Mental Health Awareness - a toolkit for supporting young minds
Syntax
1. 1
SYNTAX
Truong Van Anh
Senior lecturer
Master - Doctoral candidate
Sai Gon University, HCMC
E-mail: truongvananh@cvseas.edu.vn
2. 2
REFERENCES
1. Bauer, L., (1983) English Word Formation.
Cambridge University Press
2. Bloomfield, L., Language. London: Allan and
Unwin, 1933
3. Cao Xuan Hao-Hoang Dung, Dictionary of
Contrastive Linguistics. Social Sciences
Publishing House, 2004
4. Fromkin & others, An Introduction to Language,
Thanh Nien Publishing House, 1999
5. Jackson, H., Analyzing English: An Introduction
to Descriptive Linguistics. Pergamon Institute of
English, 1981
3. 3
6. Jacobs, Roderick A., English Syntax. A
grammar for English Language Professionals.
OUP, 1995
7. Jong-Box Kim and Peter Sells, English Syntax:
An Introduction. N.Y. Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, Inc., 2007
8. Le Van Su , English Linguistics. Dong Nai
Publishing House, 2000
9. Mark Newson, Basic English Syntax with
Exercises, Oxford University Press, 2009
10. Nguyen Thuy Nga, English Syntax and
Morphology, Open University-Ho Chi Minh City,
2004
11. To Minh Thanh, English Syntax, VNU-HCMC,
2009
4. 4
THE SYNTAX OF ENGLISH
The term “syntax” is from the ancient Greek
syntaxis, a verbal noun which literally means
“arrangement” or “setting out together”.
Traditionally, it refers to the branch of grammar
dealing with the ways in which words, with or
without appropriate inflections, are arranged to
show connections of meaning within the
sentence.
Syntax deals with how sentences are
constructed.
Syntax: the grammatical principles, units, and
relations involved in sentence structure.
5. Chapter 1
Word classes
Words are combined into larger structures –
phrases, clauses, and sentences. Words and
word groups can be analyzed by forms and
positions.
Classification of word classes:
1. Major classes – nouns, verbs, adjectives,
adverbs – have a great many members.
Minor classes – pronouns, numerals,
determiners, prepositions, conjunctions and
so on – have few members. 5
6. 2. Major classes tend to have referential
meanings, since they involve, or allow,
reference to actual things, actions, events,
or properties, e.g. “Horse means that kind of
animals.” uttered while pointing to a horse.
Minor classes tend not to have referential
meanings. That is their meanings are not
easily specified by means of a neat
definition, e.g. how would you define the or
of?
6
7. 3. Major classes are receptive to new
members. That is new words are added to
some language every day. New nouns,
verbs, adjectives and adverbs appear in
every language. (open classes)
Minor classes are not receptive to new
members. We may not find any last new
article, conjunction, pronoun or preposition.
(closed classes)
7
8. English form classes
Nouns:
Nouns have two forms: inflectional and
derivational morphemes.
- Two inflectional suffixes:
Noun plural morpheme: book-s, box-es
Noun possessive morpheme: man’s, girls’
- Noun-forming derivational suffixes: sender,
happiness, booklet, use
8
9. Verbs:
Verbs have two forms: inflectional and
derivational morphemes.
Four verb inflectional suffixes:
- Third person singular form: read-s, go-es
- Present participle: Read-ing, run(n)-ing
- Past simple: play-ed, went
- Past participle: play-ed, gone
Verb-forming derivational affixes:
Acknowledge, bathe, deepen, enlarge
9
10. Adjectives:
Adjectives have two forms: inflectional and
derivational morphemes.
Two adjective inflectional suffixes:
- Comparative form: taller, hotter
- Superlative form: tallest, hottest
Adjective-forming derivational suffixes:
Useful, yellowish, active, readable
10
11. Adverbs:
Adverbs have two forms: inflectional and
derivational morphemes.
Two adverb inflectional suffixes:
- Comparative form: later, earlier
- Superlative form: latest, earliest
Adverb-forming derivational suffixes:
Usefully, happily, actively
11
12. English positional classes
There are four positional classes: the nominal, the
verbal, the adjectival and the adverbial.
The words playing the role of subject, object and
complement are the nominal.
