreases speed. • Most commonly used in robotics as they are having considerable torque. (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 12
  • 13. DC Motors • Motors which works on dc current and gives a rotating motion as an output. • In robotics applications, they are preferred over AC motors as the motor and the complete circuit require same kind of supply i.e. DC supply. (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 13
  • 14. Chasis • Provides a base to the robot. • Wheels, sensors and controller board are attached to it. (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 14
  • 15. IC’s • L293D • LM358 • IC 7805(voltage controlled) (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 15
  • 16. IC 7805 • It is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. • It designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 16
  • 17. Features • Output current range up to 1A • Output voltage 5V • Input voltage range up to 12V • Short circuit protection (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 17
  • 18. Transistor • Transistor are of two types: 1-> n-p-n A straight switch 2-> p-n-p A inverted switch (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 18
  • 19. n-p-n as a switch • When base of n-p-n is connected with logic high voltage then it short circuit emitter and collector (SWITCH ON). • When base of n-p-n is connected with logic low voltage then it open circuit both emitter and collector (SWITCH OFF). (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 19
  • 20. Circuit diagram to show a switching VCC Logic transisto Motor r 0 off stop 1 on run Logic 1 or RB Logic 0 M GND (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 20
  • 21. p-n-p as an inverted switch • When base of p-n-p is connected with logic high voltage then it open circuit emitter and collector (SWITCH OFF). • When base of p-n-p is connected with logic low voltage then it short circuit both emitter and collector (SWITCH ON). (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 21
  • 22. Controlling Motor Using H-Bridge • Switches settings for rotation:  S1&S4: ON and S2&S3: OFF (for one direction).  S2&S3: ON and S1&S4: OFF (for other direction). • S1-S2: ON or S3&S4: ON (can be used to stop the motor). (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 22
  • 23. H-Bridge Operation A B o/p 0 0 Stop 0 1 Clock wise 1 0 Counter clock wise 1 1 Stop (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 23
  • 24. L293D IC EN1 EN1 Vcc 12V EN2 12V (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 24
  • 25. Conti…. • L293D is a dual H-Bridge motor driver. • So with one IC we can interface two DC motors which can be controlled in both clockwise and counter clockwise direction • If you have motor with fix direction of motion then you can make use of all the four I/Os to connect up to four DC motors. • L293D has output current of 600mA. • Moreover for protection of circuit from back EMF output diodes are included within the IC. (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 25
  • 26. Dual H-Bridge Motor Driver IC: L293D Features: • Capable of driving 2 motors at a time in clockwise and anti- clockwise direction separately. • Works as an interface for controlling motors using lower voltage (5V) and running motors on higher voltage. (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 26
  • 27. Interface motor with IC L293D EN1 VCC 12V EN2 (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 27
  • 28. What is a Microcontroller?  A microcontroller (sometimes abbreviated µC or MCU) is a small computer on a single IC containing a processor core, memory, and programmable input/output peripherals.  It is a decision making device used widely in embedded systems and all intelligent devices. (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 28
  • 29. Difference between Microcontroller and Microprocessor  Microcontroller has I/O ports, Memory, timers etc all integrated on chip itself  In Microprocessors, I/O ports, memory, timer etc are to be connected externally (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 29
  • 30. Microcontrollers Microprocessors • Full fledged PC! • Separated units • ROM, RAM, Flash, • Higher resources CPU, ALU, on-chip • MCU – (everything in peripherals point 2) • Lower resources (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 30
  • 31. Typical MCU based solution Microwave Oven (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 31
  • 32. MCU Ports • Ports contains pins of the MCU • Can be turned ON or OFF by the program – ON = 1 (in TTL 5V) – OFF = 0 (in TTL 0V) • Input mode – values can be read – Above threshold = ON – Below threshold = OFF (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 32
  • 33. AVR ATmega8 Microcontroller (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 33
  • 34. How AVR ATmega8 got its name?  It was developed by Atmel Corporation  AVR implies it belongs to AVR family.  ‘8’ in Atmega8 means this microcontroller has 8Kb of flash memory (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 34
  • 35. TYPES OF PACKAGES  28-lead PDIP (Plastic Dual In-line Package)  32-lead TQFP (Thin Quad film Package) (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 35
  • 36. How ATmega8 PDIP Package looks like? (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 36
  • 37. How ATmega8 TQFP Package looks like? (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 37
  • 38. Pinout of ATmega8 (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 38
  • 39. PORT B(PB7-PB0)  It is a 8-bit bi-directional I/O port.  It can be used either as a input port or as output port ( direction must be specified in programming). (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 39
  • 40. PORT C(PC6-PC0)  It is a 7-bit bi-directional I/O port.  It can be used either as a input port or as output port ( direction must be specified in programming). (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 40
