Chapter 12 Motivation

Learning Objectives Analyze the motivational forces present in a specific situation. Differentiate between the various content and process theories of motivation and indicate how each can be helpful in analyzing a given motivational situation. After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

Analyze the motivational forces present in a specific situation.

Differentiate between the various content and process theories of motivation and indicate how each can be helpful in analyzing a given motivational situation.

Learning Objectives Explain how job enrichment can influence an employee's motivation. Compare and contrast the various approaches to reinforcement and describe their relative advantages and disadvantages for use by managers. After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

Explain how job enrichment can influence an employee's motivation.

Compare and contrast the various approaches to reinforcement and describe their relative advantages and disadvantages for use by managers.

Learning Objectives State how goal setting can affect motivation. Name the major types of social influence on employees' motivation and explain how each type can impact motivation. Describe how values and attitudes toward work can influence motivation. After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

State how goal setting can affect motivation.

Name the major types of social influence on employees' motivation and explain how each type can impact motivation.

Describe how values and attitudes toward work can influence motivation.

What is Motivation? Motivation Set of forces Energize behavior Direct behavior Sustain behavior External and internal forces

Motivation

Set of forces

Energize behavior

Direct behavior

Sustain behavior

External and internal forces

Sources of Motivation Needs For security For self-esteem For achievement For power Attitudes About self About job About supervisor About organization Goals Task completion Performance level Career advancement Adapted from Exhibit 12.1: Key Variables that Influence Motivation INTERNAL (PUSH FORCES) EXTERNAL (PULL FORCES) Characteristics of THE INDIVIDUAL (examples) Characteristics of THE JOB Characteristics of THE WORK SITUATION (examples) (examples) Feedback Amount Timing Work load Tasks Variety Scope Discretion How job is performed Immediate Social Environment Supervisor(s) Workgroup members Subordinates Organizational actions Rewards & compensation Availability of training Pressure for high levels of output

Needs

For security

For self-esteem

For achievement

For power

Attitudes

About self

About job

About supervisor

About organization

Goals

Task completion

Performance level

Career advancement

Feedback

Amount

Timing

Work load

Tasks

Variety

Scope

Discretion

How job is performed

Immediate Social Environment

Supervisor(s)

Workgroup members

Subordinates

Organizational actions

Rewards & compensation

Availability of training

Pressure for high levels of output

Motivation Theories Personal needs that workers attempt to satisfy. Features in the work environment that satisfy a worker’s needs. How different variables can combine to influence the amount of effort put forth by employees. Adapted from Exhibit 12.2: Motivation Theories Content Theories Process Theories Focus Theories Equity Theory Expectancy Theory Maslow’s Need Hierarchy McClelland’s Acquired Need Theory Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Personal needs that workers attempt to satisfy.

Features in the work environment that satisfy a worker’s needs.

How different variables can combine to influence the amount of effort put forth by employees.

Equity Theory

Expectancy Theory

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy

McClelland’s Acquired Need Theory

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Content Theories of Motivation Internal factors Needs Motives External factors Job Work situation Maslow’s Need Hierarchy and Alderfer’s ERG Theory McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Internal factors

Needs

Motives

External factors

Job

Work situation

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy and Alderfer’s ERG Theory

McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Content Theories of Motivation Five needs arranged in a hierarchy of strength and influence Need Hierarchy Satisfy most basic (prepotent) needs first Move to the next level of needs after preceding needs is satisfied Physiological Security (safety Social (belongingness Esteem Self-actualization

Five needs arranged in a hierarchy of strength and influence

Satisfy most basic (prepotent) needs first

Move to the next level of needs after preceding needs is satisfied

Physiological

Security (safety

Social (belongingness

Esteem

Self-actualization

Content Theories of Motivation Three classifications of needs Existence Relatedness Growth Different levels of the needs can be active at the same time Person may stay at one level, if frustrated by trying to attain the next higher level ERG Theory

Three classifications of needs

Existence

Relatedness

Growth

Different levels of the needs can be active at the same time

Person may stay at one level, if frustrated by trying to attain the next higher level

