Information Overload

Report commissioned by the IABC Research Preparing Messages Foundation on Information Overload and Employee for Information Overload Communication Environments What business communicators Martin J. Eppler should know about information overload Jeanne Mengis and what they can do about it Sponsored by:

Prof. Martin J. Eppler, PhD University of Lugano (USI), School of Communication Sciences, Switzerland; martin.eppler@lu.unisi.ch Preparing Messages for Information Jeanne Mengis, PhD Overload Environments University of Warwick, Warwick Business School, United Kingdom; What business communicators should know about jeanne.mengis@wbs.ac.uk information overload and what they can do about it IABC Research Foundation San Francisco, USA

Table of Contents Table of Contents Executive Summary 4 Introduction 5 Chapter 1: How Companies Address the Information Overload Challenge 6 Chapter 2: Why New Approaches Are Necessary: Evidence from corporate surveys 16 Chapter 3: Recommendations: Shaping messages to reduce overload 21 Chapter 4: The Causes of Information Overload: A review of the literature 28 Chapter 5: Visual Communication to Reduce Overload: Results from a survey of IABC members 35 Conclusion 41 References 42 Biographies 44 Appendices 45 3

Executive Summary Executive Summary There are numerous surveys that show that information overload transform their messages in order to accommodate for the time is a huge problem for the productivity of most employees in or- and attention constraints of their readers. ganizations. Overload is caused by quantitative (i.e., intensity) and A particularly useful way to do so is via information visualiza- qualitative (i.e., ambiguity) characteristics of information. tion. The survey conducted among IABC members supports this This report presents 16 real-life examples of how to reduce argument and shows that visualized information helps to syn- information overload in communication. It presents six simple thesize and aggregate information and make it more quickly and principles (based on eight documented overload reduction strate- easily understandable. gies) to reduce information overload in business communication. Readers pressed for time should have a look at the main The report also summarizes key insights from previous stud- examples in Chapter 1, study the six communication principles ies on the topic and translates them into action items. Business in Chapter 3, and look at the action implications and Table 6 in communicators should use this actionable advice to reduce and Chapter 4. 4

Introduction Introduction The situation is all too familiar: 50 new e-mail messages in your We start out by showing how different organizations address inbox, four reports that await your attention, a new intranet sec- the issue of information overload from a communicator’s point of tion you should review, an interesting web site to check out, plus view, through proven or new approaches to make communication the new issue of a trade journal that you should read and pass on concise and captivating. Next, we give you evidence (through a to colleagues. Not to mention the two business books you have put compilation of survey results) that information overload is indeed aside. And all of this while preparing for and attending numerous an issue that needs to be addressed by communicators. We then meetings and workshops, answering phone calls from colleagues present our key recommendations in the form of six communi- and clients, and thinking about solutions to pressing problems. cation principles, derived from the examples and the literature When your information processing needs exceed your infor- review, which is presented in the last section of our report. In mation processing capacity, you are experiencing information Chapter 5 you will find the results of our IABC survey regarding overload—a state where more information actually reduces your the role of visuals in business communication and their potential reasoning and decision quality. You feel overwhelmed by informa- to reduce information overload. tion and often unable to make the right decision. If you prefer to read the report not in terms of the salience of So far this topic has been mainly addressed from the receiver’s its content, but in its logical order and the way it was originally point of view. Our report, however, looks at it in terms of the developed, then start at the back with the literature review (Chap- sender’s side and his or her role in reducing information overload ter 4), move to the recommendations that build on the reviewed for receivers. literature (Chapter 3), and see how these recommendations can be Our report is structured by what we and the IABC research applied in an organization in Chapter 1. foundation assume are your priorities, namely seeing examples We hope that this report and its mix of examples, evidence, (Chapter 1), getting evidence from corporate surveys (Chapter 2), recommendations, and survey findings is useful for your daily hearing our advice (Chapter 3), knowing the state-of-the-art (Chap- practice as a communicator and not only makes you more aware ter 4), and gaining insights from a survey among IABC members of the problem of information overload, but also of the many ways on one specific technique to reduce information overload—visual communicators can contribute to reducing this silent productivity communication (Chapter 5). and motivation killer. 5

Chapter 1 How Companies Address the Information Overload Challenge Chapter Summary six in-depth solutions (dark circles in the pictorial employee survey, and Gartner’s chart below) are the vasp Strategy Tube technology diagrams. Figure 1 groups the In this first chapter, we focus on real-life Map, the Hand Drawing Library of UBS, cases according to the format that they examples of overload-aware communica- Procter & Gamble’s memo template, the employ (i.e., pure text, text and image, and tion. Through six short case studies and Bashiba Panorama, the Trainiac Learn- interactive/online formats) and according 10 snapshots of intelligent solutions to ing Map, and the Information Mapping to their level of implementation difficulty reduce information overload, we give method. The briefly described methods (i.e., the degree of effort required). practical insights on how business com- (light circles) are Bayer’s multiple intranet Throughout the description of the municators can optimize the information site map, Bill Gate’s e-mail template, the examples, we indicate (with forward intensity (i.e., communication timing) and reflact visual conversation templates, arrows dd) which information reduction enhance the information quality (i.e., in- the Crealogix intranet page typology, and transformation mechanisms (dis- creasing the fitness for use of information Xplane informative cartoons, the British cussed in Chapter 4, Table 6) are addressed through improved format and content). Telecom Strategy Chart, Grove workshop and how they are implemented in these The presented solutions take the cognitive templates, IBM’s strategy jams, Nokia’s cases. constraints of their target groups into account and reduce information complexity Figure 1: Overload solution intelligently. Each solution presented in examples in overview the mini cases is described in terms of its communication context, main idea, and implementation details, such as a screen- shot and caveats or risks to consider when applying the solution to other contexts. We emphasize visual solutions because the IABC member survey showed a huge implementation gap in this area. 1.1 Solution Examples in Overview Figure 1 provides an overview of the 16 ex- emplary solutions to information overload we are going to present below (see: Appen- dix 1 for an overview on the criteria with 6 which we have selected the examples). The

Chapter 1 1.2 Overload-aware stations (dd aggregate, dd compress). in front of it, initially puzzled by the tube How Companies Each tube line represents a different map design and the strategic content. Communication Solutions: strategic initiative with its own or joint They gathered in front of the poster to Address the Information Short Case Studies intermediate goals. The poster is placed discuss it. In doing so, they found incon- Overload Challenge in prominent locations, such as in sistencies or inaccurate elements and front of the elevator, cafeteria or in reported them back to the designers. In Example 1: The Strategy other open areas. this way, the strategy poster was updated Tube Map—Communicating and improved in regular intervals. More Implementation important, however, the strategy became an Organization’s Strategy Already in the development phase, the part of people’s conversations. The strat- to Employees tube map strategy poster fostered collabo- egy poster was subsequently evaluated ration and clarifying strategic conversa- through a questionnaire: Two months tions among the managers who developed after the publication of the poster, 91 From boring and difficult Gantt charts to an it. It helped them to surface areas of questionnaires were sent out to employ- engaging, metaphor-based strategy poster disagreement and to negotiate (in the ex- ees, and 45 were completed and returned. ecutive team) a sequence of their strategic Seventy-eight percent of the respondents Context actions. Once the poster was published, it stated that the tube map gave them a good One of the most crucial tasks of employee received a lot of attention: People stopped overview on their strategy. Sixty percent communication is to inform employees of the respondents were attracted (38 per- about an organization’s goals and the Before: Overloaded cent = true) or very attracted (22 percent = chosen ways of achieving these goals—the Gantt charts very true) by the tube map visualization. organization’s strategy. Studies, as the one Forty percent indicated that the tube map conducted by Kaplan and Norton, have provided additional motivation for the shown repeatedly that business communi- strategy projects. cators often fail at this task and are unable to effectively inform employees about their Caveat organization’ strategy. The Tube map, In some cultures, this playful approach developed and implemented repeatedly by may not be perceived as serious and thus vasp.ch (a communication agency), is an may provoke a cynical or negative reaction effective way to solve this communication on behalf of employees. The metaphor has challenge through surprising aggregation to fit the local context. and visualization. After: Engaging strategy tube map posters in public areas Main Idea Instead of e-mails, strategy presentations or management road shows, an organization’s strategy is visualized as a graphic metaphor on a large-scale poster that depicts the strategy’s milestones and final 7 goal as, for example, underground metro

Chapter 1 Example 2: The UBS ucts in a personal and engaging way (and advisers can add their own sketching How Companies replace the slide presentations). In this templates to the collection provided in the Hand Drawing Library manner, the adviser’s presentation speed Hand Drawing Library according to their Address the Information —a Communication Tool matches the client’s comprehension speed own experiences. An important element Overload Challenge for Client Advisers (dd sequence). By inviting the customer of the implementation regards the simple to add his or her views or questions to tools that are used: pen and paper. This the drawing, the information intensity, informal style signals provisionality and From slide presentations to joint and ultimately the client experience, can flexibility to the client. interactive sketching be further optimized (dd contextualize, personalize). Caveat Context Again, cultural aspects should be taken UBS (www.ubs.com), one of the world’s Implementation into account: The informal approach of largest wealth management institutions The drawing approach has been well drawing images may not resonate with all in terms of assets under management, received by UBS clients and has replaced types of employees, especially those used has realized that it is often overloading its slide presentations almost entirely. Client to a more formal way of communicating. affluent banking clients with presentation slides in advisory and sales meetings. As Before: Standard Bullet part of its global initiative to improve the Point Slides client experience, the universal bank, or rather its strategy and development unit, has developed a new tool for sales and advisory conversations. The tool personal- izes and stages communication through ad-hoc visualization. Main Idea To reduce the problem of slide overload, UBS has created a hand-drawing library that instructs its private banking advisers After: Engaging step-by-step, joint sketching on how to draw—in real-time and in front of the client—helpful diagrams and simple visual metaphors that explain UBS’s prod- 8

Chapter 1 Example 3: The Procter Implementation 3. Rationale: a paragraph that describes How Companies P&G has used memo standards for many the reasons why the project is strategi- & Gamble Memo Template years. The following two examples show cally and financially right, the ration- Address the Information typical structures of such memos. If a ale behind its premise. Overload Challenge Ensuring efficient and concise proposal does not adhere to this structure 4. Plan: The plan paragraph outlines proposal structures or exceeds two pages, it is likely to be the necessary organization (steps and returned to the originator without having infrastructure needed) for the project, Context been read by the target group. as well as its timing and costs. Procter & Gamble (www.pg.com) is one of 5. Open for Discussion: This segment of the largest consumer goods companies in 1. The Idea: a one-sentence description of the document lists open issues and the world (with products ranging from the main message. questions to be answered. soap to aftershave to snacks). It is widely 2. Background: generally accepted back- 6. Next Steps: This last paragraph of the known for its analytical approaches to ground information on the idea. proposal document lists the subse- marketing and considered an excellent 3. How it Works: the details of the solu- quent phases of the project, if the starting place for a business career. P&G tion, including the what, who, when, proposal were to be accepted. has developed various methods to improve and where. the efficiency of its operations, some of 4. Key Benefits: This section gives the mo- Caveat which also regard internal communica- tivation for the solution (such as aiding During one of the author’s work with P&G tion. One such method is the one- or the strategy, being validated and in a market research project, we noted two-page memo based on dd compression delivering results) that the template’s main idea of focus was and dd standardization. 5. Next Steps: What needs to be done undermined in a subtle way: font sizes by when and by whom to achieve the kept getting smaller and margins wider Main Idea stated benefits. in many reports, both of which did not A consistent standard structure (and improve the legibility of documents. Also, scope) of business memos helps to im- Here’s a slightly different version, typi- clarity might suffer because of the rigid prove communication effectiveness and cally used for project proposals: space constraints. Nevertheless, other com- efficiency. A proven generic structure panies, such as Toyota, have adopted such (dd standardize) can be flexible enough to 1. Background: a description of the strict size constraints for their memos or capture a great variety of business issues. context and history of the project pro- reports. If everybody adheres to this structure, posal, which should include then the processing of information can be prior “learnings” on the subject. significantly improved, as people spend 2. Objective: a one-sentence statement less time making sense of a document’s that outlines the main purpose of the structure. proposed project. 9