  • 41. PORTD(PD7-PD0)  It is a 8-bit bi-directional I/O port.  It can be used either as a input port or as output port ( direction must be specified in programming). (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 41
  • 42. Microcontroller development board • Used to interface motors, sensors and various other devices with microcontroller. • Components like resistors, capacitors, power supply are attached to the microcontroller via development board for its working. (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 42
  • 43. USB Programmer • Used to burn code from laptop to memory of microcontroller. (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 43
  • 44. Two sensor line follower Left Right Directi Left Right Sensor Sensor on Motor Motor 0 0 Forwar +12V +12V d 0 1 Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 (c) Left -12V +12V 44
  • 49. Getting Started Selecting Hardware Selecting Software • PC / Mac • OS – Windows / Mac • In-System OS / Linux Programmer (ISP) • “Free” Compiler • Target Board (MCU • “Free” Programmer Dev Board) Software • Lastly, a MCU!! (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 49
  • 50. Softwares needed • AVR Studio – for programming • Compiler – for compiling the code • eXtreme Burner or avrloader – for buring code generated to microcontroller. (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 50
  • 51. Step 1 (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 51
  • 52. Step 2 (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 52
  • 53. Datasheet • Manufacturer gives information regarding the product to its users • Data given is in detail • Features, Technical Specs, Design, Register Summary, Expected Usage, Troubleshooting, Pin details, etc. • Best source of info!! • All electronic components have a datasheet for them • Google them out!! (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 53
  • 54. Pin Configurations Atmega8 (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 Atmega16/32 54
  • 55. AVR Studio • Most popular C compiler for AVR • Its official! • Unlike other compilers/emulators, its totally free • The code written will be common to all AVR mcu’s • AVR Studio 4 has been used • AVR Studio 5 beta and AVR Studio 6 has been released (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 55
  • 56. INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEM AND EMBEDDED C (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 56
  • 57. What is Embedded C? • Embedded C is nothing but a subset of C language which is compatible with certain microcontrollers. • Some features are added using header files like <avr/io.h>, <util/delay.h>. • scanf() and printf() are removed as the inputs are scanned from the sensors and outputs are given to the ports. • Control structures remain the same like if- statement, for loop, do-while etc. (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 57
  • 58. Development process of Embedded C projects • Write C programs in AVR Studio IDE(Integrated Development Environment) • Compile them into a .hex file using the AVR-GCC compiler (which integrates into AVR Studio) • Simulate the target AVR program and debug the code within AVR Studio • Program the actual chip using the USBasp device, which is attached to our target board with a special 6-pin cable • Once programmed, the chip runs the program in your circuit (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 58
  • 59. Registers to Communicate with I/O Ports  To communicate with the ports of Atmega8, we use three registers:  PINx  PORTx  DDRx Where x would be either B,C or D. (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 59
  • 60. DDRx Register  It stands for Data Direction Register.  It is used to define Port as Input or Output.  In order to make Port as Input Port: DDRx=0x00 (In Hexadecimal) DDRx=0b00000000(In Binary)  In order to make Port as output Port: DDRx=0xFF (In Hexadecimal) DDRx=0b11111111(In Binary) (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 60
  • 61. PORTx Register  If DDRx=0xFF(Output port)  Writing logic 1 to PORTx will make output high i.e 5v for that particular pin.  Writing 0 to PORTx will make output low i.e 0v for that particular pin. (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 61
  • 62. Continued..  If DDRx=Ox00(Input port):  If corresponding PORTx bit is set to 1, Internal pull up resistors are enabled i.e if we do not connect this pin to anything it still reads as 1.  If corresponding PORTx bit is set to 0, internal pull up resistors are disabled i.e the pin will enter a high impedance state and will become unpredictable. (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 62
  • 63. PINx Register  It reads data from the port pins.  If any/all bits of DDRx is set to 0(input)for a particular pin, we can read data from PINx  If any/all bits of DDRx is set to 1(output), then reading PINx register gives the same data which has been output on that particular pin. (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 63
  • 64. For Details, visit maxEmbedded.com A guide to robotics and embedded electronics AVR Guide and Tutorials Basics of Microcontrollers, Sensors, Timers, ADC, Serial Communication, etc (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 65
  • 65. maxEmbedded blog (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 66
  • 66. Online Stores • store.extremeelectronics.co.in • nex-robotics.com • embeddedmarket.com • rhydolabz.com • thinklabs.in • sparkfun.com (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 67
  • 67. Suggestions and Doubts are welcome That’s all for today Thank you 24 hour helpline 9566758862 P.S. Its not toll-free! For more info, visit Mayank’s blog maxEmbedded. com (c) Copyright, roboVITics club 2012 © maxEmbedded68 2012

Editor's Notes

  1. (c) Copyright, Mayank Prasad, 2012
  2. (c) Copyright, Mayank Prasad, 2012