Any verb form, regardless of its position, is a
verbal.
The adjectival occupies the position between the
determiner and the noun, right after an intensive
verbs, and the direct object.
The adverbial modifies verbs, adjectives, other
adverbs, phrases, clauses and sentences.
12
13. 13
Any word, whatever its form-class will be called a
nominal if it occupies one of the seven noun
positions.
1. The position of the subject:
Upstairs is the safest hiding place.
For Glenda to steal the diamond would be a shame.
2. The position of the direct object:
I hate learning German.
He likes to drink coke.
3. The position of the indirect object:
She gave whomever she met different offers.
She gave nobody a hand shake.
14. 4. The position of the retained object:
We were given the thinnest.
He was bought a pen.
5. The position of the (subjective)
complement:
The pen is his.
My hope is learning/learn/to learn English.
6. The position of the (objective)
complement:
She made him how he is miserable.
They call her whatever they like. 14
15. 15
7. The position of the object of a preposition:
He is keen on everything.
He left the room without saying a word.
16. 16
Verbals are those forms that occupy the verb
positions.
He likes music.
She would have been reading a book by that time.
Also, any verb form taking a subject or a
complement or modified by an adverbial is a
verbal, regardless of its position.
1. Becoming sad, she left the house.
2. Being a monk, he looks very kind.
3. Before going to school, she had breakfast.
4. The teacher coming in, the students stood up.
17. Adjectivals, like nominals, occupy certain
characteristic sentence positions.
1. The position between the determiner and
the noun:
That happy/elected/city/smiling man helps her.
2. The position right after the noun:
The man sitting there is his father.
3. The position right after a linking verb:
He looks quiet.
4. The position right after the direct object:
They consider her useless. 17
18. Adverbials are the word groups as well as
the single words that occupy the adverb
positions and perform the adverb functions.
1. Initial position:
Really, she is beautiful.
Today it is cold.
With some money he went to the store.
When he comes home, he is very tired.
2. Medial position:
- Between the subject and the beginning of
the verb phrase.
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19. He actually loves music.
- After the modal/first auxiliary verb and
before the main verb:
He can often solve any problem.
- After the main verb, especially linking verb,
but before other obligatory elements of the
clause.
It is still four months away.
He is at any event happy.
19
20. 3. Final position:
- After intransitive verbs:
He came last night.
She drives very quickly.
- After all other elements.
He reads the book very fast.
She has lived here for two years.
Tom is hungry after he works hard.
20
21. English minor classes:
Minor/closed classes include: pronouns,
numerals (ordinal and cardinal), determiners,
Prepositions, conjunctions (coordinate and
subordinate) and auxiliaries.
21
22. 22
KINDS OF VERBS
(From the angle of sentence patterns)
-Transitive verbs (Vt): There must be objects
behind them.
Ex: eat, like, check, play, love, write, etc.
- Intransitive verbs (Vi): There are no objects
behind them.
Ex: sleep, live, yawn, appear, work, etc.
-Linking verbs (Vl): They are be, become and
seem, and any verbs that can be replaced by
one of these three verbs.
Ex: It gets cold = It becomes cold.
23. 1. He gets to school. (goes)
2. She gets some food in the market.
3. He goes to the cinema.
4. His face goes red when he meets her.
5. He runs a big factory.
6. He runs home quickly.
7. His money runs short.
To and For are used in pattern 4.
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24. 24
SENTENCE PATTERNS
(Simple sentences)
• Pattern 1: S+ Vi (She is sleeping).
• Pattern 2: S+ Vl + C (She is a doctor)
• Pattern 3: S+ Vt+ O (She loves a doctor)
• Pattern 4: S+ Vt+Oi+ Od (He gives me a pen)
S+ Vt+Od+Prep.+ Oi (He gives a pen to me)
• Pattern 5:S+ Vt+O+C (We elect him our monitor)
* Besides S, V, O and C (main sentence
elements), there are attribute (Attr.) and adverb
(Adv).
25. Attribute: (định ngữ) modifies nouns. It stands
before or after nouns.
Ex: A full bag; a bag full of gold
The car in front of the building
Adverb: (Trạng ngữ) modifies verbs,
adjectives, other adverbs, phrases, clauses
and sentences.