Maslow’s and Alderfer’s Needs Theories Adapted from Exhibit 12.3: Maslow’s and Alderfer’s Needs Hierarchies Categories Highest-order needs Most essential (prepotent) needs Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Categories Alderfer’s Needs Hierarchy Categories Self-actualization Esteem Belongingness Safety Physiological Growth Relatedness Existence

Content Theories of Motivation Learned needs Achievement Work on tasks of moderate difficulty Take moderate risks Take personal responsibility for one’s own actions Receive specific and concrete feedback on one’s own performance Power Affiliation Acquired Needs Theory

Learned needs

Achievement

Work on tasks of moderate difficulty

Take moderate risks

Take personal responsibility for one’s own actions

Receive specific and concrete feedback on one’s own performance

Power

Affiliation

Content Theories of Motivation Motivators Can increase job satisfaction Factors related to doing the job (work itself, responsibility, personal growth, sense of achievement, recognition) Hygiene factors Can prevent dissatisfaction, but cannot increase satisfaction Factors extrinsic to or surrounding the job (supervision, relations with co-workers, working conditions, company policies and practices) Two-Factor Theory

Motivators

Can increase job satisfaction

Factors related to doing the job (work itself, responsibility, personal growth, sense of achievement, recognition)

Hygiene factors

Can prevent dissatisfaction, but cannot increase satisfaction

Factors extrinsic to or surrounding the job (supervision, relations with co-workers, working conditions, company policies and practices)

Motivators and Hygiene Factors Adapted from Exhibit 12.4: Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory: Motivators and Hygiene Factors Recognition Achievement Growth Responsibility Nature of the work Motivators: Factors directly related to doing a job Hygiene Factors: Elements associated with conditions surrounding the job Job Relations with co-workers Working conditions Benefits Compensation Supervision

Effects of Hygiene Factors and Motivators Adapted from Exhibit 12.5: Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory: Differential Effects of Hygiene Factors and Motivators Hygiene factors must be satisfied first, leading to a state of being neither satisfied nor dissatisfied From the state of being neither satisfied nor dissatisfied, motivators can impel an employee’s motivation and performance to higher levels Hygiene-Factors Extrinsic factors related to conditions surrounding the job: Motivators Intrinsic factors related to the doing of the job itself: Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied

Hygiene factors must be satisfied first, leading to a state of being neither satisfied nor dissatisfied

From the state of being neither satisfied nor dissatisfied, motivators can impel an employee’s motivation and performance to higher levels

Job characteristics model Core job characteristics (skill variety and task significance) Critical psychological states (experienced meaningfulness of work, experienced responsibility for outcomes of work) Expected outcomes (high internal work motivation and high work effectiveness) Content Theories of Motivation Implications for Job Design

Job characteristics model

Core job characteristics (skill variety and task significance)

Critical psychological states (experienced meaningfulness of work, experienced responsibility for outcomes of work)

Expected outcomes (high internal work motivation and high work effectiveness)

Job Characteristics Model Adapted from Exhibit 12.6: Job Characteristics Model

Skill variety Core Job Characteristics Adapted from Exhibit 12.7: Core Job Characteristics in Job Characteristics Model Core Job Definition Example Characteristics Task identity Task significance The degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities in carrying out the work, involving the use of a number of different skills and talents of the person. The aerospace engineer must be able to create blueprints, calculate tolerances, provide leadership to the work group, and give presentations to upper management. The degree to which a job requires completion of a “whole” and identifiable piece of work, that is, doing a job from beginning to end with a viable outcome. The event manager handles all the plans for the annual executive retreat, attends the retreat, and receives information on its success from the participants. The degree to which a job has a substantial impact on the lives of other people, whether those people are in the immediate organization or in the world at large. The finance manager devises a new benefits plan to improve health coverage for all employees.