Chapter 1 Example 4: ing scene in which observers (e.g., traders) ambient data visualization engine that can How Companies can monitor several streams of background be installed on ceilings, walls or terminals. Information Awareness information without effort in their pe- It can be connected to any type of data Address the Information through Mood Maps ripheral vision. Whenever this background stream, such as financial data, call center Overload Challenge information signals particular relevance in data, survey data or data from sensor Signaling changes in real-time data through a given context, it moves to the observer’s devices. a weather metaphor foreground. In this way, information can become functional art instead of just a Caveat Context burden. There have been no longitudinal user tests Employees in many professional contexts on this kind of ambient display. It is thus need a great volume of transactional or fi- Implementation not clear how employees react to it, how it nancial data while performing other tasks. The data panorama from BASHIBA (www. improves productivity or how such a screen However, the monitoring of such real- bashiba.com) is a customizable, real-time, will be used once the novelty wears off. time information should not take up all of a person’s cognitive resources, thereby distracting him or her from the main work Before: Overloaded tasks if special attention is actually needed. screens So called ambient visualizations that make use of one’s peripheral visual awareness are one elaborate way to approach this problem. Main Idea The idea behind the Panorama solution is to express the overall “mood” of evolving, complex data (such as the development of the stock market) in rendered 3-D anima- tions that can be perceived and interpreted with little cognitive effort (dd visualize, After: A peripheral, evolving, elaborate). The software application maps ambient data metaphor variables of a data set (e.g., bonds, shares, overall trading intensity, or fluctuation of the stock market or any other real-time data) to graphic parameters in a 3-D simula- tion, such as ocean waves, sun strength, wind speed, cloud particles, etc. Develop- ments in the stock market, for example, become perceivable by cloud transforma- tions, wave precipitations and changes in 10 sunlight. The result is a beautiful, develop-

Chapter 1 Example 5: The Trainiac (dd personalize). Since the informa- training results are achieved by making it How Companies tion is contextualized in literally a “big a fun experience; leading South African Learning Map picture,” understanding, remembering as well as international corporations such Address the Information and applying the information is further as Standard Bank, Tiger Brands, Daim- Overload Challenge Making training a collective, active enhanced (dd contextualize). Whereas ler South Africa or Holcim have already and engaging experience a Learning Map might at first sight be bought in to their philosophy. visually over-stimulating, the actual Context information is dispersed and—under the Caveat A great degree of employee communica- guidance of the facilitator—gradually Learning maps can initially cause a feeling tion aims at getting staff to understand explored(dd sequence). Discussion around of overload as they tend to be very rich and use new processes, rules or systems. the visual is essential to the successful in detail and content. However, a clear Trainiac (www.trainiac.co.za) is a South use of the Learning Map because it is dramaturgy and cue cards with questions African consultancy that offers picture through debate that the learners share that are discussed and placed on the map based training and communication existing knowledge and collectively create ease the cognitive load significantly and solutions for medium and large-sized new knowledge. Trainiac believes the best make the map more memorable. Another organizations. Its main focus is to reach risk might be that the map is perceived as employees with crucial learning contents Before: Overloaded process charts too playful or that the business processes in an engaging and sustainable way. of an organization are too abstract to be mapped with the Trainiac methodology. Main Idea One of Trainiac’s key methods is the Learning Map, a visual representation of a work environment. It provides an elevated view of a specific organization, illustrating its departments, actions and job functions by drawing actual buildings, requisites and characters. Implementation After: Visualized and enacted The Learning Map is designed for an business interactions (excerpt) interactive and playful method of group training. Instead of usual lecture-style teaching, a facilitator gathers the learners around the visual and encourages them to engage with it. Through activities such as identifying objects, drawing on the map, playing games, arranging competi- tions, role playing and storytelling, people connect with the content and link the 11 information to their personal experience

Chapter 1 Example 6: The Information Implementation 2. The Relevance Principle: Include in How Companies Information Mapping is essentially a way one chunk only information that re- Mapping Method to structure documents systematically to lates to one main point based on that Address the Information Writing for easy browsing and rapid orientation improve their readability. It is based on information’s purpose or function for Overload Challenge the following four main principles: the reader. Context 3. The Labeling Principle: Label every Robert E. Horn developed the Information 1. The Chunking Principle: Group all chunk and group of chunks accord- Mapping method (www.infomap.com) in information into small, manageable ing to specific criteria (clear, brief, the late 1960’s to “enable people to pro- units, called blocks (= paragraphs) and consistent, familiar, appropriate and duce better communication documents in maps ( 7 blocks). independent labels). business, industry, government, tech- 4. The Consistency Principle: For simi- nology and science through a common lar subject matter, use similar words, standard.” He based his methods mainly labels, format, organization and on cognitive science and learning theory. Before: Only paragraphs sequences. The method has been widely applied in many large private and public organi- Next to these principles, the mapping zations where it has proved especially method also includes a pre-screening helpful in the area of technical documen- content analysis and sequencing method tation. Several evaluation studies have and a format to display written informa- shown that the method saves considerable tion (see after figure below) and. time in reading and improves recall of key contents. Caveat Although the key principles of informa- Main Idea tion mapping are simple, using the entire One of the key features of a document in method involves considerable investment overload environments should be its easy in training. This may be worthwhile browsability. By labeling each paragraph After: A clearly for high-impact information such as (dd standardize, elaborate, contextualize), structured and labeled technical or safety instructions, quality the usability of print and online docu- document design manuals, strategic guidelines, executive ments can be significantly improved. memos, etc. 12

Chapter 1 1.3 Overload-Aware In this section, we provide snapshot to ease cognitive load on employees. The How Companies views of other communication overload cases are listed alphabetically by company Communication Solutions: solutions and refer interested readers to name below. Address the Information 10 Companies—10 Ideas sources for further information on these Overload Challenge solutions. We present these 10 cases in a Table 1: 10 examples of table format, illustrating how the previ- overload-aware employee ously discussed principles are applied communication Company Communication Approach Further Information Bayer Bayer is a Germany-based, international pharmaceutical and life sciences com- www.bayer.com pany. Bayer’s intranet contains a comprehensive site map that can be explored using different structuring schemes, namely: by alphabet, chronologically, func- tionally, organizationally and geographically (dd contextualize, personalize). In this way, the information available on the site becomes more easily accessible www.nngroup.com/reports/sitemaps/ to employees. British Telecom British Telecom has employed graphic metaphors to visualize its strategy and www.bt.co.uk strategic context for employees. The colorful hand-drawn painting serves as the basis for joint strategy discussions among employees and managers (dd con- www.rootlearning.com textualize, personalize, elaborate). Another company that uses a similar approach for its clients is rootlearning.com. Crealogix Crealogix, a Swiss web agency, has developed a typology of web page tem- www.crealogix.com plates that can be easily adapted to different purposes (dd standardize). The relatively small set of web layouts enables companies to develop training or developer.yahoo.com/ypatterns/pattern. communication pages quickly. php?pattern=grid Gartner The world’s largest information technology analysis company has developed www.gartner.com two simple (branded) standard diagrams for the communication of its analyses (dd visualize, standardize). The two branded and widely used diagrams are /www.gartner.com/pages/story.php. called magic quadrant and hype curve. They can be used to map key players id.8795.s.8.jsp or technologies in an industry. The diagrams have become part of the visual language used. www.gartner.com/mq/understanding_mq.jsp Grove Grove, a U.S. visual facilitation consultancy, specializes in graphic templates that www.grove.com visually facilitate employee workshops on issues such as strategy implementation or process improvements. The standardized set of hand-drawn visual www.bizjournals.com/austin/gen/ metaphors provides flexible formats to structure content visually (dd elaborate, company.html?gcode=152F20A5928D42 visualize, standardize). C388188CB3B7FDF493 Ì 13

Chapter 1 Company Communication Approach Further Information How Companies Address the Information IBM IBM has pioneered an interactive approach to communicating with its employ- www.ibm.com ees about its strategy through so-called strategy jams. These global virtual hap- Overload Challenge penings invite employees to propose ideas for strategic initiatives that are then https://www.collaborationjam.com/ combined and clustered in an online forum. Instead of being bombarded with one-way information from management, employees are asked to contribute to http://www.research.ibm.com/ the ideas of management (dd personalize, elaborate). SocialComputing/WorldJam.htm Microsoft Microsoft realized early on that e-mail is not just a technical issue but a commu- www.microsoft.com nication challenge that needs structure. The following e-mail structure, allegedly devised by Bill Gates himself, closely resembles the P&G memo style discussed www1.umn.edu/umcf/resource/ earlier. Parts one and two deal with the problem at hand and the parts three emailguide.html and four with the solution: 1. Background 2. Conclusion 3. Proposal 4. Rational There are also various companies (such as Carl Zeiss) that use simple codes for the subject header of e-mails to help receivers in answering or sorting them (such as FYI=information, Q=question, A=action needed, etc.) (dd standardize). Nokia Nokia used pictures of cars and of animals as answer options to make its em- www.nokia.com ployee survey more concise, seamless and entertaining. Employees were asked to indicate which car or animal was, for them, most representative of Nokia’s www.cuttingedgepr.com/articles/ current strategy. In this way, Nokia’s internal communication team hoped to get empcomm_employee_surveys.asp more honest and unfiltered answers from Nokia’s staff (dd visualize). The German multimedia company reflact has developed a set of interactive en.lets-focus.com graphic discussion templates, many of which are based on visual metaphors reflact (such as an iceberg, bridge, scale, stairs, etc). These templates let employees www.reflact.com organize information spatially and capture their contributions in an interactive digital format that can be replayed at later points in time. Instead of slide presentations, these sessions involve employees and enable managers to engage their staff in joint sense making (dd visualize, personalize, contextualize).1 Xplane, a U.S.-based communication consultancy, develops easy-to-under- www.xplane.Com stand, comics-like visualizations that inform employees and customers about Xplane the functioning of a business or product or about a difficult business process. 1 Full disclosure: This is the only solution presented in this This approach is similar to the Trainiac learning map, yet uses more diverse visualization formats. Several other companies have also begun to use comics to survey to which the authors of this report have actively inform their employees about key initiatives, as they communicate information contributed as external collaborators. quickly and in an entertaining and intuitive format (dd visualize, aggregate, compress). 14

Chapter 1 1.4 Conclusion: Innovating How Companies Employee Communication Address the Information to Reduce Overload Overload Challenge The examples in this part of the report have shown that there are many creative ways in which the cognitive load on employees can be reduced intelligently without compromising on clarity or accuracy. The solutions presented in this chapter represent a variety of approaches used today to make messages fit the cognitive constraints of employees. Some of these solutions (such as the use of cartoons, maps, photo survey, or visual metaphors) require courage and a corporate culture that is open to innovation, while others require a certain degree of discipline (such as memo, report or e- mail templates). Not all of the solutions are easy to implement in terms of the required know-how or time. Adequate know-how (for example, visualization skills), tools (for example, to create templates), and time were identified as key barriers to imple- menting visual strategies against overload in our IABC member survey (see Chapter 5). The next chapter provides a synopsis on previous corporate surveys on information overload. 15

