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A STUDY OF SCHOOL COUNSELOR EFFECTIVENESS AND ITS RELATION TO
PRIOR TEACHING EXPERIENCE AND SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT
by
DIANA F. SMITH
B.A., South Carolina State University, 1992
Ed.S., University of South Carolina, 1999
Ed.S., South Carolina State University, 2007
A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty
of South Carolina State University in Partial Fulfillment
of the
Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Education
Orangeburg, South Carolina
July 2009
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UMI Number: 3421345
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A STUDY OF SCHOOL COUNSELOR EFFECTIVENESS AND ITS RELATION TO
PRIOR TEACHING EXPERIENCE AND SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT
by
Diana F. Smith
Approved:
Dean, School of Graduate Studies
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©2009
Diana F. Smith
All Rights Reserved
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DIANA F. SMITH
A Study of School Counselor Effectiveness and its Relation to Prior Teaching Experience
and School Achievement (Under the direction of Dr. Charlie G. Spell)
This study analyzed school counselor effectiveness in implementing the 4
components (i.e., guidance curriculum, individual planning, responsive services, and
system support) of the South Carolina Comprehensive Developmental Guidance and
Counseling Program Model and determined if there is a relationship between that
effectiveness and two different variables: prior teaching experience and school
achievement.
This study incorporated the principles of quantitative research to test the null
hypotheses. Data used in this study were examined using the following statistical
procedures: Descriptive Statistics, Cronbach Alpha reliability, /-tests, and Analysis of
Variance (ANOVA). In order to examine the hypotheses, a /-test was performed to
examine mean differences of the independent variables (i.e., counselors with or without
prior teaching experience) and the dependent variable (i.e., effectiveness in implementing
the guidance curriculum, individual planning, responsive services, and system support).
An analysis of variance test was performed to examine mean differences of the
independent variable (school achievement) and the dependent variables (i.e.,
effectiveness in implementing the guidance curriculum, individual planning, responsive
services, and system support). Each of the t tests and ANOVA were analyzed at the
p < 0.05 level of significance. Cronbach Alpha reliability was used to measure the
consistency of the responses of counselors.
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Participants for this study were certified public elementary and secondary school
counselors from 4 school districts in an upstate county in South Carolina. Of the 67
respondents to the e-mailed survey, this study revealed that there was a significant
difference in the effectiveness of counselors for the guidance curriculum component of
the South Carolina Developmental Guidance and Counseling Program Model. Counselors
with prior teaching experience were more effective in implementing the guidance
curriculum component of the South Carolina Developmental Guidance and Counseling
Program Model than counselors without prior teaching experience. It was also revealed
that there is no significant difference in effectiveness of counselors with or without prior
teaching for the individual planning, responsive services, or system support components
of the South Carolina Developmental Guidance and Counseling Program Model.
Further, this investigation found that the effectiveness of school counselors in any of the
areas of the South Carolina Developmental Comprehensive Guidance and Counseling
Program Model had no significant relationship to or impact on school achievement.
In essence, school counselors with prior teaching experience are more effective
than school counselors without prior teaching experience only when delivering the
guidance curriculum component of the South Carolina Comprehensive Developmental
Guidance and Counseling Program Model. Counselors both with and without prior
teaching experience are equally effective when planning individually with students,
responding to the immediate needs of students, or providing system support. It was
further concluded that school counselor effectiveness is not directly linked to school
achievement, as this study found no significant difference in the effectiveness of school
counselors regardless of the achievement level of the school.
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KEY WORDS
Effectiveness
Developmental Guidance
School Achievement
Guidance Curriculum
Individual Planning
Responsive Services
System Support
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DEDICATION
I dedicate this doctoral study to my husband, Anthony R. Smith. I thank him for
his love, support, humor, and patience as I worked toward achieving this goal. He always
gave me exactly what I needed at the precise moment that I needed it, lovingly and
without hesitation. I love him beyond measure, and am so blessed to have him as my life
partner.
I also dedicate this dissertation to my parents, James and Lonzena Felix. Their
wisdom and encouragement have sustained me all the years of my life, and I am who I
am because of them.
"If you hear a voice within you say, you cannot paint, then by all means, paint, and that
voice will be silenced."