Ex: She sings beautifully.
He is very tall.
He runs very fast.
The car just in front of the building.
Generally, he is reliable. 25
26. He gives me a pen.
I am given a pen.
A pen is given me. (wrong)
A pen is given to me.
He buys me a pen.
I am bought a pen.
A pen is bought me. (wrong)
A pen is bought for me.
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27. 8. She is beautiful.
9. She is here.
10. She likes to sing.
11. They enjoy singing.
12. We consider him our relative.
13. We regard him as our relative.
14. We consider him as our relative. (wrong)
15. She makes him miserable.
16. She makes him smile.
17. She saw him smiling. 27
28. Analyze the sentence patterns:
1. He showed me his card.
2. Mary writes some letters.
3. They live in Ca Mau.
4. Today it is windy.
5. Jimmy will fly to London.
6. Martha looks happy now.
7. They call her Peggy.
8. The room gets dirty.
9. Don’t drink it!
10. Who(m) are you phoning?
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29. 11. He made her some milk.
12. Mary does some exercises.
13. They work in Da Lat.
14. Today it is cloudy.
15. Jimmy drove to London.
16. Martha seems happy now.
17. They call him Jimmy.
18. The house becomes clean.
19. Turn it on!
20. Why are you crying?
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30. 21. Today is Thursday.
22. When will he leave for Ha Noi?
23. In the room stands a man.
24. There he comes.
25. How fast the horse runs!
26. Jack seems very excited today.
27. Mai often helps them.
28. They appointed her the chairman.
29. Henry called her yesterday.
30. The engineer will hold a meeting.
31. The last will analyze sentence 31. 30
31. 22. When will he leave for Ha Noi?
When will he leave Ha Noi?
23. In the room stands a man. (a)
In the room a man stands. (b)
In the room he stands. (c)
In the room stands he. (d)
31
32. Prepositions
Prepositions Particles Adverbs
- Before nouns - Before nouns - No nouns
- Meaningful - Meaningless - Meaningful
1. The book is in the drawer.
2. He hands in his paper.
3. The teacher comes in.
4. Jack stands up.
5. Mary looks up some new words.
6. They swim up the stream. 32
33. 7. Mary sat down sadly.
8. The ship went down the river.
9. He looked down upon them.
10. They are surprised at the news.
11. We are at SGU now.
12. That ‘s the news which he was amazed at.
13. The machine is out of order.
14. Watch out! It is dangerous.
15. They found out a wicked scheme.
33
34. 16. That’s the man whom he talked to.
17. He is looking forward to his parcel.
18. Jack threw the ball to his friend.
34
35. 35
Chapter 2
Phrases, clauses and sentences
Phrases
A phrase is a group of words which forms a
grammatical unit. It consists of a head word and
all the words clustering around the head word.
Ex: A very big black dog sleeping soundly in a
corner of the room.
A phrase does not contain a finite verb. There
are five main kinds of phrases: noun phrase,
verb phrase, adjective phrase, adverb phrase,
and prepositional phrase.
36. 36
1. Noun phrase
A noun phrase consists of a noun and all the
words and word groups that belong with the
noun and cluster around it. The noun is called
the headword or head, and other words and
word groups are modifiers of the noun.
Functions
A noun phrase can function as a(n)
• M Premodifier: The town hall clock
Postmodifier: The newspaper, daily Tuoi Tre
• S The beautiful flowers are sent to the mothers
37. 37
• O DO: I have just bought a new dress.
IO: I bought my best friend a new shirt.
OP: He is good at mathematics.
• C SC: She was the best student.
OC: We voted him the committee chairman.
• M
Adjectival modifier: The high heel shoes were
broken.
Adverbial modifier: That day something unusual
happened.
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2. Verb phrase
A verb phrase consists of a verb and all the
words and word groups that belong with the verb
and cluster around it. The lexical verb is called
the headword or head, and other words and
word groups are the auxiliaries, modifiers and
complements (DO, IO, OC, SC) of the verbs.
Ex: Soon arrive, arrive late, soon arrive at the
station, may have been stolen by the cashier
Complements include DO, IO, OC and SC.
Ex: Mai has been learning English for 3 years.
39. 39
Verb phrases can come in a variety of shapes.