Skill variety

Autonomy Core Job Characteristics Adapted from Exhibit 12.7: Core Job Characteristics in Job Characteristics Model The degree to which a job provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out. Feedback from job R&D scientists are linked via the company intranet, allowing them to post their ideas, ask questions, and propose solutions at any hour of the day, whether at the office, at home, or on the road. The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the job provides the individual with direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance. The lathe operator knows he is cutting his pieces correctly, as very few are rejected by the workers in the next production area. Source: Adapted from J. Richard Hackman and Greg R. Oldham, Work Redesign (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1980). Core Job Definition Example Characteristics

Autonomy

Process Theories of Motivation Deal with the way different variables combine to influence the amount of effort people put forth Equity theory Expectancy theory Social cognitive theory Goal-setting theory

Deal with the way different variables combine to influence the amount of effort people put forth

Equity theory

Expectancy theory

Social cognitive theory

Goal-setting theory

Process Theories of Motivation Focuses on individuals’ comparisons of their own circumstances to those of others Inputs (age, experience, education, etc.) Outcomes (salary, benefits, titles, perks, etc.) Ratios of an individual’s input/outcome versus that ratio of another person or people Equity Theory

Focuses on individuals’ comparisons of their own circumstances to those of others

Inputs (age, experience, education, etc.)

Outcomes (salary, benefits, titles, perks, etc.)

Ratios of an individual’s input/outcome versus that ratio of another person or people

Equity Theory Adapted from Exhibit 12.8: Equity Theory

Process Theories of Motivation Focuses on the thought processes people use when faced with choosing among alternative courses of action Effort Performance Outcome Expectancy Theory Expectancy Instrumentality Valence a Effort  (E P) x (P O) x V

Focuses on the thought processes people use when faced with choosing among alternative courses of action

Effort

Performance

Outcome

Expectancy

Instrumentality

Valence

a

Effort  (E P) x (P O) x V

Expectancy Theory E = effort P = performance O = outcome V = valence Adapted from Exhibit 12.9: Components of Expectancy Theory E P (I believe high effort will lead to good performance) P O (I believe high performance will lead to recognition from my supervisor) Effort Performance Outcome (V: I do or do not value recognition from my supervisor) Expectancy Instrumentality

Process Theories of Motivation To influence employees’ motivation Identify rewards that are valued Strengthen subordinates’ beliefs that their efforts will lead to valued rewards Clarify subordinates’ understanding of exactly where they should direct their efforts Make sure that the desired rewards under your control are given directly following particular levels of performance Provide levels and amounts of rewards that are consistent with a realistic level of expected rewards Expectancy Theory

To influence employees’ motivation

Identify rewards that are valued

Strengthen subordinates’ beliefs that their efforts will lead to valued rewards

Clarify subordinates’ understanding of exactly where they should direct their efforts

Make sure that the desired rewards under your control are given directly following particular levels of performance

Provide levels and amounts of rewards that are consistent with a realistic level of expected rewards

Process Theories of Motivation Self-efficacy: A person’s confidence that he or she can accomplish a given task in a specific situation Magnitude (how difficult a task can be accomplished) Strength (certainty of accomplishment), Generality (extent to which similar but not identical tasks can be accomplished). High self-efficacy beliefs is associated with better work-related performance Social Cognitive Theory

Self-efficacy: A person’s confidence that he or she can accomplish a given task in a specific situation

Magnitude (how difficult a task can be accomplished)

Strength (certainty of accomplishment),

Generality (extent to which similar but not identical tasks can be accomplished).

High self-efficacy beliefs is associated with better work-related performance

Self-efficacy Adapted from Exhibit 12.10: Social Cognitive Theory: Methods to Increase an Individual’s Feelings of Selfefficacy Self-efficacy Self-efficacy Self-efficacy Vicarious Learning Physiological or Psychological Arousal Verbal Persuasion Enactive Mastery Self-efficacy

Process Theories of Motivation Human action is directed by conscious goals and intentions More challenging (higher or harder) goals, if accepted, result in higher levels of effort than easier goals. Specific goals result in higher levels of effort than vague goals. Goal-Setting Theory

Human action is directed by conscious goals and intentions

More challenging (higher or harder) goals, if accepted, result in higher levels of effort than easier goals.

