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INTELLIGENT LINE
FOLLOWING ROBOT
INTRODUCTION
    Robotics is an interesting subject to discuss about and in this advanced world, Robots
     are becoming a part of our life.

    As strange as it might seem, there is no standard definition for a robot. However,
     there are some essential characteristics that a robot must have and this might help
     one to decide what is and what not a robot is. It will also help us to decide what
     features are required to build into a machine before it can behave like a robot.

    A robot has the essential characteristics:
1.   Sensing : The robot should be able to sense its surroundings. Providing the robot with
     the sensors such as light sensors (eyes), touch and pressure sensors (hands), chemical
     sensors (nose), hearing and sonar sensors (ears), and taste sensors (tongue) will give
     the robot awareness of its environment.
2.   Movement : The robot needs to be able to move around its environment. Whether
     rolling on wheels, walking on legs or propelling by thrusters a robot should be able to
     move.
3.   Energy : The robot needs to be able to power itself. A robot might be solar powered,
     electrically powered, battery powered.
4.   Intelligence : A robot needs some kind of "smarts." A programmer is the person who
     gives the robot its 'smarts.' The robot will have to have some way to receive the
     program so that it knows what it is to do.
   So what is a robot?
   It is a system that contains sensors, control systems, manipulators, power supplies and
    software all working together to perform a task.

   Designing, building, programming and testing a robots is a combination of physics,
    mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, structural engineering, mathematics and
    computing. In some cases biology, medicine, chemistry might also be involved.

   A study of robotics means that it is an active involvement in all of these disciplines in a
    deeply problem-posing problem-solving environment.



   What is a line follower?
    Line follower is a machine that can follow a path. The path can be visible like a black
    line on a white surface (or vice-versa) or it can be invisible like a magnetic field.

   What is the need to build a line follower?
    Sensing a line and maneuvering the robot to stay on course, while constantly correcting
    wrong moves using feedback mechanism forms a simple yet effective closed loop system.
    The programmer gets the opportunity to ‘teach’ the robot how to follow the line thus
    giving it a human-like property of responding to stimuli.
line following robot
MICROCONTROLLER(A
          T89S52)
   It has 40 pins and it is in
    dual in package
   It has 4 ports, 6 interrupts
    and 2 timers
   It has RAM of 128bytes and
    ROM of 4KB
   It is used for interfacing of
    the input and output
    modules
PIN DIAGRAM
        P1.0   1              40   Vcc
        P1.1   2              39   P0.0(AD0
        P1.2   3              38   P0.1(AD1)
                                   )
        P1.3   4              37   P0.2(AD2
        P1.4   5              36   P0.3(AD3)
                                   )
        P1.5   6              35   P0.4(AD4)
        P1.6   7              34   P0.5(AD5)
        P1.7   8              33   P0.6(AD6)
        RST    9    AT89S52   32   P0.7(AD7)
(RXD)P3.0      10             31   EA/VPP
 (TXD)P3.1     11             30   ALE/PROG
(INT0)P3.2     12             29   PSEN
(INT1)P3.3     13             28   P2.7(A15)
    (T0)P3.4   14             27   P2.6(A14
    (T1)P3.5   15             26   P
                                   ) 2.5(A13
  (WR)P3.6     16             25   P
                                   ) 2.4(A12
   (RD)P3.7    17             24   P
                                   ) 2.3(A11
      XTAL2    18             23   P2.2(A10)
                                   )
      XTAL1    19             22   P2.1(A9)
        GND    20             21   P2.0(A8)
FEATURES
   Compatible with MCS-51® Products
    8K Bytes of In-System Programmable (ISP) Flash Memory
   – Endurance: 1000 Write/Erase Cycles
    4.0V to 5.5V Operating Range
    Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 33 MHz
    Three-level Program Memory Lock
    256 x 8-bit Internal RAM
    32 Programmable I/O Lines
    Three 16-bit Timer/Counters
    Eight Interrupt Sources
    Full Duplex UART Serial Channel
    Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes
    Interrupt Recovery from Power-down Mode
WORKING PRINCIPLE
   The Embedded Line following robot uses two motors to control rear wheels and the single front
    wheel is free. It has 3-infrared sensors on the bottom for detection of black tracking tape. When the
    middle sensor detects the black color, this sensor output is given to the comparator LM324. The
    output of comparator compares this sensor output with a reference voltage and gives an output. The
    output of comparator will be low when it receives an input from the sensor.