V alone: Ann cried.
V+NP: Ann made a cake.
V+NP+PP: Ann put the pen on the table.
V+AP: Ann is happy.
V+AP+PP: Ann seems friendly to us.
V+NP+NP: Ann sent her friend a letter.
V+Q: Ann’s complaints were many.
Finite and Non-finite verb phrase
A finite verb phrase is one that can be the main
verb of a sentence. A non-finite verb phrase is
an infinitive, gerund or participle. The
composition of the verb phrase can indicate one
40. 40
or more of the following properties: tense,
finiteness, modality, aspect, voice.
2.1. A finite verb phrase:
- Has tense
- Is verb of the clause
- Agrees with the subject
2.2. Non-finite verb phrase
- Infinitive phrase (full or bare)
- Present participle phrase
- Past participle phrase
- Gerund
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2.2.1. Infinitive phrase
Head word: Infinitive
Functions:
An infinitive phrase can function as a (an)
S: To live is to struggle.
SC: To live is to struggle.
O: I want to stay with you.
Adjectival M: That day was the day to remember.
Adverbial M: I learn English to get a good job.
2.2.2. Gerund
Head word: gerund
42. 42
Functions:
A gerund phrase can function as a (n)
S.: Swimming is my hobby.
DO.: I like swimming.
IO.: I gave swimming all my time.
OP.: Before swimming, don’t eat too much.
SC.: My hobby is swimming.
OC.: I consider living this way being in prison.
2.2.3. Present participle phrase
Head word: present participle
43. 43
Functions:
A present participle phrase can function as
modifier as in the followings:
Adjectival M: The boy sitting near the windows is
my brother.
Adverbial M: She arrived smiling happily. (Verb M)
Smiling happily, she said that she passed the
exams. (Sentence M).
2.2.4. Past participle phrase
Head word: Past participle
44. 44
Functions:
A past participle phrase can function as a(n)
Adjectival M: The child punished by his father ran
away from home.
Adverbial M: Delayed by the weather, the train
arrived two hours late.
Frightened, he left the room.
Verb M: He came back, broken by loneliness.
2.2.5. Absolute phrase
An absolute phrase has all the elements of a
clause, but the verb is non-finite.
45. 45
Ex: The weather permitting, we can go out.
3. Adjective phrase
An adjective phrase consists of an adjective, which
may be preceded by a “degree” word, like very,
somewhat.
Head word: adjective
Functions
An adjective phrase can function as a(n)
Noun M.: She is a very beautiful girl.
SC.: She is very beautiful.
OC.: I found her very helpful.
46. When she came home, she rushed into the
kitchen.
When her husband came home, she
rushed into the kitchen.
Coming home, she rushed into the
kitchen.
Her husband coming home, she rushed
into the kitchen.
46
47. 47
4. Adverbial phrase
An adverb phrase usually consists of an adverb,
which may be preceded by one or more “degree”
words.
Ex: He was received rather less enthusiastically.
5. Prepositional phrase
A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition
followed by a noun phrase called object of
preposition.
Head word: preposition
Functions:
A prepositional phrase can function as a(n)
48. 48
S.: On the beach is better than at home.
SC.: Our happy time is after dinner.
OP.: The view from above the shore is
magnificent.
Adjectival M.: The boy near the door is my brother.
Adverbial M.: She is living near the school.
Complement of adjective: I am terribly bad at
mathematics.
> On the beach is a beautiful girl.
49. 49
CLAUSES
A clause is a group of words containing a subject
and a finite verb.
Independent clause: An independent clause is a
complete sentence. It contains a main subject
and verb of a sentence. (It is also called a main
clause.)
Dependent clause: A dependent clause is not a
complete sentence. It must be connected to an
independent clause
50. 50
1. Noun clause
A noun clause is used in the same way as a noun.
1.1. Words used to introduce noun clauses.
• Question words: when, why, where, how, who,
whom, what, which, whose
• whether, if
• that
1.2. Functions of noun clauses:
1.2.1. Object of verb
Lan said (that) she liked to live in HCMC.
I know (that) you are the champion.
He asked me where I live.
51. 51
1.2.2. Subject
What you are doing is very complex.
Where he is living seems interesting.