-Vincent Van Gogh
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I will first acknowledge that I am truly in God's favor. None of this would have
been possible were it not for His grace, and I am eternally thankful!
I would like to sincerely thank the many people who have offered unwavering
support, assistance, and wisdom as I labored to attain this lifelong goal: my grandmother,
Vivian H. Jacobs, who always believed that I could do anything (and made me believe it,
too); my sisters and brothers, who were never short on love, advice, or much-needed
comic relief; and my friends and colleagues, who seem sincerely oblivious to the roles
they played in my achieving this accomplishment. I am particularly and will be forever
grateful to Dr. Charlie Spell, my committee chairperson, who accepted me as an advisee
despite his already having a full caseload. I feel both blessed and honored that he was
willing to guide me through the challenges of the dissertation process. He has been a
great mentor, trusted confidante, and patient advisor, and for these things, I am indebted.
Further gratitude is extended to the members of my committee Dr. Michael Boatwright
and Dr. Jesulon Gibbs. Words are not enough to express my appreciation for their
graciously lending their time and expertise to ensure that I received the most from this
process. I would also like to thank Ms. Elizabeth Horton, who from the beginning of this
process, never hesitated to assist me as needed.
And last, but certainly not least, I would like to thank the entire Rock Hill Cohort
for their constant and consistent motivation and support.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT iv
DEDICATION vii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT viii
LIST OF TABLES xii
LIST OF FIGURES xii
CHAPTER
I INTRODUCTION 1
Statement of the Problem 4
Significance of the Study 6
Purpose of the Study 7
Conceptual Framework 8
Research Questions 11
Hypotheses 11
Definition of Terms 12
Limitations of the Study 14
Organization of the Study 15
II REVIEW OF LITERATURE 16
Introduction 16
History of School Counseling 17
Measuring Counselor Effectiveness 21
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Page
Guidance Curriculum 24
Individual Planning 24
Responsive Services 25
System Support 26
Counselor Effectiveness and School Achievement 27
Review of the Variables 29
Prior Teaching Experience 29
School Achievement 35
III METHODOLOGY 39
Introduction 39
Research Design 39
Data Collection 40
Instrumentation 40
Procedures 41
Data Analysis 43
IV FINDINGS OF THE STUDY 47
Introduction 47
Summary Statistics 47
Hypotheses Testing Section 56
V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 64
Introduction 64
Summary 64
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Page
Conclusions 69
Recommendations 70
REFERENCES 73
APPENDIXES 78
A. Validation Letter to Superintendent 79
B. Validation E-mail to School Counselors 81
C. School Counselor Validation Questions 83
D. Letter to Superintendents 85
E. Permission to Survey 87
F. E-mail to School Counselors 89
G. School Counselor Survey 91
H. Detailed Tables 16-27 95
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LIST OF TABLES
Page
1 Statistical Plan 45
2 Characteristics of Counselors With and Without Prior Teaching
Experience 49
3 District and School Information of Counselors With and Without
Prior Teaching Experience 50
4 Percentage of Counselors' Effectiveness With Prior Teaching
Experience of the Guidance and Counseling Program 52
5 Percentage of Counselors' Effectiveness Without Prior Teaching
Experience of the Guidance and Counseling Program 53
6 Mean Ratings of Guidance and Counselor Program by Counselors
With/Without Prior Teaching Experience 54
7 Reliability Coefficient of the Guidance and Counselor Program by
Counselors With/Without Prior Teaching Experience Components 55
8 /-test of Guidance and Counseling Program-
Guidance Curriculum Item of Counselors With and Without Prior
Teaching Experience 57
Individual Planning Item of Counselors With and Without Prior
Responsive Services Item of Counselors With and Without Prior
System Support Item of Counselors With and Without Prior
12 Analysis of Variance of School Achievement and Effectiveness of
Guidance Curriculum by Counselors 60
Individual Planning by Counselors 61
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Responsive Services by Counselors 62
System Support by Counselors 63
Experience -Guidance Curriculum 96
Experience - Individual Planning 97
Experience - Responsive Services 98
Experience - System Support 99
Experience - Guidance Curriculum 100
Experience - Individual Planning 101
Experience - Responsive Services 102
Experience - System Support 103
With/Without Prior Teaching Experience- Guidance Curriculum 104
With/Without Prior Teaching Experience- Individual Planning 105
With/Without Prior Teaching Experience- Responsive Services 106
27 Mean Ratings of Guidance and Counselor Program by
Counselors With/Without Prior Teaching Experience-
System Support 107
Figure 1 Conceptual Framework 8
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This study analyzed school counselors' effectiveness in implementing the
components of the South Carolina Comprehensive Developmental Guidance and
Counseling Program Model and determined if there is a relationship between that
effectiveness and the possession of prior teaching experience. This study then
determined if there is a connection between the effectiveness of school counselors and
school achievement. School counselors must be ready to perform a combination of
activities aimed at meeting the educational needs of students (Myrick, 1987), but there
has been an ongoing and often controversial debate on whether or not previous teaching
experience should be a prerequisite for school counselor certification ever since the
National Defense Education Act of 1958 (Olson & Allen, 1993). Baker (1994) noted that
state education agencies continued to disagree regarding the necessity of the teaching
experience requirement in order to be certified as a school counselor.