Specific goals result in higher levels of effort than vague goals.

Role of Reinforcements and Consequences Events that happen to an individual following a particular behavior Positive consequence Neutral consequence Negative consequence Magnitude of the consequence

Events that happen to an individual following a particular behavior

Positive consequence

Neutral consequence

Negative consequence

Magnitude of the consequence

Strengthening Behavior Rewards that increase the likelihood of behavior being repeated in the future Equitable Efficient Available (capable of being given) Not exclusive Visible Reversible Positive Reinforcement

Rewards that increase the likelihood of behavior being repeated in the future

Equitable

Efficient

Available (capable of being given)

Not exclusive

Visible

Reversible

Strengthening Behavior Undesirable consequences that, by being removed or avoided, increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated in the future Negative Reinforcement

Undesirable consequences that, by being removed or avoided, increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated in the future

Weakening Behavior Punishment Undesirable consequences that are given following behavior in order to decrease the likelihood it will be repeated Can have inadvertent effects of increasing other undesired behavior Extinction The absence of positive consequences for behavior, lessening the likelihood of that behavior in the future Punishment and Extinction

Punishment

Undesirable consequences that are given following behavior in order to decrease the likelihood it will be repeated

Can have inadvertent effects of increasing other undesired behavior

Extinction

The absence of positive consequences for behavior, lessening the likelihood of that behavior in the future

Positive reinforcement Reinforcement Approaches Reinforcement Managerial Approach Action Effect Example Provide desirable consequence Increase probability of behavior being repeated Highway construction supervisor receives bonus for each day a project is completed ahead of schedule. Negative reinforcement Remove undesirable consequence Increase probability of behavior being repeated Management stops raising output quotas each time workers exceed them. Punishment Provide undesirable consequence Decrease probability of behavior being repeated Habitually tardy crew member is fined the equivalent of one hour’s pay each day he is late to work. Adapted from Exhibit 12.11: Reinforcement Approaches and Their Effects

Positive reinforcement

Extinction Reinforcement Approaches Adapted from Exhibit 12.11: Reinforcement Approaches and Their Effects Remove desirable consequence Decrease probability of behavior being repeated Group member stops making unsolicited suggestions when team leader no longer mentions them in group meetings. Reinforcement Managerial Approach Action Effect Example

Extinction

Planned Programs of Positive Reinforcement Specify desired performance precisely Measure desired behaviors Provide frequent positive consequences for specified behaviors Evaluate the effectiveness of the program

Specify desired performance precisely

Measure desired behaviors

Provide frequent positive consequences for specified behaviors

Evaluate the effectiveness of the program

Social Influences on Motivation Influence of the immediate workgroup Individual is a member of the “in-group” Individual has strong desire to be part of that group and to receive that group’s approval Influence of supervisors and subordinates Influence of organization’s culture

Influence of the immediate workgroup

Individual is a member of the “in-group”

Individual has strong desire to be part of that group and to receive that group’s approval

Influence of supervisors and subordinates

Influence of organization’s culture

Influence of Values and Attitudes Toward Work Values Affect what kinds of behaviors individuals will find rewarding and satisfying Attitudes toward work Work centrality Degree of general importance that working has in the life of an individual at a point in time Differs between cultures

Values

Affect what kinds of behaviors individuals will find rewarding and satisfying

Attitudes toward work

Work centrality

Degree of general importance that working has in the life of an individual at a point in time

Differs between cultures

Core Values Differences in Core Values American Japanese Arabic Competition Risk-taking Material possessions Freedom Group harmony Belonging Reputation Family security Religious belief Social recognition Adapted from Exhibit 12.12: Differences in Core Values among Three Cultures

Core

Values

Work Centrality: Country Differences United States (4.79) Japan (5.2) Israel (4.89) Germany (4.29) Work Centrality Adapted from Exhibit 12.13: Work Centrality: Country Differences 0 1 2 3 4 5 6