   A simple logic has been used to implement this project. As it is known that black colour is capable of
    absorbing the radiation and white colour or a bright colour reflects the radiation back. Here, 3 pairs
    of IR TX and Rx are used. The robot uses these IR sensors to sense the line and the arrangement is
    made such that sensors face the ground. The output from the sensors is an analog signal which
    depends on the amount of light reflected back and this analog signal is given to the comparator to
    produce 0s and 1s.

   Internally we have an OTP (one time programmable) processor which is used to control
   the rotation of the wheels. The rotation of these wheels depends up on the response from
   the comparator. Let us assume that when a sensor is on the black line it reads 0 and
   when it is on the bright surface it reads 1.
   Here we can get three different cases, they are:
1. Straight direction
2. Right curve
3. Left curve
   Straight direction:

    It can be assumed that the robot moves in straight direction when the middle sensors
     response is low and the remaining two sensors response is high. i.e., according to our
     arrangement the middle sensor will always be on the line and as the line is black in
     colour it will not reflect the emitted radiation back and the response of the sensor will be
     low and the response of the remaining two sensors will be high as they will be on the
     bright surface.

   Right curve:

    When a right curve is found on the line the responses will change i.e. the response of the
    first sensor which is to the right will become low as that sensor will be facing the black
    line and the remaining sensors response will be high. When this data is achieved, the
    control of the wheels is changed i.e. the right wheel is held constant and the left wheel is
    made to move freely until the response from the middle sensor becomes low. Then the
    same process repeats again.

   Left curve:

    When a left curve is found on the line the response of the left most sensor will be changed
    from high to low as the sensor will now face the black or the dark surface. Then the
    control of the wheel changes i.e. by holding the left wheel constant and allowing the
    right wheel to move freely until the middle sensor changes its response from high to low.
    The same process continues for all the turns and the robot moves continuously until the
    supply is removed.
   Steps to follow the line (using single sensor):
    -Start.
    -Check for line.
    -Line detected go right.
    -Check for line.
    -If no line turn left till line detected.

   The arrangement of the sensors is shown in the figure.
LM 324
   Wide gain bandwidth . : 1.3MHZ input common-
    mode voltage range
   Includes ground .largevoltage gain : 100DB .very
    lowsupply current/ampli : 375MA .low input bias
    current : 20NA low input offset voltage : 5mv max.
   Low input offset current : 2NA wide power supply
    range :
   Single supply : +3v to +30v
   Dual supplies : ±1.5v to ±15v
PIN CONFIGURATION
IR section
WHAT IS INFRARED?

Infrared is a energy radiation with a frequency
below our eyes sensitivity, so we cannot see it
Even that we can not "see" sound frequencies,
we know that it exist, we can listen them.

Even that we can not see or hear infrared, we
can feel it at our skin temperature sensors.
When you approach your hand to fire or warm
element, you will "feel" the heat, but you can't
see it. You can see the fire because it emits
other types of radiation, visible to your eyes, but
it also emits lots of infrared that you can only
feel in your skin
IR Transmitter, Receiver
   IR TRANSMITTER
   The IR LED emitting infrared light is put on in
    the transmitting unit. To generate IR signal,
    555 IC based astable multivibrator is used.
    Infrared LED is driven through transistor BC
    548.
   IR RECEIVER
   The TSOP17.. – Series are miniaturized
    receivers for infrared remote control systems.
    PIN diode and preamplifier are assembled on
    lead frame, the epoxy package is designed as
    IR filter
IR Emitter and IR phototransistor:


   An infrared emitter is an LED made from gallium arsenide, which emits
    near-infrared energy at about 880nm.
    The infrared phototransistor acts as a transistor with the base voltage
    determined by the amount of light hitting the transistor. Hence it acts as a
    variable current source.
   Greater amount of IR light cause greater currents to flow through the
    collector-emitter leads.
IR Sensor
Features:

• Extra high radiant power and radiant
intensity
• High reliability
• Low forward voltage
• Suitable for high pulse current
operation
• Standard T-1¾ (∅ 5 mm) package
• Angle of half intensity ϕ = ± 17°
• Peak wavelength λp = 940 nm
• Good spectral matching to Si
photodetectors
Lead Acid Battery
Specifications
12V 1.3Ah sealed lead acid battery 
1. CE and RoHs 
2. high quality and relaibility 
3. miantenance free 
4. long life cycle
12V 1.3Ah sealed lead acid battery
 
General Features:
Sealed and maintenance free operation.
Non-Spillable construction design.
ABS containers and covers(UL94HB, UL94-
0)optional.
Safety valve installation for explosion proof.
High quality and high reliability.
Exceptional deep discharge recovery
performance.
Low self discharge characteristic.
Flexibility design for multiple install positions.
 
H-Bridge
Features:

 600 mA Output Current Capability
  Per Driver
 Pulsed Current 1.2 A / Driver

 Wide Supply Voltage Range: 4.5 V
  to 36 V
 Separate Input-Logic Supply

 NE Package Designed for Heat
  Sinking
 Thermal Shutdown & Internal ESD
  Protection
 High-Noise-Immunity Inputs
DC Geared Motor
Technical Specifications:
•60RPM 12V DC motors with Metal Gearbox

•6mm shaft diameter

•Gearbox diameter 37 mm.

•Motor Diameter 28.5 mm

•Length 63 mm without shaft

•Shaft length 15mm

•300gm weight

•38kgcm torque

•No-load current = 800 mA(Max), Load current = upto 9.5

A(Max)
ADVANTAGES
   Robot movement is automatic.
   Fit and Forget system.
   Used for long distance applications.
   Defense applications.
   Used in home, industrial automation.
   Cost effective.
APPLICATIONS
   Automated cars running on roads with embedded magnets.


   Guidance system for industrial robots moving on shop floor etc.
   Guidance system for industrial robots moving on shop floor etc.
   Industrial applications
   Home applications
CONCLUSION
In this project we have studied and implemented a
Line Following Robot using a Microcontroller for
blind people. The programming and interfacing of
microcontroller has been mastered during the
implementation. This device is designed to provide
with          a         greater         advantage.