School counselors have to be responsive to students, parents, teachers, and others
associated with schools, and they must also provide program and staff support activities
and services and provide guidance content systematically to all students through
classroom and/or group activities (Gybers, 1990). Further Gysbers (1992) affirms that
school counselors help students to observe and understand their development in order to
make informed decisions about their futures. Oftentimes school counselors serve in a
capacity similar to that of a school teacher and is expected to collaborate with and
support teaching efforts (Wittmer, 2000). Additionally, with academic achievement as
the current emphasis of education (Borders & Drury, 1992; Coeyman, 2003; Dollarhide
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& Lemberger, 2006; Lee, 1993), schools are primarily responsible for ensuring this
success by utilizing all resources. School counselors' roles and responsibilities have
become crucial to this process, as they are equally accountable for the work that they do
and this it is positively impacting students and helping to create the desired end result.
Despite research findings, studies exploring counselor effectiveness in terms of
previous teaching experience is lacking. This researcher discovered literature on the
perceptions of various stakeholders (i.e., superintendents, principals, and teachers) of the
need for a school counselor to possess prior teaching experience, but discovered no
research on counselor effectiveness through neither the individual components of a
comprehensive, developmental guidance and counseling model nor the impact of that
effectiveness on student achievement.
Over the years, certification for school counselors has become more inclusive of
people who lack teaching experience. In the early 1970s, as few as six states did not
require that counselors have teaching experience in order to be certified (Dudley & Ruff,
1970). Further, Dudley and Ruff reported that only three states allowed alternative work
experience in lieu of teaching. However, by 1989, as many as 20 states eliminated the
teaching experience requirement for counselors (Paisley & Hubbard, 1989). Six of the 30
states that continued to require teaching experience allowed potential school counselors
to substitute an internship or two years of experience in other human services related
fields for teaching experience (Paisley & Hubbard, 1989). In a study conducted in 1997,
Randolph and Masker (1997) found that only 16 states remained that required school
counselor certification to be made available only to certified teachers, reporting that the
remaining 34 states had nixed this requirement.
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Brooks (2003) implied that a school counselor's effectiveness is an important
variable in fostering the success of any school system, especially if there is a link
between perceived effectiveness and school achievement. Gybers and Henderson (2001)
noted that since the 2001 reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act
(ESEA) now known as No Child Left Behind (NCLB), school achievement and
accountability have been at the forefront of educational issues. This most recent revision,
signed into law by the Bush administration in 2002, is based on stronger accountability
for results, more freedom for states and communities, proven educational methods, and
more choices for parents (United States Department of Education, 2008). The United
States Department of Education further asserts that under NCLB, states are able to work
to close the achievement gap and ensure all students, the disadvantaged included, are
proficient academically. Schools that do not make progress must take steps to improve
their standings by providing additional services. Schools have five years to demonstrate
that ample yearly progress is being made; otherwise, major changes will be required in
the operation of the school (United States Department of Education, 2008).
From the beginning of the profession, school counselors have attempted to align
their concepts with the educational mission of the school (Gysbers & Henderson, 2001).