Chapter 2 Why New Approaches Are Necessary: Evidence from Corporate Surveys Chapter Summary The table below summarizes 10 years of picture of its drivers. In an overloaded corporate surveys related to information environment, for example, it becomes In this brief second chapter we summarize overload in organizations, and it presents difficult to find relevant information, 10 years of information overload surveys central findings from each survey as well which leads to frustration and search conducted by companies from 1997 as key information on its methodology. fatigue. Causes of information overload through 2007. The surveys show that in- While earlier surveys focused on providing have to be located not only on the level of formation overload has come to be one of clear evidence that information over- the quantity of information but on other the central communication challenges in load is a key communication problem in information attributes as well, such as the most organizations and leads to numerous today’s organizations, more recent surveys quality of information (e.g., non-indexed negative effects. give specific indications on the counter- information, prioritized information) and productive consequences of information the process of information distribution overload and provide a more complete (e.g., frequent interruptions of work tasks). Table 2: Overview of 10 years of corporate surveys on information overload (1997–2007) Study Year Central Findings Methodology Institute for the Future, Gallup, 1997 n The average office worker sends 37 mes- 972 phone interviews + focus groups and eth- University of San Jose: sages a day per paper. nographic interviews with office workers (executives, managers, professionals and admin- n He/she sends 57 messages via electronic Managing Corporate Communi- istrative assistants) in Fortune 1000 companies media. cations in The Information Age during August/September 1996. n Administrative assistants send over 102 messages per day. n The average worker deals with an average of 178 messages and documents per day. Ì 16

Chapter 2 Study Year Central Findings Methodology Why New Approaches Are Necessary: Evidence Reuters: 1997 n 61 percent of managers believe information 1,000 random confidential telephone inter- overload is present in their workplace. views in October 1997 among executives (42 from Corporate Surveys Glued to the Screen percent senior-level) in Germany, the U.K., n 90 percent of managers feel they cannot the U.S., Hong Kong, Singapore and Ireland. handle the quantity of information at some point. n 80 percent of managers believe this situation will get worse in the future. n 60 percent believe the cost of gathering information outweighs its value (compared to 44 percent in 1996). n 54 percent worry about making poor decisions in spite of all the information at their disposal. n 80 percent of managers gather more information than ever before in order to keep up with customer and competitor activity. Business Objects: 1997 n 91 percent of all respondents admit that they Telephone interviews with decision makers do not get enough thinking time. from the Times Top 1,000 list and quantitative The Fact Gap (to managers) and qualitative (to directors) n 62 percent acknowledge that they do not re- questionnaires. ceive the right amount of information. (The right amount being a balance between too much and too little.) n 38 percent of reports produced for managers by other people are not tailored and hard to use. Ì 17

Chapter 2 Study Year Central Findings Methodology Why New Approaches Are Necessary: Evidence Reuters: 1998 n 48 percent of all questioned managers be- 1,072 confidential telephone interviews in lieve that the situation with regard to in- September and October of 1998 with man- from Corporate Surveys Out of the Abyss formation overload will get worse (in com- agers in 11 countries (i.e., Germany, the U.K., parison to 56 percent giving that answer in the U.S., Hong Kong, Singapore, Ireland and 1996 and 80 percent in 1997). Russia), of whom 42 percent were senior managers. n 67 percent of all questioned telecommunications managers indicated that they think the situation with regard to information overload will get worse for them. n Women seem to suffer more of a heavy information load than men. 41 percent of all questioned female managers indicated that the amount of information that they have to process affects their health and well-being negatively, compared to only 30 percent of male managers who indicated such a negative impact on their health. KPMG: 1999 n 65 percent of organizations with a knowl- A survey of 423 organizations across the U.K., edge management program complained mainland Europe, and the U.S. The enterpris- Knowledge Management Re- of information overload—the creation of a es reported at least US$300 million in rev- search Report knowledge glut or an overwhelming col- enue and were distributed across a number of lection of information for information’s sake industries including financial services, indus- that can be difficult and painstaking to use. trial products, consumer markets, technology, government, transportation, and others n 67 percent of respondents claimed they were suffering from information overload. n 56 percent respectively complained that employees duplicate processes and activities and have difficulty locating information. Ì 18

Chapter 2 Study Year Central Findings Methodology Why New Approaches Are Necessary: Evidence Gartner: 2001 n Nearly 90 percent of respondents said their The survey, among participants of Gartner from Corporate Surveys enterprise’s competitiveness was affected by conferences, received 316 responses: 81 from Managing Information Survey problems handling information. Brazil, 96 from Europe and 139 from the U.S. Approximately 70 percent were managers, 21 n Almost 90 percent indicated a problem in at percent technical or support staff, and 10 per- least one of four areas: “siloed” information, cent left their position unspecified. too much information, unindexed information, ineffective/inefficient searching procedures. n The perception of information overload was more than 20 percent greater (over 60 percent) among knowledge management-enabled en- terprises than those that did not have a knowledge management program (40 percent). n Managers spent approximately 20 percent more time on knowledge sources than non- managerial staff, with e-mail and personal net- works taking up the majority of that time. Non- managerial staff spent more time on explicit sources, notably the Internet and intranets. Economist Intelligence Unit: 2005 n Over half (55 percent) of executives say Online survey of 122 senior executives in that IT’s failure to prioritize information is western Europe, 68 of whom were based in Know-how: Managing Knowl- the main barrier to effective decision mak- the UK. Participants were selected from large edge for Competitive Advantage ing. Consolidating information and provid- organizations with over $1bn in annual sales ing consistent performance indicators are revenue, and from a cross-section of indus- regarded as the most important step firms tries, with a particular emphasis on financial can take to improve the speed and quality services, healthcare and pharmaceuticals, of decision making. telecommunications and professional services companies n When asked where IT needs to improve most to help managers make better decisions, the top two priorities are to make it easier to analyze and drill down into information (40 percent) and improve the quality of data (31 percent). Only 12 percent of executives see ensuring access to information anywhere as a priority for improvement. n 39 percent of the respondents complained about too much information being available as a major drawback of knowledge sharing and an impediment to decision making. Ì 19

Chapter 2 Study Year Central Findings Methodology Why New Approaches Are Necessary: Evidence Basex: 2006/ n Interruptions occupy 28 percent of the work- A survey of 1,000 knowledge workers. from Corporate Surveys 2007 day of a typical knowledge worker. Information Overload Strategies n On average, employees loose 2.1 hours per day thanks to unnecessary interruptions. Autobytel / Kelton Research: 2007 n Three out of four online users leave their Study conducted in May 2007, which involved computers without finding the piece of in- a representative sample of 1,001 Americans, The State of Search formation they were looking for. all aged 18 or older with Internet access. n 72 percent of online searchers are experiencing “search engine fatigue,” meaning they become impatient or frustrated when they are unable to quickly find the exact information they need. n 86 percent of consumers feel big search en- gines have limitations or drawbacks 20

Chapter 3 Recommendations: Shaping Messages to Reduce Overload Chapter Summary In order to overcome this paradox, cation principles. Examples that contain we require, so to speak, counter paradoxes a backward (jj ) sign have been shown in In this third chapter we provide six sub- that help us deal with the dilemmas and the first chapter of the report. stantiated, relevant and practical recom- trade-offs of business communication. The Applying these principles carefully, mendations about how to shape commu- information reduction and transforma- communicators can avoid the typical fate nication to reduce overload for receivers. tion mechanisms that we have identified of many messages in overload environ- We phrase these principles as paradoxes from our literature review (discussed in ments, namely being ignored, being mis- that stimulate communicators to apply depth in Chapter 4, Table 6) inevitably understood or being quickly forgotten. message reduction and transformation lead to such trade-offs: How can you com- mechanisms in a balanced manner and press your messages (making them more 3.2 Six Communication reduce overload. These six communication concise) while simultaneously elaborating principles are: familiar surprise, detailed them (making them more understand- Principles for Overload overview, flexible stability, simple complex- able)? How can you standardize your Environments ity, concise redundancy and unfinished messages, while trying to adapt them completeness. The recommendations help to personal preferences and individual To apply the information reduction and communicators to get attention, compre- information needs (personalization)? To transformation mechanisms (see Chap- hension and retention of their messages. deal with these dilemmas we present six ter 4 for an in-depth discussion of these recommendations in this chapter that mechanisms) adequately in a communica- help communicators find a balanced tion process, we have structured them into 3.1 Resolving the Information approach to communicating in overload six communication principles. We phrase environments. these principles as paradoxes in order to Paradox—a Balanced These recommendations help to motivate communicators to apply those Approach to Communication achieve three distinct goals that commu- mechanisms carefully, e.g., balancing nicators must achieve with regard to their reduction and transformation based on The problem with communication is the illusion audience: They must get their attention the specific communication context. Their that it has been accomplished. and interest, they must enable compre- sequence follows the aforementioned — George Bernard Shaw hension or insight for their messages, goals of: and their messages should be retained In overload situations, communicators or remembered (or even applied) by their 1. Getting attention. face what we call an information paradox: audiences. 2. Ensuring comprehension. The more information you convey, the less Below, we explain how the reduction 3. Fostering retention. your messages are informative (because of (compress, aggregate, stage) and trans- the cognitive constraints of your audience formation mechanisms (contextualize, and the mental shortcuts that they will standardize, personalize, elaborate, visual- 21 inevitably take). ize) can be applied through six communi-

Chapter 3 For each principle, we provide examples ing caught your audience’s attention, you Mechanisms Recommendations: and point to the reduction or transforma- must provide them with an overview of transform: standardize, personalize tion mechanisms to apply them in busi- what they will learn from your communica- Shaping Messages ness communication (for their scientific tion. You will ideally do this by providing Recommendation 4 to Reduce Overload background, see the appendix). pointers to the details that are discussed in The main driver of information overload your report, web site, presentation or e-mail is information quantity. A key mechanism Recommendation 1 attachment. We call this the principle of against overload is thus to reduce mes- In overload environments, there is a risk Detailed Overview. sages to their essential elements. By leav- that your message will be ignored; hence ing out unessential elements and relating the first task is to intrigue your receivers by Examples new information to already known facts communicating in a novel, yet understand- n■ For a report, include an executive sum- (for example, through visual metaphors) able and unobtrusive manner—commu- mary. complexity can be reduced (but without nicating in a way that resonates with your n■ For an intranet, use a site map (jj distorting or oversimplifying it). We call audience, but is also pleasantly surpris- Bayer) or a tag cloud. this the principle of Simple Complexity. ing to them. We call this the principle of n■ For a meeting/presentation, use a graphic Familiar Surprise. navigator or conceptual framework as a Examples basis for group discussions (jj reflact). n■ In training meetings, use large-scale Examples maps to discuss complex issues in n■ For an e-mail, use an unusual but clear Mechanisms groups (jj Trainiac learning map). subject header (i.e., a question). reduce: compress, aggregate n■ For e-mail, call instead of writing an n■ For an intranet, provide an intriguing e-mail. graphic that represents information in a Recommendation 3 n■ For the intranet and presentations, use new way (jj Bashiba Panorama). One of the causes of overload is a high step-by-step animation to develop com- n■ For a report, visualize content in an un- degree of novelty of message format and plex topics visually (jj UBS). usual visual metaphor (jj vasp strategy content. To ease the cognitive load of new metro map). information on your audience, standard for- Mechanisms n■ For a meeting, instead of using a slide mats, structures and terminology that are reduce: compress; transform: visualize, presentation, revert to alternative media already known by receivers should be used. contextualize such as a flip chart, napkins or sketch These, however, should allow for enough pads (jj UBS Hand Drawing Library). flexibility and personalization. We call this Recommendation 5 the principle of Flexible Stability. In overload environments, important Mechanisms messages need to be provided in multiple transform: elaborate, visualize Examples formats to ensure that different informa- n■ For e-mail and reports, use standard- tion consumers can understand them Recommendation 2 ized memo structure (jj P&G memo equally well. This redundancy, however, Before diving into the details of a message, template). should remain concise. We call this princi- employees want to know what they can n■ For intranets, use a set of standardized ple Concise Redundancy. expect from it and what it will provide to web page layouts (jj Information Map- them (without being overly general). Hav- ping method). 22