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line following robot

  • 2. INTRODUCTION  Robotics is an interesting subject to discuss about and in this advanced world, Robots are becoming a part of our life.  As strange as it might seem, there is no standard definition for a robot. However, there are some essential characteristics that a robot must have and this might help one to decide what is and what not a robot is. It will also help us to decide what features are required to build into a machine before it can behave like a robot.  A robot has the essential characteristics: 1. Sensing : The robot should be able to sense its surroundings. Providing the robot with the sensors such as light sensors (eyes), touch and pressure sensors (hands), chemical sensors (nose), hearing and sonar sensors (ears), and taste sensors (tongue) will give the robot awareness of its environment. 2. Movement : The robot needs to be able to move around its environment. Whether rolling on wheels, walking on legs or propelling by thrusters a robot should be able to move. 3. Energy : The robot needs to be able to power itself. A robot might be solar powered, electrically powered, battery powered. 4. Intelligence : A robot needs some kind of "smarts." A programmer is the person who gives the robot its 'smarts.' The robot will have to have some way to receive the program so that it knows what it is to do.
  • 3. So what is a robot?  It is a system that contains sensors, control systems, manipulators, power supplies and software all working together to perform a task.  Designing, building, programming and testing a robots is a combination of physics, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, structural engineering, mathematics and computing. In some cases biology, medicine, chemistry might also be involved.  A study of robotics means that it is an active involvement in all of these disciplines in a deeply problem-posing problem-solving environment.  What is a line follower? Line follower is a machine that can follow a path. The path can be visible like a black line on a white surface (or vice-versa) or it can be invisible like a magnetic field.  What is the need to build a line follower? Sensing a line and maneuvering the robot to stay on course, while constantly correcting wrong moves using feedback mechanism forms a simple yet effective closed loop system. The programmer gets the opportunity to ‘teach’ the robot how to follow the line thus giving it a human-like property of responding to stimuli.
  • 5. MICROCONTROLLER(A T89S52)  It has 40 pins and it is in dual in package  It has 4 ports, 6 interrupts and 2 timers  It has RAM of 128bytes and ROM of 4KB  It is used for interfacing of the input and output modules
  • 6. PIN DIAGRAM P1.0 1 40 Vcc P1.1 2 39 P0.0(AD0 P1.2 3 38 P0.1(AD1) ) P1.3 4 37 P0.2(AD2 P1.4 5 36 P0.3(AD3) ) P1.5 6 35 P0.4(AD4) P1.6 7 34 P0.5(AD5) P1.7 8 33 P0.6(AD6) RST 9 AT89S52 32 P0.7(AD7) (RXD)P3.0 10 31 EA/VPP (TXD)P3.1 11 30 ALE/PROG (INT0)P3.2 12 29 PSEN (INT1)P3.3 13 28 P2.7(A15) (T0)P3.4 14 27 P2.6(A14 (T1)P3.5 15 26 P ) 2.5(A13 (WR)P3.6 16 25 P ) 2.4(A12 (RD)P3.7 17 24 P ) 2.3(A11 XTAL2 18 23 P2.2(A10) ) XTAL1 19 22 P2.1(A9) GND 20 21 P2.0(A8)
  • 7. FEATURES  Compatible with MCS-51® Products  8K Bytes of In-System Programmable (ISP) Flash Memory  – Endurance: 1000 Write/Erase Cycles  4.0V to 5.5V Operating Range  Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 33 MHz  Three-level Program Memory Lock  256 x 8-bit Internal RAM  32 Programmable I/O Lines  Three 16-bit Timer/Counters  Eight Interrupt Sources  Full Duplex UART Serial Channel  Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes  Interrupt Recovery from Power-down Mode
  • 8. WORKING PRINCIPLE  The Embedded Line following robot uses two motors to control rear wheels and the single front wheel is free. It has 3-infrared sensors on the bottom for detection of black tracking tape. When the middle sensor detects the black color, this sensor output is given to the comparator LM324. The output of comparator compares this sensor output with a reference voltage and gives an output. The output of comparator will be low when it receives an input from the sensor.  A simple logic has been used to implement this project. As it is known that black colour is capable of absorbing the radiation and white colour or a bright colour reflects the radiation back. Here, 3 pairs of IR TX and Rx are used. The robot uses these IR sensors to sense the line and the arrangement is made such that sensors face the ground. The output from the sensors is an analog signal which depends on the amount of light reflected back and this analog signal is given to the comparator to produce 0s and 1s.  Internally we have an OTP (one time programmable) processor which is used to control the rotation of the wheels. The rotation of these wheels depends up on the response from the comparator. Let us assume that when a sensor is on the black line it reads 0 and when it is on the bright surface it reads 1.  Here we can get three different cases, they are: 1. Straight direction 2. Right curve 3. Left curve