Wong (2008) insisted that the present atmosphere of standards, accountability, and
educational restructuring increasingly causes these missions to have more of a focus on
helping all students achieve at high levels. Studies show that school counselors, perhaps
now more than ever, are being encouraged to demonstrate that guidance and counseling
programs assist students academically, as well as personally, socially, and vocationally
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(Adelman & Taylor, 2000; 2002; Herr, 2002; House & Hayes, 2002; Paisley & Hayes,
2003).
Statement of the Problem
The problem as outlined in this study is whether school counselors' effectiveness
in implementing the South Carolina Comprehensive Developmental Guidance and
Counseling Program Model is influenced by whether or not the counselor has prior
teaching experience. Further, is there a difference in school achievement in relation to the
effectiveness of school counselors? As essential members of a school community, school
counselors are depended upon to address the personal/social, academic, and career needs
of every South Carolina student from pre-school through high school (Rex, 2008).
Gybers (1990) believed that not only do school counselors have to be responsive to
students, parents, teachers, and others associated with schools, but they must also provide
program and staff support activities and services and provide guidance content in a
systematic way to all students through classroom and/or group activities. Gysbers (1992)
further stated that school counselors assist students in monitoring and understanding their
development for next-step decisions through individual planning. According to Wittmer
(2000), the responsibilities of the school counselor often require that they serve in a
similar capacity as that of a school teacher, or that they collaborate with, communicate
with, or in some way support the efforts of teachers; nevertheless, this researcher has
found that studies exploring counselors' effectiveness across the aforementioned
counselor roles in terms of the importance of previous teaching experience is lacking. A
review of the literature regarding the teaching experience requirement for school
counselor certification revealed studies in which researchers examined perceptions of
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superintendents, principals, supervisors, students, and parents (Bugaile, 2002); teachers
(Bugaile, 2002, Quarto, 1999, 2001); and counselor educators (Rochester & Cottingham,
1966; Smith, Crutchfield, & Culbreth, 2001). Although a few empirically-based
research studies exist that address counselors' effectiveness in terms of whether or not
they possess teaching experience (Ingwell-Ziegemeier, 1998; Peterson & Brown, 1968;
Peterson, Goodman, Keller, & McCauley, 2004; Wittmer & Lister, 1974; Wittmer &
Webster, 1969), there were no studies found where the investigator examined counselor
effectiveness based on implementation of the South Carolina Comprehensive
Developmental Guidance and Counseling Program Model nor is there a study that
compares these attitudes across grade levels.
Academic achievement and overall student success are the emphasis of the
current educational environment (Borders & Drury, 1992; Coeyman, 2003; Dollarhide &
Lemberger, 2006; Lee, 1993). Unfortunately, because of varying and often numerous
factors that form barriers for learning, the harsh reality is that many students do not attain
the success that they are entitled to (Bryan & Holcomb-McCoy, 2007; Myers, Shoffner &
Briggs, 2002; Myrick, 1993; Rose & Rose, 1992). At this juncture, it rests primarily on
schools to make every effort to ensure that students overcome these barriers. Supporting
these efforts should be a result-based comprehensive and developmental school
counseling program in which collaboration occurs between school counselors and other
faculty members to facilitate the development of the total student and accomplish the
overall school mission of high achievement (Brigman & Campbell, 2003; Gysbers, 2004;
Gysbers & Henderson, 2006; Lapan, Gysbers & Petroski, 2001; Lee, 1993; Sclossberg,
Morris & Lerberman, 2001).
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Significance of the Study
As a result of this study, this researcher sought to add to the body of knowledge
the relationship that exists between school counselors' effectiveness in implementing the
South Carolina Comprehensive Developmental Guidance and Counseling Program
Model in relation to possessing prior teaching experience and the achievement of the
school where they are employed. As a result of her study on perceptions of parents,
students, and teachers of the effectiveness of elementary school counselors, Bugaile
(2002) recommended replication of the study to include perceptions of secondary school
counselors of their effectiveness. Research examining counselors' effectiveness in the
roles outlined by The South Carolina Comprehensive Developmental Guidance and
Counseling Program Model is limited. This research study identified counselors' own
effectiveness at implementing a model based on counselor certification standards and will
produce data that could prove invaluable for those recommending modifications in such
standards.