Chapter 3 Examples: 3.3 Summary and Business communicators can use the Recommendations: n■ For an intranet, provide multiple views six communication principles as simple on intranet content (jj Bayer, UBS). Implementation Aids checkpoints in the following manner: Shaping Messages n■ For reports and meetings, present to Reduce Overload things through facts and numbers, In the following visual metaphor of a light 1. Familiar Surprise: How can I convey models and diagrams, and stories and house, we have summarized these six my message in a motivating and origi- vivid images (jj Trainiac). principles, as well as their basis, namely nal, yet accessible way? the eight message mechanisms and the 2. Detailed Overview: How can I put de- Mechanisms seven information attributes identified in tails into context and give my audience transform: elaborate, personalize our literature review. The light house be- an overview and preview? low also contains, as three small icebergs, 3. Flexible Stability: Which recurring, Recommendation 6 the three communication goals that the efficient format or structure can I use Information should stimulate and lead mechanisms and principles should help to in my communication that is easily rec- to action. It should invite readers to achieve. ognized but also sufficiently flexible? think further and fill the gaps of how to implement the information. Although the provided information should be complete, Figure 2: The six principles it should still leave opportunities for and their context in overview recipients to elaborate on it. We call this principle Unfinished Completeness. Examples: n■ For the intranet, use Web 2.0 function- alities such as the talk-back function (jj IBM). n■ For e-mail, write e-mails with tick boxes at the end to speed up the answering process. n■ For meetings, use polling, voting or open questions to involve participants; provide empty thinking templates (jj Grove). n■ For reports, provide springboard questions for readers (things to think about). Mechanism transform: elaborate, personalize 23

Chapter 3 4. Simple Complexity: What does my Standard Employee Communication Overload-aware Employee Recommendations: target group really need to know? What Communication can I leave out? How can I relate my Shaping Messages message to what people already know I will use the same style and bureaucratic tone I will try to reframe my message in an unex- to Reduce Overload (leverage previous knowledge)? to inform employees so that they recognize pected way that helps employees to under- 5. Concise Redundancy: How can I the message is coming from me. stand the topic because it lets people connect make my message accessible to differ- what they already know with the new information I provide. ent people in different ways? How can I provide different gateways to under- From novel annoyance... ....to familiar surprise standing? 6. Unfinished Completeness: How can I should get right to the point and provide the I must first provide a context and an overview I involve, stimulate and engage my necessary details. before I present the details. audience? How can I get them to apply From detail overload.... ...to detailed overview the information and transfer it to their own context? I should vary my communication and always I should ease the cognitive burden on my choose a new format, structure and style in audience by communicating in a flexible but We can also view the principles as a order not to bore my audience. standardized structure so that they become shift in the way that communication is familiar with the logic of my messages. conceived in business. In the table below, From arbitrary variation... ...to flexible stability we contrast this principled approach of overload-aware communication (on the I should try to simplify things as much as pos- I should try to transform the complex mes- right) with some of the more traditional sible in order not to confuse people. sage into something intuitive that is accessible assumptions regarding employee commu- to my audience, for example, through meta- nication (see Table 3, left column). phors, analogies or images. From complex simplifications... ...to simple complexity The more I communicate the same message, I should communicate my messages when the more likely my audience is to get the the audience is most receptive to them and in message I want to convey. a way that makes them accessible to different people. From mindless repetition... ...to concise redundancy I must avoid ambiguity or missing elements at I should make my messages somewhat open all cost and answer up front every conceivable to multiple interpretations and stimulate my question that my audience might have. audience to adapt the content to their own context. Table 3: Regular versus overload-aware business From definitive sterility... ...to unfinished completeness communication 24

Chapter 3 It goes without saying that overload-aware nication routine. Consequently, business 3.4 Scientific Background Recommendations: communication requires extra effort by communicators will profit from greater at- communicators (in the short run) when tention, deeper understanding and longer of the Six Communication Shaping Messages preparing their messages. In the long run, retention of their messages. In the short Principles to Reduce Overload however, these efforts will become seam- run they need the support of their organi- less and part of an established commu- zation to implement the mechanisms and The following table compiles some of principles discussed in this report. They the scientific background behind the six Table 4: The scientific need to overcome the implementation gap communication principles outlined in this underpinning of the six in overload-aware communication. chapter. communication principles Principle Background Rationale and Findings Select References Familiar Surprise Surprise Enhances Attention and Learning Meyer, W., Reisenzein, R. & Schützwohl, A. (1997). Toward a process analysis of emo- Novelty and the feeling of surprise lead us to reallocate our attention- tions: The case of surprise. Motivation and related resources to the unexpected event and provides an initial moti- Emotion, 21(3), 251–274. vational impetus for reviewing our current ways of knowing. Neurologi- Ranganath, C., & Rainer, G. (2003). Neural cal research finds that surprise and novelty are instrumental for memory mechanisms for detecting and remembering formation and associative learning. novel events. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 4 (3), 193–202. Familiarity Reduces Information Overload Schneider, S.C. (1987). Information overload: Causes and consequences. The more novel a piece of information to a person, the more effort he/ Human Systems Management, 7(2), 143–153. she needs to retrieve its relevant aspects and to understand and incor- porate it. This is why more experienced people suffer less from informa- Swain, M. R., & Haka, S. F. (2000). Effects tion overload. Novel information can be understood more easily if it is of information load on capital budgeting presented in a structure and language (e.g., importance of analogies) decisions. Behavioral Research in Accounting, that is already known to its audience. 12(1), 171–199. Detailed Overview Overview Requires Interconnecting Details Ringach, D. L. (2003). Look at the big picture (details will follow). Nature Neuroscience, 6(1). Communicators, who aim to convey an overview on a complex issue, often cannot start top-down by explaining the broad concepts and then Shneiderman, B. (1996). The eyes have it: A moving to details. Instead, they have to weave in details and examples task by data type taxonomy for information and relate them to broader categories to make the latter meaningful. visualizations. Visual Languages, 1996. Pro- ceedings. IEEE Symposium, 3(6): 336–343. Ì 25

Chapter 3 Principle Background Rationale and Findings Select References Recommendations: Shaping Messages Flexible Stability Stability Through Standard Representation Facilitates Quick Orientation Bawden, D., Holtham, C., & Courtney, N. C. to Reduce Overload (1999). Perspectives on information overload. Uncertainty, ambiguity and variety of information increase the per- ASLIB Proceedings 51(8): 249–255. ceived information load. To better cope with this, information and information processes should be standardized. In a report with a Berghel, H. (1997). Cyberspace 2000: Deal- standardized structure, the general orientation is easier and relevant ing with information overload. information can be more quickly located. In relation to this insight, Ber- Communications of the ACM, 40(2), 19–24. ghel proposed to promote information brands for specific standardized forms of information. Standardized but Flexible Information Objects Enable Inter-disciplinary Star, S. L., & Griesemer, J. R. (1989). Insti- Communication tutional ecology, “translations” and boundary objects: Amateurs and professionals in Flat organizations, teamwork and interdisciplinary collaboration are key Berkley’s Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, causes of information overload. Research has found that in order to 1907–39. Social Studies of Science, 19(3): facilitate communication and collaboration in multidisciplinary teams, 389–420. information objects need to be characterized both by flexibility and stability. Flexibility enables the various specialists to make the information Carlile, P. R, (2002) A pragmatic view of meaningful in their specific context, while stability allows for a structure knowledge and boundaries: Boundary objects that is common to the various fields of expertise and that can thus serve in new product development. Organization as a means for translation and mediation. Science, 13(4), 442–455. Simple Activating Previous Knowledge Reduces Complexity and Cognitive Load Newby, T. J., Ertmer, P.A., & Stepich, D.A. Complexity (1995). Instructional analogies and the Extraneous information load can be reduced by representing complex learning of concepts. Educational Technology information in a way that activates previous relevant knowledge. In this Research and Development 43(1), 5–18. way the amount of communicated information can be considerably reduced. Previous knowledge can be activated through comparisons, Ortony, A. (Ed.). (1993). Metaphor and analogies or metaphors. Researchers have demonstrated the positive thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University effects of such methods for learning experimentally. Press. Adequate Representation Reduces Cognitive Effort Schneider, S.C. (1987). Information overload: Causes and consequences. Human Systems Schneider has found that complexity of information adds to informa- Management, 7(2), 143–153. tion overload. The simpler a piece of information can be represented (without distorting it), the less cognitive effort is needed to understand Pollock, E., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (2002). it. Unessential elements or repetitions should be eliminated. In addition, Assimilating complex information. Learning using schemas or categorizations also helps to absorb complexity. and Instruction, 12(1), 61–86. Ì 26

Chapter 3 Principle Background Rationale and Findings Select References Recommendations: Shaping Messages Concise Alternative Representation Formats can Foster Understanding if They Are Moreno, R. & Mayer, R. E. (1999a). Cognitive to Reduce Overload Redundancy Not Competing for Cognitive Resources principles of multimedia learning: The role of modality and contiguity. Journal of Educational Multi-modal (i.e., visual and verbal information) representations of Psychology, 91(2), 358–368. the same information content can be beneficial to understanding and conducive to learning and remembering. This, however, is only the case Sweller, J., Van Merriënboer, J., & Paas, F. if the redundancies in information presentation are not overly complex (1998). Cognitive architecture and instruc- and remain concise. tional design. Educational Psychology Review, 10(3), 251–296. Unfinished Com- Incompleteness Forces Audiences to Make their Own Representations Valcke, M. (2002). Cognitive load: Updating pleteness Explicit and Facilitates Sense Making and Learning the theory? Learning and Instruction, 12(1), 147–154. By consciously leaving gaps or raising questions about an issue, readers or viewers have to activate their prior knowledge of an issue and make Van Merrienboer, J. J. G., & Sweller, J. their own implicit representations explicit. This fosters understanding (2005). Cognitive load theory and complex and recall. Audiences are encouraged to reconstruct knowledge rather learning: Recent developments and future than simply consume information. directions. Educational Psychology Review, 17(2), 147–177. 27