  • 9. Straight direction: It can be assumed that the robot moves in straight direction when the middle sensors response is low and the remaining two sensors response is high. i.e., according to our arrangement the middle sensor will always be on the line and as the line is black in colour it will not reflect the emitted radiation back and the response of the sensor will be low and the response of the remaining two sensors will be high as they will be on the bright surface.  Right curve: When a right curve is found on the line the responses will change i.e. the response of the first sensor which is to the right will become low as that sensor will be facing the black line and the remaining sensors response will be high. When this data is achieved, the control of the wheels is changed i.e. the right wheel is held constant and the left wheel is made to move freely until the response from the middle sensor becomes low. Then the same process repeats again.  Left curve: When a left curve is found on the line the response of the left most sensor will be changed from high to low as the sensor will now face the black or the dark surface. Then the control of the wheel changes i.e. by holding the left wheel constant and allowing the right wheel to move freely until the middle sensor changes its response from high to low. The same process continues for all the turns and the robot moves continuously until the supply is removed.
  • 10. Steps to follow the line (using single sensor): -Start. -Check for line. -Line detected go right. -Check for line. -If no line turn left till line detected.  The arrangement of the sensors is shown in the figure.
  • 11. LM 324  Wide gain bandwidth . : 1.3MHZ input common- mode voltage range  Includes ground .largevoltage gain : 100DB .very lowsupply current/ampli : 375MA .low input bias current : 20NA low input offset voltage : 5mv max.  Low input offset current : 2NA wide power supply range :  Single supply : +3v to +30v  Dual supplies : ±1.5v to ±15v
  • 13. IR section WHAT IS INFRARED? Infrared is a energy radiation with a frequency below our eyes sensitivity, so we cannot see it Even that we can not "see" sound frequencies, we know that it exist, we can listen them. Even that we can not see or hear infrared, we can feel it at our skin temperature sensors. When you approach your hand to fire or warm element, you will "feel" the heat, but you can't see it. You can see the fire because it emits other types of radiation, visible to your eyes, but it also emits lots of infrared that you can only feel in your skin
  • 14. IR Transmitter, Receiver  IR TRANSMITTER  The IR LED emitting infrared light is put on in the transmitting unit. To generate IR signal, 555 IC based astable multivibrator is used. Infrared LED is driven through transistor BC 548.  IR RECEIVER  The TSOP17.. – Series are miniaturized receivers for infrared remote control systems. PIN diode and preamplifier are assembled on lead frame, the epoxy package is designed as IR filter
  • 15. IR Emitter and IR phototransistor:   An infrared emitter is an LED made from gallium arsenide, which emits near-infrared energy at about 880nm.  The infrared phototransistor acts as a transistor with the base voltage determined by the amount of light hitting the transistor. Hence it acts as a variable current source.  Greater amount of IR light cause greater currents to flow through the collector-emitter leads.
  • 16. IR Sensor Features: • Extra high radiant power and radiant intensity • High reliability • Low forward voltage • Suitable for high pulse current operation • Standard T-1¾ (∅ 5 mm) package • Angle of half intensity ϕ = ± 17° • Peak wavelength λp = 940 nm • Good spectral matching to Si photodetectors
  • 17. Lead Acid Battery Specifications 12V 1.3Ah sealed lead acid battery  1. CE and RoHs  2. high quality and relaibility  3. miantenance free  4. long life cycle 12V 1.3Ah sealed lead acid battery   General Features: Sealed and maintenance free operation. Non-Spillable construction design. ABS containers and covers(UL94HB, UL94- 0)optional. Safety valve installation for explosion proof. High quality and high reliability. Exceptional deep discharge recovery performance. Low self discharge characteristic. Flexibility design for multiple install positions.  
  • 18. H-Bridge Features:  600 mA Output Current Capability Per Driver  Pulsed Current 1.2 A / Driver  Wide Supply Voltage Range: 4.5 V to 36 V  Separate Input-Logic Supply  NE Package Designed for Heat Sinking  Thermal Shutdown & Internal ESD Protection  High-Noise-Immunity Inputs
  • 19. DC Geared Motor Technical Specifications: •60RPM 12V DC motors with Metal Gearbox •6mm shaft diameter •Gearbox diameter 37 mm. •Motor Diameter 28.5 mm •Length 63 mm without shaft •Shaft length 15mm •300gm weight •38kgcm torque •No-load current = 800 mA(Max), Load current = upto 9.5 A(Max)
  • 20. ADVANTAGES  Robot movement is automatic.  Fit and Forget system.  Used for long distance applications.  Defense applications.  Used in home, industrial automation.  Cost effective.
  • 21. APPLICATIONS  Automated cars running on roads with embedded magnets.  Guidance system for industrial robots moving on shop floor etc.  Guidance system for industrial robots moving on shop floor etc.  Industrial applications  Home applications
  • 22. CONCLUSION In this project we have studied and implemented a Line Following Robot using a Microcontroller for blind people. The programming and interfacing of microcontroller has been mastered during the implementation. This device is designed to provide with a greater advantage.