For potential counselors who have chosen an alternative method to school
counselor certification that does not require teaching experience, the results of this study
may provide useful information to help better prepare them for possible gaps in their
knowledge that may be needed to help ease the transition from their current role into the
counseling role.
This study further adds to the limited body of research in the area of
comprehensive guidance and counseling and its influence on school achievement. As a
part of its National Standards for School Counseling Programs, the American School
Counseling Association (ASCA) encouraged the development of comprehensive
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guidance and counseling programs (Campbell & Dahir, 1997), and in 2003, published its
national model for comprehensive programs: A Framework for School Counseling
Programs (ASCA, 2003). Since then, Comprehensive Guidance and Counseling
Programs (CGCP) have been implemented throughout the country in at least 24 states
(Sink & MacDonald, 1998) including South Carolina, where this study took place. Given
that accountability is currently at the forefront in education and that such programs are
delivered in abundance, CGCPs need to provide evidence of their potential impact on
school achievement.
Studies have examined how activities that reflect the core essence of CGCPs
(Cams & Cams, 1991; Edmondson & White, 1998; Evans & Burck, 1992; Hadley, 1988;
Lapan et al., 1993; Lee, 1993; Tobias & Myrick, 1999) and statewide CGCPs impact
student achievement (Lapan et al., 2001; Lapan et al., 1997; Sink & Stroh, 2003). To
date, limited research has been published that shows an investigation of the impact of
counselors' perceptions of their effectiveness (through the use of CGCPs) on student
achievement in South Carolina.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was two-fold: to examine school counselors'
effectiveness in implementing the areas identified by the South Carolina Comprehensive
Developmental Guidance and Counseling Program Model in relation to whether or not
they have prior teaching experience and to determine if there is difference in school
achievement in relation to the effectiveness of a school counselor.
The school counseling profession began in the early 20th
century as a
supplementary service provided by teachers. Due to the elimination of previous teaching
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experience as a requirement, coupled with varying societal changes, the counseling
profession became one of distinct roles, responsibilities, and purposes. Reconciliation of
these issues has been attempted, mainly through the concept of comprehensive,
developmental, results-based school counseling programs.
This comprehensive developmental guidance model provides opportunities and
experiences that address three central student-development areas: learning to live
(personal/social), learning to learn (academic), and learning to work (career). Segmented
into four components: guidance curriculum, individual planning, responsive services, and
system support, it includes sequential activities designed to address the needs of all
students by helping them to acquire "competence in the knowledge of self and others, in
identifying their educational goals, and in their own career development" (South Carolina
Comprehensive Developmental Guidance and Counseling Model, 2008). The program is
employed in each school in the study and is delivered by the certified school counselor
with the intent of supporting all aspects of student achievement, and thus, school
achievement (South Carolina State Department of Education, 2008).
Conceptual Framework
As described in Figure 1, counselors' effectiveness in implementing the four
components of the South Carolina Comprehensive Developmental Guidance and
Counseling Program Model may be impacted by whether or not they have prior teaching
experience. As the chart further illustrates, counselors' effectiveness will be analyzed
across the four components of the Model to determine if there is a relationship with
school achievement.
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The roles and responsibilities of a school counselor often mirror those of a
teacher. Moreover, counselors and teachers have to work collaboratively in an effort to
ensure that students are achieving at optimal levels (Quarto, 2001). Counselors who have
experience as a classroom teacher may enjoy some of the advantages that having prior
knowledge of any profession would garner: an understanding of the system, a repertoire
of strategies and techniques for building rapport with all stakeholders, and the respect of
colleagues whose position he or she once held (Myrick, 1987).
Several studies have shown that school achievement is positively impacted when
school counselors effectively implement a developmental comprehensive guidance and
counseling program model (Lapan & Gysberg, 1997; Mullins & Standard, 2003;
Kaufman, Klein, & Frase, 1999; Cook & Kaffenberger, 2003). The South Carolina
Comprehensive Developmental Guidance and Counseling Program Model aims for
students to develop skills in the personal/social, educational, and career domains for the
goal of enhancing the total educational experience for each student. A ripple effect
should occur in that as school counselors become more effective in implementing the
components of the Model, students will develop the necessary personal, education, and
career enhancement skills needed to be successful in all aspects of life, and these
developments will manifest themselves into schools that are equally productive.
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