Chapter 4 The Causes of Information Overload—A Review of the Literature Chapter Summary 4.1 Introduction: ing & Harrel, 1990; Hwang & Lin, 1999; An Overview of the Effects Pennington Tuttle, 2007), are frequently The existing literature on information delayed, and work is generally conducted overload is fragmented and dispersed and and Root Causes of less effectively (Bawden, 2001). Finally, often emphasizes only a specific aspect of Information Overload on a personal level, people feel cognitive the topic (such as the role of information strain, stress, and become gradually more technology). This report, by contrast, re- Information overload is one of the pressing dissatisfied and de-motivated (Baldacchino views the various insights into the academ- issues of today’s increasingly fast-paced, et al., 2002; Schick, 1990). ic and management-oriented literature to complex and communication-intensive In order to counteract these various present a comprehensive view of overload business world. Diverse, complex and problematic consequences of information symptoms, causes and countermeasures. often ambiguous information reaches overload, several studies have addressed We then focus on information (or the receivers with high intensity and through the drivers or root causes of information message dimension) and review seven a multitude of channels (Hallowell, 2005). overload (Edmunds & Morris, 2000; Eppler attributes of information that contribute As a consequence, employees experience & Mengis, 2004). The most obvious driver to overload, namely message intensity, information fatigue (Wurman, 2001), is the amount and intensity of received quantity, uncertainty, ambiguity, diversity, lose sight of the big picture (Schick et al., information, but—as we will see—other, novelty and complexity. These characteris- 1990), are paralyzed by analysis (Bawden, more qualitative characteristics of infor- tics should be taken into consideration in 2001), confused about the value and im- mation also cause information overload. business communication through message portance of information or simply refuse In addition, it is not only information it- reduction and transformation mecha- to receive communication, and develop self but also the characteristics of informa- nisms. Based on existing research and this radical filter strategies (Milgram, 1970). tion technology, work processes or tasks; distinction, we present eight information- Figure 3 gives a more systematic over- forms of organizing; and personality focused strategies to reduce overload in view of the problematic consequences or traits (including skills), that contribute to business communication: information symptoms of information overload. First, whether or not, metaphorically speaking, compression, aggregation, sequencing, we can observe that because of informa- the sea (or better lake) of information will contextualizing, personalization, elaboration overload, active information search overspill its banks (see Figure 3). tion, standardization, and visualization. and retrieval practices may become Regarding the characteristics of work unsystematic and excessively focused tasks, for example, several studies have (Swain & Haka, 2000, Cook, 1993). Second, found that if tasks are complex and inter- information analysis and organization dependent, and processes are often novel become more arbitrary as peripheral cues or require constant modification, infor- are overestimated and the relationship mation processing requirements increase between details and overall perspective and information overload is more likely to is lost (Owen, 1992). As a consequence, occur (Tushman & Nadler, 1975; Grise & 28 decisions become less accurate (Chewn- Gallupe, 1999, 2000).

Chapter 4 Forms of organizing also contribute to in- The Causes of Information formation overload: With more interdisciplinary teams, coordination and commu- Overload—A Review nication needs rise, and employees—and of the Literature even more so managers—spend a considerable percentage of their work time in meetings (49–65 percent for managers; Mintzberg, 1973; Tengblad & Jönsson, 2002) a phenomenon also referred to as meeting overload (Rogelberg et al., 2007). While Figure 3 provides an overview of all types of causes of information overload, we will focus—in the following part of this review—on information itself. The rationale for this choice is that information is the most readily changeable factor contributing to overload. While not every- one can change the organizational design, the task characteristics, the personality profiles, or the information technology in Causes of Information Overload Symptoms of Information Overload an organization, each individual communicator can use mechanisms to make his Information Characteristics Limited Search & Retrieval ■■ Complexity of information (Miller, 2008) ■■ Highly selective search: omission or her information more usable, informa- ■■ Ambiguity of information (Sparrow, 1999) (Edmunds & Morris, 2000) tive and memorable. ■■ Less systematic search strategies In this way, we hope to give the readers Information Technology Properties (Swain & Haka, 2000) of this report practical information about ■■ Push systems like e-mail (Bawden, 2001) how to reduce information overload by ■■ One message on multiple channels (Edmunds and Arbitrary Information Analysis & Organization addressing information characteristics for Morris, 2000) ■■ Peripheral cues are overestimated (Owen, 1992). ■■ There is a lack of critical evaluation (Shenk, 1997; optimal reception and processing. Personal Routines, Attitudes and Expertise Pennington & Tuddle, 2007). ■■ Poor motivation or skills (Muller, 1984) Strenuous Personal Situation Task Characteristics ■■ Greater tolerance of error ■■ Complex tasks (Speier et al, 1999) (Sparrow, 1999) ■■ High task interdependence (Tushman & Nadler, 1975) ■■ Confusion & cognitive strain (Jones, 1997) Forms of Organizing Suboptimal Decisions ■■ Disintermediation (Schneider, 1987) ■■ Decision quality lowered (Jacoby, 1984) ■■ Cross-disciplinary teams and high coordination needs ■■ Potential paralysis and delay of decisions (e.g., Figure 3: Symptoms (Grise & Gallupe, 1999) Bawden, 2001) and causes of information ■■ Frequent task interruptions (Speier et al., 1999) 29 overload

Chapter 4 4.2 Insights on (Schuff et al., 2007; Edmunds & Morris, attributes or characteristics (Keller & The Causes of Information 2000). When using the Internet, they Staehlin, 1987; Owen, 1992; Schneider, Information Overload based may use social bookmarking sites and 1987, Simpson & Prusak, 1995). In other Overload—A Review on Existing Studies other rankings to guide them in finding words, reducing overload is both a ques- of the Literature valuable and helpful information. But in tion of how much information is provided Analyzing dozens of seminal studies on addition to fighting information overload and what kind of information is commu- overload from the last 40 years, we have as a consumer of information, the phe- nicated. found four key insights on how to prepare nomenon can also be addressed from the Table 5 outlines the various character- messages for overload environments. side of the information producer. Com- istics of information that affect informa- These insights are reviewed below and munication professionals play a decisive tion overload. Next to the amount of converted into action items for business role in the production side and are able to information items and their intensity, five communicators. influence future standards of communica- other information characteristics contrib- tion formats and processes (IfF & Gallup, ute to overload. These include the level of 1996). Because of their key role in fighting uncertainty (or reliability) of information, Insight 1: Overload should information overload, the remainder of its novelty, its complexity, the ambigu- this review focuses on how communica- ity associated with the interpretation of not only be addressed by tors can shape and organize messages and a piece of information, and the diversity the receiver, but also by the communication processes so that informa- among various information items (for tion overload can be contained. example, with regard to format or style). communicator Regarding novelty, for example, the Employees experience information Action Implication: Business communicators more the format or content of a message overload regularly in their daily work should critically review their own contribution is unfamiliar to a reader, the less quickly practices (Edmunds & Morris, 2000). They to the information overload problem. he or she can compare these ideas with receive information through a multitude already acquired knowledge. Additional of media devices; spend an average of time for elaboration is required, which two hours each day to check, respond Insight 2: Overload is can easily lead to a feeling of overload. and write e-mails (see: Thomas and King, Relating novel information to already 2006, on e-mail overload); skim through not just caused by too much known contents is thus a key mechanism mountains of lengthy reports; and try to information: information to reduce overload. The same is true if the find the relevant and pertinent piece of format, structure, and style of the report characteristics determine information in the over 165 million web are unfamiliar to the reader or if such sites of the Internet (as of May 2008, see the degree of cognitive load formats constantly change (the diversity netcraft.com). In order not to get lost in attribute). this mass of information, employees use Contrary to the widespread belief that The practical lesson from this insight and develop a variety of coping strategies: information overload is simply the result is that business communicators must They block out sources, delegate informa- of too much information, research on the reflect and act on these attributes of tion processing tasks to others, focus only phenomenon has consistently shown that information—e.g., by using a consistent on confirming evidence, or use filtering it is not only the amount of information format and thus reducing novelty and devices and automated clustering tools that contributes to information overload diversity, contextualizing messages to 30 (intelligent agents) for incoming e-mails but also more qualitative information reduce ambiguity, sequencing messages to

Chapter 4 reduce intensity and complexity, indicat- Action Implication: Business communicators The Causes of Information ing sources or methods of a finding to should critically examine the information char- reduce uncertainty—and thus enhance acteristics of their own communication products Overload—A Review their audience’s capacity of processing and evaluate them regarding key information Table 5: Key attributes of the Literature information (Simpson & Prusak, 1995; characteristics that contribute to overload, such of information contributing Sparrow 1999). as diversity, complexity, ambiguity or intensity. to information overload Information Attributes References Intensity: Number of messages per time unit Schick et al., 1990 ; Simpson & Prusak ,1995 How much? Quantity: Number of messages and amount of information per message. Bawden, 2001; Herbig & Kramer, 1994; Ja- coby, 1977, 1984; Malhotra, 1982; Schneider, 1987; Sparrow, 1999 Uncertainty of information: The value of information is unclear as its sources Schneider, 1987; Sparrow, 1999; Tushman & are questionable, evidence is contradicting and the validity period uncertain. Nadler, 1978 Ambiguity of information: On the basis of a piece of information, multiple Schneider, 1987; Sparrow, 1999; Sutcliffe, interpretations are possible and equally likely. 2005; Lesca & Lesca, 1995; Mulder et al. 2006 Diversity of information: Contradicting information is at hand (e.g., studies Bawden, 2001; Iselin, 1988; Schroder et al., What kind? with different findings, different sources), and similar information is present- 1967; Speier, Valacich, Vessey, 1999 ed in different styles and presentation formats. Novelty of information: Information entails new and unknown insights and Schneider, 1987; Miller, 2008; Herbig & is represented in unusual style or format. Kramer, 1994 Complexity of information: The number of information items and their Schneider, 1987; Schroder et al., 1967; Miller, (types of) interrelations are high. 2008 31

Chapter 4 Insight 3: Communicative whenever possible, be reduced, while The Causes of Information quality should be increased by trans- countermeasures against forming information into a more useful Overload—A Review information overload must format (Ackoff, 1967). of the Literature address key information Table 6 provides an overview of such reduction and transformation mecha- characteristics through nisms focusing on information attributes. reduction and transformation These suggestions deal with the timing, content and form of information (O’Brien mechanisms & Marakas, 2008). They help communica- Information overload is caused by both tors to get attention for their messages, quantity and quality of information to enable quick and easy comprehension, Table 6: Message mechanisms (Davenport & Prusak, 1998; Eppler, 2006; and generally to create information that is that help to reduce information Thomas & King, 2006). Quantity should, remembered and acted upon. overload Medium Guidelines for Reducing E-mail Intranet Report Meeting Information Overload Mechanism Compress Compress individual infor- Limit e-mail to Adjust content Provide an Keep statements mation items by eliminating one topic per to screen size to executive sum- short and iterate redundancies or digres- message. avoid scrolling. mary. contributions. sions (Grise & Gallupe, 1999/2000; Hiltz & Turoff, 1985; Iselin, 1988; Koniger & Janowitz, 1995). Aggregate Aggregate, categorize and Provide digests of Provide a site Pyramid prin- Clustering: Use ”war structure sets of information group discussions map/portal and ciple: Show the room”-like metaplan or their sources for easier via e-mail. tag clouds if main implica- techniques to ag- Reduce overview (Ackoff, 1967; Grise applicable. tion, key find- gregate discussed & Gallupe, 1999/2000; Iselin, ings and under- information visually; Provide a dis- 1988; Koniger & Janowitz, lying facts as a use graphic facilita- cussion thread 1995; Scammon, 1977; Meg- report summary. tion tools such as (newsgroup) lio & Kleiner 1990; Nelson, lets-focus.com instead of e-mail 2001; Minto, 1995). conversations. Sequence/ Sequence information so that E-mail digests Periodic Just-in-time Jour fixe (set meet- Bundle it arrives at the moment of (summary mails) notification delivery instead ing day and time). need (Berghel, 1997; Eppler services (RSS) of just-in-case & Will 2001). 32 Ì

Chapter 4 Medium Guidelines for Reducing The Causes of Information Information Overload E-mail Intranet Report Meeting Mechanism Overload—A Review of the Literature Contextualize Embed information in the Relate answer to Provide current State target Show prior meet- overall situation/environment; previously sent position in navi- groups and ing results and time relate new information to pre- e-mail sections. gation tree. goal of report; line; dialogues, not vious information (Davenport indicate related presentations. & Prusak, 1998; Eppler, 2006; reports. Mulder et al., 2005). Personalize Personalize and customize Personal e-mail Customizable Targeted sec- Break-out information, e.g., develop opening and portal as starting tions, stating sessions, one-on- various versions of a message closure page implications for one meetings with various levels of detail different target for different target groups groups (Ansari & Mela 2003; Ber- ghel, 1997; Denning, 1982; Meglio & Kleiner, 1990). Elaborate Create value-added informa- Flags on urgency Tags, rankings, Examples or Permanently visible tion, such as action items, and importance indicators of case boxes, meeting agenda ratings and rankings by the of message; page views, illustrative (items to discuss community on the useful- informative comment sec- anecdotes, and their sequence) Transform ness/value of provided infor- subject header tions analogies, etc. and to-do list. mation, stories, metaphors, etc. (Denning, 1982; Simpson & Prusak, 1995). Standardize Define standards, e.g., set Standard e-mail Web page Memo structure Use standard guidelines for information structure (i.e., templates and (i.e., situation, meeting agenda and communication formats, context, fact, defined page complication, and standardized such as e-mail or report- implications, typology implication, pro- meeting minutes. ing etiquette (Allert, 2001; actions needed) posal, rationale, Bawden, 2001; Keller & Stae- alternatives) lin, 1987; Meglio & Kleiner, 1990; Simpson & Prusak, 1995). Visualize Visualize information: Use Visualize e-mail Graphic site-map Summary Graphic facilitation: graphs and diagrams but trail. or visual site and overview framework-based also qualitative visualization navigator diagrams, sum- discussions and methods like metaphors or marize numeric instant visual meet- sketches) (Shimoijma, 1996; tables through ing minutes Larkin & Simon, 1987; Lurie graphs & Mason, 2007; Meyer, 1998; Tversky, 2005; Chan, 2001). 33

Chapter 4 Reduction and transformation mecha- (i.e., bundle); and add value to information Action Implication: Business communicators The Causes of Information nisms thus aim at changing the format, through contextualization (i.e., relate message should devise ways to institutionalize reduction timing or scope of information to make it to prior information), personalization (i.e., filter- and transformation mechanisms for informa- Overload—A Review more usable and informative. Specifically, ing), standardization (e.g., recurring structure), tion and make them compatible with their of the Literature reduction processes either reduce the elaboration (i.e., storytelling), and visualization established practices. They should frequently complexity of a single message (informa- (i.e., diagrams). measure the perceived information overload tion compression) or of a set of messages through surveys. (information aggregation). Another type of reduction strategy aims to reduce the Insight 4: These mechanisms pace at which new information is commu- can be implemented 4.3 Conclusion: Overcoming nicated—for example, by communicating information at the moment the receiver and scaled through the Implementation Gap can actually apply it. Transformation standards, training, tools, mechanisms, by contrast, modify messag- As we have seen from this chapter, reduces to make them more valuable, reliable, roles, and processes ing information overload is also the understandable and usable. They thus responsibility of communicators and not reduce novelty, uncertainty, diversity and While the above mechanisms can be used just of those receiving information. Com- ambiguity. Such transformation might by any individual business communica- municators should address the informa- consist of adding contextual cues (such as tor, only their organizationwide adoption tion characteristics that drive the overload stating target groups); adapting informa- will reduce overload consistently (Mulder problem, and they should do this in an tion to personal preferences or needs et al., 2006). Thus, the reduction and orchestrated manner. Message reduction (i.e., by stating implications for different transformation mechanisms compiled and transformation mechanisms are well roles); elaborating its content through above require some degree of collective known, but their implementation still metaphors or stories; adapting it to a well- effort and as such cannot be implemented remains a challenge. The literature review known, standard format; or enriching it easily. They require standards that define we have conducted has also shown that with intuitively understandable graphics. how communication can be optimized, reasons for insufficient deployment of which in turn may require formal train- such strategies have not been researched Action Implication: Business communicators ing (Allert, 2001) and supporting tools thoroughly. Hence, reasons for insufficient should examine whether they systematically (Alessandrini, 1992; Winston, 1994), and use will be addressed by our IABC survey integrate reduction and value-adding transfor- in some cases even new communication in the next chapter. mation mechanisms into their communication roles or processes (such as communication work. They should look for ways to compress quality officers, information aggregators or aggregate information (i.e., categorize); or information compression or overload improve the timing of their communication monitoring processes). 34

Chapter 5 Visual Communication to Reduce Overload—Results from a Survey of IABC Members Chapter Summary 5.1 Objectives of the Survey 5.2 Results In June and July 2008 we surveyed 568 The survey presented in this chapter had 5.2.1 Demographics: Who IABC members, mostly active in internal three main objectives with regard to the or external communication, regarding implementation gap in reducing overload Participated in the Survey? their views on visualization as a counter- in business communication: strategy against information overload. The A total of 568 IABC members responded results of the survey show that these expe- 1. Explore the potential of visual formats to the survey, of which 293 answered the rienced professionals see great potential in to effectively reduce information over- questionnaire version on visual metaphors this approach, especially for aggregating load in internal communication. and 275 the one on conceptual diagrams. or synthesizing information and relating 2. Shed light on the actual use of concep- Of the respondents, 77.7 percent (432) it to make it more comprehensible. They tual diagrams and visuals metaphors in were female, while 22.3 percent (124) see their own limited time and knowledge, meetings, presentations, reports or in were male (see Figure 4). On average, the and the lack of adequate visualization e-mail communication. respondents were 43 years old; half of all tools, as the biggest implementation bar- 3. Gain an understanding of the major respondents were younger than 44 years riers. benefits, but also challenges and draw- old (see: Figure 5). backs, when using visual formats in internal communication. Information on the method with which we have conduct- 2 ed the survey can be found in Appendix 1. The question- 50 What is your gender? naire distributed for the survey can be found in Appendix 2. It shows the version dedicated to conceptual diagrams male 40 female as it was distributed to half of the sample. For the other Frequency 22.3% 30 half of the sample, the same questionnaire was distributed, yet the questions regarded visual metaphors. The example 20 visual metaphors provided are depicted in Appendix 3. 77.7% 10 Mean =43.48 0 Std. Dev. =9.344 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 N =556 How old are you? Figure 4: Gender distribution Figure 5: Age distribution among among respondents respondents 35

Chapter 5 The largest percentage of the respond- 5.2.2 Familiarity: Are understanding of the contexts in which Visual Communication to ents works in internal communication these visuals can be used, they express (24.7 percent), followed by corporate com- Visualization Methods less confidence when asked if they know Reduce Overload—Results munication (20.8 percent), advertising/ such as Conceptual the conventions used to build such visuals from a Survey of IABC Members marketing communication (8.3 percent), Diagrams and Visual and whether they could develop them external communication (6.2 percent), and themselves. What is your gender? public relations (6.2 percent) (see Figure Metaphors Known When comparing means across male 50 6). Respondents indicated that they have female 40 by Communications individual familiarity and organization- 22.3% on average 13 years of experience in their wide familiarity, we see that respondents Managers? Frequency 30 current job profile. 20 indicate higher familiarity with visual The industries in which the respond- 77.7% 10 forms of communication for themselves Mean =43.48 ents work vary greatly. The greatest 0 20 30 40 The short answer: Dev. =9.344IABC members 50 60 70 Std. The 80 N =556 rather than for the other members of How old are you? percentage work in the following four indicate that they are quite familiar with their organization. In addition, they be- industries: Figure 4: Gender distribution among respondents visualization Figure 5: Age distribution among respondents methods, such as conceptual lieve that their colleagues might be more diagrams or visual metaphors. familiar with conceptual diagrams than 1. Consulting (9.7 percent of all respond- Figure 7 gives a first overview on with visual metaphors, yet they say they The largest percentage of the respondents works in internal communication (24.7 percent), followed by corporate communication (20.8 percent), advertising/marketing communication (8.3 expressed familiarity. While ents) respondents’ percent), ex- are equally familiar with both types of ternal communication (6.2 percent), and public relations (6.2 percent) (see seem to know visual metaphors and 2. Finance/banking (9.5 percent) they Figure 6). Respondents visualization. indicated that they have on average 13 years of experience in their current job. 3. Education (7.9 percent) conceptual diagrams rather well (if asked 4. Government/military (7 percent) generally) and indicate also a rather good Figure 6: Job functions of the respondents I am familiar with visual formats such as I know in which contexts it is suitable What is your function in your organization? I am familiar with visual formats such as the ones shown before (although I might I know in which contexts it to use such visual formats is suitable internalcommunication before (although I here) the ones shown corporate not know the specific ones shown might communication formats to use such visual not know the specific ones shown here) (24.65%) (20.77%) internal communication (24.65%) advertising/marketing external communication external communication (6.16%) communication (8.27%) (6.16%) advertising/marketing marketing public relations communication (8.27%) community relations (5.81%) (5.16%) (1.06%) media relations corporate communication public affairs (20.77%) (1.58%) (1.41%) investors relations (0.18%) public information strategic planning issues management(1.23%) (1.23%) (0.35%) marketing (5.81%) community relations new media/electronic internal communication corporate communication relations (1.58%) internal communication corporate communication I know in which contexts it is suitable (24.65%) (24.65%) (20.77%) media (20.77%) (1.06%) to use such visual formats is(0.7%) I know in which contexts it suitable new media/electronic advertising/marketing advertising/marketing external communication management visual formats investors relations external communication (0.7%) issues to use such communication (8.27%) (6.16%) communication (8.27%) (6.16%) public affairs (1.41%) marketing marketing public relations public relations (0.35%) (0.18%) public information (5.81%) media relations (5.81%) (5.16%) media relations affairs public (5.16%) (1.23%) public affairs technology other public relations (6.16%) (1.58%) (1.58%) (1.41%) (1.41%) strategic planning (0.18%) (20.25%) internal communication corporate communication strategic planning internal public information communication corporate communication (1.23%) public information strategic planning (24.65%) (24.65%) (20.77%) (1.23%) (1.23%) (1.23%) (20.77%) (1.23%) advertising/marketing external communication community relations community communication technology (0.18%) advertising/marketing externalnew media/electronic new media/electronic relations communication (8.27%) (6.16%) (1.06%) communication (8.27%) (1.06%) (0.7%) (6.16%) other (20.25%) (0.7%) marketing marketing public relations issues managementrelations issues management investors public relations investors relations (5.81%) (5.16%) (5.81%)(0.35%) (0.35%) (0.18%) (5.16%) (0.18%) media relations media relations affairs public technology technology other public affairs other (1.58%) (1.41%) (1.58%)(0.18%) (0.18%) (20.25%) (1.41%) (20.25%) public information public information planning strategic planning strategic (1.23%) (1.23%) (1.23%) (1.23%) community relations community new media/electronic Figure 6: Job functions relations (1.06%) (0.7%) new media/electronic Figure 7: Familiarity with conceptual (1.06%) (0.7%) issues managementissues management relations investors relations investors 36 of the respondents (0.35%) (0.35%) (0.18%) (0.18%) diagrams and visual metaphors technology technology other other 34 (0.18%) (0.18%) (20.25%) (20.25%)

Chapter 5 5.2.3 Use: Are Visual grams for internal communications (see If we look at the use of visual com- Visual Communication to Figure 8). This is not true when asking munication for specific media channels Methods Used in Employee for respondents’ individual use of visual (see Figure 9), we see that both conceptual Reduce Overload—Results Communication? communication as opposed to the visual diagrams and visual metaphors are most from a Survey of IABC communication practices of their organi- frequently used in presentations, fol- Members The short answer: Visual communication zation in general. One can interpret this lowed by reports and meetings. The more does not seem yoube highly used for inter- Do to personally use.. finding to indicate that communication analytic and number-driven conceptual ..visual metaphors.. ..conceptual diagrams.. ..in your communication? nal communication, and there is a rather professionals perceive themselves, as the diagrams are said to be more important clear gap between the familiarity with arbiters of organizational communica- for reports than visual metaphors. visuals and their actual use. tion, to be more innovative and creative in Visual metaphors were reported to be their ways of communicating than their Figure 9: Media-specific use used more often than conceptual dia- colleagues. of visual communication Do you personally use.. Do you personally use.. ..visual metaphors.. ..conceptual diagrams.. ..visual metaphors.. personally use.. Do you ..conceptual diagrams.. ..in your communication? How often do you use visual metaphors/conceptual diagrams? ..visual metaphors.. communication? ..in your ..conceptual diagrams.. ..in your communication? When you prepare workshops, meetings, presentations, reports, or other documents, do you use .. .. visual metaphors? .. conceptual diagrams? in meetings 3.54 * Visual Metaphors in reports 2.95 as e-mail attachments 2.9 When you prepare workshops, meetings, presentations, reports, or other in presentations 1.84 When you prepare workshops, meetings, presentations, reports, or other documents, do you use .. When you prepare workshops, meetings, presentations, reports, or other documents, do you use .. .. visual metaphors? .. conceptual diagrams? documents, do you use .. .. visual metaphors? .. conceptual diagrams? * mean values .. visual metaphors? .. conceptual diagrams? Are.. in meetings 3.21 .. visual metaphors.. ..conceptual diagrams.. Conceptual Diagrams .. part of your normal communication toolbox? in reports 3.03 as e-mail attachments 2.73 in presentations 1.82 Are.. Are.. .. visual metaphors.. ..conceptual diagrams.. .. visual metaphors.. Are.. ..conceptual diagrams.. 1 2 3 4 5 .. part of your normal communication toolbox? .. visual metaphors.. .. part of your normal communication toolbox?diagrams.. ..conceptual never extremely .. part of your normal communication toolbox? often Figure 8: Use of visual formats (i.e., conceptual diagrams, visual metaphors) for internal 37 communication

Rate the Effectiveness of Conceptual Diagrams/Visual Metaphors Chapter 5 5.2.4 Benefits: Why Should Rate the Effectiveness of Conceptual Diagrams/Visual Metaphors Rate the Effectiveness of Conceptual Diagrams/Visual Metaphors Rate the Effectiveness of Conceptual Diagrams/Visual Metaphors Visual Communication to Visual Formats Be Used to compress and synthesize information 4.07 * Reduce Overload—Results to compress and synthesize information to compress and synthesize information 4.07 * 4.07 * in Internal Communication? to compress and synthesize information to aggregate different types of information and 4.07 * from a Survey of IABC to aggregate different types of information and to aggregate different types of information and show their interconnections to aggregate different types of information and show their interconnections 4.07 4.07 4.07 show their interconnections 4.07 Members The short answer: Visuals seem to be showto make information more easily their interconnections to make information more easily to make information more easily 4.01 4.01 to make understandable easily information more understandable understandable 4.01 to make information more quickly 4.01 most beneficial for 1) aggregating differ- understandable to make information more quickly to make information more quickly 3.99 understandable 3.99 3.99 to make information more quickly understandable understandable ent types of information and showing 3.99 understandable to add value to the message you aim to convey 3.87 to add value to the message you aim to convey to add value to the message you aim to convey 3.87 3.87 their interconnections; 2) compressing to add value to the message you aim to convey 3.87 to make people remember my messages better to make people remember my messages better 3.81 3.81 and synthesizing information; 3) making to make people remember my messages better 3.81 to make people remember my messages better to embed information in a context that is 3.81 information more easily understandable; to embed information in a context that is to embed information in a context that is 3.78 3.78 to embed information in arecipientthat is meaningful to your recipient meaningful to your context meaningful to your recipient 3.78 and 4) making information more quickly 3.78 meaningful toinformation overload your recipient to reduce information overload 3.66 to reduce information overload to reduce 3.66 3.66 understandable (as emphasized by arrows to reduce to the knowledge and information overload 3.66 to adjust your message to the knowledge and to adjust your message in Figure 10). Figure 10 shows the mean to adjust your message to the knowledge and 3.53 3.53 to adjustpreferences of your audience your message to the knowledge and preferences of your audience preferences of your audience 3.53 Mean values 3.53 *Mean values to better bundle and time your messages in the preferences of your audience * *Mean values values for the various potential benefits of to better bundle and time your messages in the to better bundle and time your messages in the 3.44 3.44 * Mean values to better bundlecommunicationmessages in the and time your communication communication 3.44 visualization. Respondents rated visuals to standarize the way with which you can 3.44 communication to standarize the way with which you can to standarize the way with which you can 3.35 convey information 3.35 3.35 to be in between “rather effective” and to standarize the way with which you can convey information convey information 3.35 convey information “effective,” and for some areas even to be 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 1 2 3 4 5 above “effective.” Overall, IABC members 1 Not effective at 2 3 4 5 very very Not effective at Not effective at very all effective effective all Not effective at all very effective appreciate visuals as an effective way of all effective communicating within the organization. Figure 10: Benefits of using visual formats Regarding the question whether using in internal communication visualization brings benefits that are said to reduce information overload, we see that visualization is said to be beneficial for compressing and aggregating informa- Visual Metaphors Conceptual Diagrams tion. For other aspects relevant to reduc- 1. Make information more easily understand- 1. Aggregate different types of information ing information overload, visualization is able (4.21) and show their interconnections (4.02) deemed to be less effective: With regard 2. Make information more quickly under- 2. Compress and synthesize information to standardizing, bundling or adjusting standable (4.21) (3.93) information to the preferences of your 3. Compress and synthesize information 3. Make information quickly understandable (4.18) (3.79) audience, visualization is not the most 4. Make information more easily memorable 4. Make information more easily understand- effective method. Finally, if asked directly (4.13) able (3.76) whether the use of visualization is an 5. Aggregate different types of information 5. Add value to the message you aim to effective way to reduce information over- and show their interconnections (4.11) convey (3.76) load, people responded rather positively with an average of 3.66 (between “rather Table 7: Major Benefits of Visual Metaphors and Conceptual Diagrams (mean values effective” and “effective”). in parenthesis, ranging from 1 = “not effective at all” to 5 = “very effective”) 38

Chapter 5 A further interesting finding is that Visual Communication to visual metaphors are perceived as signifi- If you occasionally find it problematic to use conceptual diagrams/visual metaphors, cantly more beneficial than conceptual why may this be the case? Reduce Overload—Results diagrams with regard to involving emo- from a Survey of IABC tions in one’s communications, making Members people remember one’s communications There is not enough time to develop a visual 3.88 * There is a lack of simple tools to quickly develop better and making information more 3.79 and adapt visuals quickly understandable. The necessary design and visualization know- 3.595 how is missing Visualizations are often too complex to be 3.24 5.2.5 Barriers: What understood quickly Visualizations are difficult to use 3.13 Challenges Need to Visualizations do not provide enough value Be Addressed to Exploit added 2.99 Visual Formats? Visualizations are too costly to produce 2.885 There is a lacking acceptance by other members The short answer: The major impediments 2.72 of the organization to use visualizations to using visuals—such as visual metaphors Visualizations are too simplistic to communicate 2.605 * Mean values or conceptual diagrams—are that employ- one's ideas ees do not have enough time to develop It is not compatible with our existing practices, 2.6 values and/or routines them and that they lack simple tools to quickly develop them. They also lack 1 2 3 4 5 completely completely design and visualization know-how, and disagree agree find that visuals are often difficult to use. Instead, little problems cause organiza- Figure 11: Challenges in the use of visuals tional barriers, such as a lacking accept- (mean values represented, range from: 1 = “com- ance by the organization in using visual pletely disagree” to 5 = “completely agree”) formats for internal communication. It also does not seem to be the case that the use of visuals goes against current organi- why visuals might not be used more often grams are perceived as more problematic zational practices, values or routines. (both in terms of personal and organiza- than visual metaphors with regard to Thus, visualization has great potential tionwide use). their complexity and thus are perceived for internal communication, but because When comparing the results for visual to be difficult to use. The use of visual of a lack of know-how and access to time- metaphors and conceptual diagrams, metaphors, instead, is believed to be more efficient tools, they are not yet widely we find little difference. It is interesting problematic for the costs involved in pro- used. Figure 11 shows potential reasons to note, however, that conceptual dia- ducing them. 39

Chapter 5 5.3 Conclusion: Overcoming Visual Communication to the Implementation Gap Reduce Overload—Results Regarding Visual Solutions from a Survey of IABC Members against Overload The results from the survey on the use of visualization in internal communication and its potential for reducing information overload indicate that visualization is deemed as particularly important for synthesizing and aggregating information by showing the interconnections of various types of information, and thus making information more easily and quickly understandable. For other aspects, which are important for reducing information overload—such as personalization or standardization—visualization is considered to be a less effective instrument. The major impediments for the implementation and use of visual methods— such as visual metaphors or conceptual diagrams—is not only the lack of time to develop them, but also the lack of knowledge in which contexts to use which types of visualization and how to construct them. In addition, their relative complexity represents a further difficulty both in producing and in using them. This is why IABC members believe that there is potential in more frequently using simple visual tools for internal communication. 40

Conclusion Conclusion While many studies on information 3. Flexible stability tion visualization (as it is used in dia- overload are limited to assessing the level 4. Simple complexity grams or visual metaphors). Visualization of information overload in organizations, 5. Concise redundancy is said to be a useful technique to reduce this report took information overload as 6. Unfinished completeness information load as it helps to aggregate a given and aimed to propose practical information, show the interconnections principles, mechanisms and examples how We have started the report not by burden- of the various types of information, make business communicators can contain infor- ing you with causes, mechanisms and information more easily understandable mation overload as information producers. principles, but by presenting—what we and finally make it more memorable. We A fundamental insight from the cur- believe are—compelling examples that have conducted an online survey of IABC rent research on information overload is make you understand intuitively the six members, and from the 568 respondents, that it is not only the amount of informa- principles that help you to contain infor- we have learned that the major impedi- tion that makes us feel overloaded, but mation overload. For example, by learning ments to using visualization for internal also qualitative aspects of information, about the Learning Map and how it is used communication are a perceived lack of such as its ambiguity, diversity, novelty during group trainings, the advantages of visualization skills, a need for simple tools or its complexity. For example, the more a detailed overview are easily understood: to use visualizations effectively, and an complex a message, the quicker I feel The map provides both a bird’s-eye view of insufficient amount of time to develop overloaded. Because of these two main an organization (i.e., by showing intercon- visuals. This is a call for organizations to causes of information overload (quantity nections of work processes), and it allows provide more training and tools for their and quality), we have focused our recom- groups to zoom in to specific “scenes” and employees so that they can engage in mendations both on how communication “rooms” to understand details of their communication practices (such as the use professionals can reduce and transform work. of visualizations) that reduce overload on their messages. We have to know both At the end of the report, we were left their employees. means for compressing, aggregating, or with one major challenge in dealing with We would like to point to one major sequencing (bundling) information (to re- information overload: the implementation limitation of this report. Our recommen- duce the amount of information), and for gap. While we are often quite aware of the dations are focused on how business com- standardizing, elaborating, personalizing, techniques to counter overload, we still do municators can shape information itself; and contextualizing information (to re- not use them. As an information users, we the report does not address other aspects duce its complexity, ambiguity, etc.). Based know, for example, that we should check that also contribute to overload (i.e., forms on these considerations, we have proposed our e-mails only during clearly dedicated of organizing work, the characteristics six practical recommendations business times in order not to be interrupted of the task at hand or the properties of communicators can use in overload-aware constantly. However most of us check the information technology used to process in- communication. We have framed these inbox almost constantly. How can we start formation). Yet because information is the recommendations as paradoxes and have closing this gap between knowing and element communication professionals can called them: doing? We have aimed at answering this influence directly, we hope that this re- question specifically for one technique port can give you actionable ideas to shape 1. Familiar surprise that seems particularly promising for the information landscape, so that we can 41 2. Detailed overview reducing information overload: informa- see the forest in spite of all the trees.

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Biographies Biographies Martin J. Eppler is a chaired professor of Jeanne Mengis is a senior researcher at information and communication manage- the University of Warwick, Warwick Busi- ment at the University of Lugano (USI), ness School, U.K. In addition to this engage- Switzerland where he teaches managerial ment, she is a lecturer at the University of communication and knowledge manage- Lugano (USI), Switzerland, at the faculty of ment, and conducts research on strategic communication sciences where she teaches decision making and strategy communica- decision making. She publishes and con- tion. He has published over 80 academic ducts research on knowledge integration in papers and eight books on knowledge interdisciplinary collaboration and works communication. He teaches strategic com- on a communication approach to the man- munication in the graduate programs of agement of knowledge in organizations. several European and Chinese universities. During 2007/2008, she was a post-doctoral He has been an adviser to organizations fellow at Boston University’s School of such as KPMG, Ernst & Young, Daim- Management and in 2004/2005 a visiting ler, the United Nations, UBS, the Swiss fellow at the Kennedy School of Govern- Government, Swiss Re, and others. He is a ment at Harvard University. She completed fellow of Cambridge University (U.K.) and her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano on guest professor at the Central Univer- the integration of expertise in decision sity of Finance and Economics (CUFE) in making. She has teaching experiences Beijing. He is on the scientific board of at the universities of Lugano, St. Gallen, the International Institute of Education Lausanne, Freiburg, and the Swiss Federal Research of Germany and the Institute for Institute of Technology, Zurich. She further Communication Research (Switzerland). conducted executive training for organiza- He is a member of several editorial boards, tions as the United Nations, the Chamber including Studies in Communication Sci- of Judges and Attorneys of Ticino, UBS, and ences and Information & Management. the St. Gallen Cantonal Bank. 44

Appendices Appendices Appendix 1: addressed the issue. We further gained such as Microsoft and IBM)), and are based focus in our data set through additional in different geographical locations (such Our Research Methodology selection criteria (the topic is addressed in as South Africa, Germany, the U.S. and a corporate context, e.g., marketing, MIS, the U.K.). With this diversity, the reader In this report, we rely on three sources accounting, organization studies, and the can gain a better sense of the practices of of information: 1. previous research on article is peer reviewed). overload-aware communication that are information overload (as presented in our not specific to a specific industry, type of literature review in Chapter 4); 2. mini organization or geographical area. case studies from 16 corporate contexts, Mini Case Studies in which we present interesting solutions for overload-aware communication For the selection of the examples from IABC Survey (see Chapter 1); 2. a survey among IABC the 16 corporate contexts, we relied on a members specifically on visual methods variety of criteria. First, their communica- The online survey was conducted from 11 and how they can reduce information tion solutions effectively reduce cognitive June to 18 July 2008, and was sent out to overload (see Chapter 5). load on employees through a simple, but 5,000 members of IABC. The selection of powerful idea. Second, these solutions these members took place in a random- represent, taken together, an informative ized fashion. The survey was published in Literature Review mix of traditional, long-tested solutions two versions: half of the sample received and emergent solutions that are novel a version of the survey focused on graphic We based our review on over 100 scientific and innovative. Third, the examples illus- metaphors (the key question being are vis- articles. To screen the relevant articles trate the current diversity of media and ual metaphors such as icebergs, temples, within the literature on information over- communication contexts for overload- bridges, etc., known and used, and what load between 1970 and 2008, we used the conscious communication. In addition are the challenges and advantages when electronic database provided by EBSCO- to these criteria of commonality among using them?) The second half received a host (limited to Business Premier Source). the 16 cases, we also selected the cases version of the survey that focused on con- We conducted a keyword search (key- based on difference: It was important ceptual diagrams, such as Venn diagrams, words: information overload, information that the examples stem from different matrices, time lines, etc. The conceptual load, cognitive overload, cognitive load, industries (e.g., finance: UBS, consumer diagram version of the questionnaire can e-mail overload, meeting overload, com- goods: Procter & Gamble, information be seen in Appendix 2. For the analysis, munication overload) and then verified technology: Microsoft), have different we relied both on descriptive analysis of that information overload is a dominant sizes (e.g., from SMEs such as Crealogix, the questionnaire and means comparison theme in the article and systematically reflact and Trainiac to large corporations through ANOVA. 45

them, what the main difficulties in using them are and how you assess them for your communication. Hav atFilling out this questionnaireto understandthan 15 content in detail. time. We would like to emphasize them without trying will not take more their minutes of your valuable that all questionnaires will be treated anonymously, and there will be no trace between your person and your answers. Appendices Appendix 2: In advance, thank you very much for your time! Questionnaire (Version on Conceptual Diagrams) We start by showing you three examples of conceptual diagrams. We would like to know how familiar you are with them, what the main difficulties in using them are and how you assess them for your communication. Have a look at them without trying to understand their content in detail. Thank you for taking this survey. With the following questions we aim to gain a better understanding of your practices in using visual support in your daily Example of a conceptual communications within your organiza- Example of a conceptual diagram: Venn diagram diagram: Venn diagram tion. In particular, we are interested in: Example of a conceptual diagram: Venn diagram 1. How you value certain visualization techniques for making information more digestible and reducing information load. 2. What difficulties arise in using them. Filling out this questionnaire will not take more than 15 minutes of your valuable time. We would like to emphasize that all questionnaires will be treated anonymous- Example of a ly, and there will be no trace between your conceptual diagram: person and your answers. Time Line Example of a conceptual diagram: Time Line In advance, thank you very much for your 49 time! We start by showing you three examples of conceptual diagrams. We would like to know how familiar you are with them, what the main difficulties in using them are and how you assess them for your communication. Have a look at them without trying to understand their content in detail. Example of a conceptual 46 diagram: Matrix Example of a conceptual diagram: Matrix 1. Please rate the extent to which you agree with the following statements. Comple- Comple-

Appendices 1. Please rate the extent to which you agree with the following statements. Questionnaire Completely Completely No answer disagree agree I am familiar with conceptual diagrams such as the ones shown before (although I might not know the specific ones shown here). I know in which contexts it is suitable to use such conceptual diagrams. I know the conventions used when building such conceptual diagrams and can construct them myself. These conceptual diagrams are well-known in my organization. People in my organization are well aware of the contexts in which it is suitable to use such conceptual diagrams. The members of my organization know how to use and construct such visual diagrams. I don’t know conceptual diagrams that well, but I use something similar, namely: 47

Appendices 2. Please indicate how frequently you or other members of your organization use conceptual diagrams. Questionnaire Extermely Never No answer often Are conceptual diagrams used in your organization for internal communications? Have you encountered such conceptual diagrams in internal reports in your organization or during presentations and workshops or on web sites? Are conceptual diagrams considered to be a part of the communication toolbox that is used in your organization? Do you personally use conceptual diagrams in your communications with your colleagues? When you prepare workshops, meetings, presentations, reports or other documents, do you use conceptual diagrams? Are conceptual diagrams a part of your normal communication toolbox? 48

Appendices 3. If you have used conceptual diagrams, in what contexts and how frequently? Questionnaire Extermely Never No answer often In meetings In presentations In reports As e-mail attachments If you have used conceptual diagrams in other contexts, please tell us which ones. 49

Appendices 4. How would you rate the effectiveness of conceptual diagrams... Questionnaire Not effective Very No answer at all effective to compress and synthesize information? to aggregate different types of information and show their interconnections? to adjust your message to the knowledge and preferences of your audience? to add value to the message you aim to convey? to embed information in a context that is meaningful to your recipient? to standardize the way with which you convey information? to better bundle and time your messages in the communication process? to reduce information overload for the people receiving it? to make information more easily understandable? to also involve emotions in your communication? to make information more quickly understandable? to make people remember my communications better? 50

Appendices 5. Please consider your personal use of conceptual diagrams. If you occasionally find it problematic to use conceptual diagrams, Questionnaire why may this be the case? (Please rate to which extent you agree with the following statements.) Completely Completely No answer disagree agree They are often difficult to use. They are often too costly to produce. They are often too simplistic to communicate one’s ideas. They are often too complex to be understood quickly. They often do not provide enough added value. I often do not have enough time to develop them. I often lack design and visualization know-how. There is a lack of simple tools to quickly develop or adapt the diagram. It is not compatible with our existing practices, values, and/or routines. If there are other reasons, please tell us. 51

Appendices 6. Now, we ask you to consider the use of conceptual diagrams in your organization. In your opinion, why might your organizati- Questionnaire on sometimes be reluctant to use conceptual diagrams in its internal communication? (Please rate to which extent you agree with the following statements.) Completely Completely No answer disagree agree They are often difficult to use. They are often too costly to produce. They are often too simplistic to communicate one’s ideas. They are often too complex to be understood quickly. They often do not provide enough added value. The employees in our organization do not have enough time to develop them. The employees in our organization lack design and visualization know-how. There is a lack of simple tools to quickly develop or adapt the diagram. There is often a lacking acceptance by other members of the organization. It is not compatible with our existing practices, values, and/or routines. If there are other reasons, please tell us. 52

Appendices 7. Please rate to which extent you agree with the following statements. Questionnaire Completely Completely No answer disagree agree I consider myself a visual thinker. I generally like working with images. I feel I am rather gifted at working with images. In my organization, there is often a lacking acceptance by other members of the organization when someone uses visualization techniques. In my organization, it is not compatible with our existing practices and/or routines to use visualization techniques. In my organization, it is not compatible with our existing values to use visualization techniques. In my organization, there are very tight standards about how to communicate, and there are thus rigid restrictions for the use of visualization. Thank you for sharing your insights on your knowledge and experience with conceptual diagrams. We would like to end this questionnaire by asking you some questions about your person and about the organization for which you work. These will uniquely help us to better understand your earlier answers but will in no way threaten the anonymity of the questionnaire. How old are you? How many years of experience do you What is your function in your have in your current job? organization? What is your gender? In which industry are you active? Male 53 Female

The visual metaphors Metaphors Used in second version of the questionnaire (sent out to 2,500 IABC Appendix 3: Visual we have used in the the Questionnaire members) are shown below. The visual metaphors we have used in the second version of the questionnaire (sent out to 2,500 IABC Appendices Appendix 3: members) are shown below. Visual Metaphors Used in the Questionnaire The visual metaphors we have used in the second version of the questionnaire (sent out to 2,500 IABC members) are shown below. 54 54 54

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Information Overload

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