1.2.3. Object of a preposition
They laughed at what we said.
They were thankful for what you did.
1.2.4. Complement
- Subject complement:
The fact is that he doesn’t try.
- Object complement:
She made me what I am.
52. 52
1.2.5. Complement of a noun
The fact that the prisoner was guilty was plain to
everyone.
The news that he told you was not true.
1.2.6. Complement of adjective
She is very glad that you are able to come.
I am afraid that we lost.
1.2.7. Real subject
It is interesting that you are keen on your study.
1.2.8. Real object
Jack finds it nice to talk to me.
53. 2. Adjective clause
An adjective clause is a dependent clause
that modifies a noun. It describes,
identifies, or gives further information
about a noun.
2.1. Words used to introduce adjective
clauses
Subject pronouns: who, which, that
Object pronouns: who (m), which, that
Pronoun used as object of preposition: who
(m), which, that
Whose, where, when 53
54. 54
2.2. Functions of adjective clauses:
Modifier of a noun
She is the finest woman that ever lived.
The company hires only men who have degrees.
The man whose son learns well is very proud.
3. Adverb clause
An adverb clause is a dependent clause. It
cannot stand alone as a sentence. It must be
connected to an independent clause. It does the
work of an adverb.
55. 55
3.1. Words used to introduce adverb clauses
Time: after, when, until, etc.
Place: where, wherever, etc.
Manner: as, as if, etc.
Cause: because, as, since, etc.
Concession: though, although, as, etc.
Condition: if, unless, etc.
Purpose: so that, in order that, etc.
Ex: He learns hard so that he can enter a college.
56. 56
Result: so…that, such…that, etc.
Ex: Jack is so tall that he can reach the ceiling.
Comparison: as…as, than, etc.
Ex: He runs as fast as a horse does.
Reservation: Except that
Ex: He is handsome except that he is lazy.
3.2. Functions of adverb clauses:
An adverb clause modifies a verb, or a sentence.
Ex: When he arrives, the band will begin the show.
57. 57
Tree diagram
We use “tree” diagrams to represent phrase
structure. A tree provides the following
information: the word class of each word, the
phrase structure of the whole sentence (what the
word-groupings are, and their hierarchical
structure – how they are nested or not nested
inside each other), and the phrasal category of
each phrase (what kind of phrase each phrase
is). A tree does not show, directly, information
about function of phrasal categories.
58. 58
In ordinary sentences, the sentence (S) is
always subdivided into NP VP
S= NP + VP
1. Noun phrase
NP= Det+N’
N’= N+Modifier
Modifiers a word
a phrase
a clause
1.1. Premodifiers
Premodifiers may be
62. 62
1.2. Post modifiers
Post modifiers may be:
1.2.1. Prepositional phrase
NP NP
Det N’ Det N’
N PP N PP
Prep NP Prep NP
N’ Det N’
N N
The way to school. The girl near the door
63. 63
NP
Det N’
Adj. N PP
Prep NP
Det N’
AP N
Adj
The beautiful girl in the blue dress
67. 67
2. Adverb phrase
S
NP VP
Pro V Adv P
Deg Adv
She sang fairly well
3. Prepositional phrase
PP
Prep. NP
Det N’
N
behind the door
68. 68
4. Verb phrase
VP Aux+V’
4.1. Verb phrase contents
Verb phrases come in a variety of shapes as
listed below.
1. V alone
2. V + NP
3. V + PP
4. V + NP + PP
5. V + AP
6. V + AP + PP
7. V + NP + NP
8. V + Q
69. 69
4.1.1. V alone
S
NP VP
Det N’ V
N
The baby cried
4.1.2. V + NP
S
NP VP
Det N’ V NP
N Det N’
N
The man built a house
71. 71
41.3. V + PP
S
NP VP
Det N’ V PP
N Prep NP
Det N’
N
The men live in the city
4.1.4. V NP PP
VP
V NP PP
Det N’ Prep. NP
N Det N’
N
Put the pen on the table
72. 72
4.1.5. V AP
S
NP VP
Pro V AP
Adj
She is nice
4.1.6. V AP PP
S
NP VP
Pro V Adj. P PP
Adj Prep NP
Pro
They are nice to us.
73. 73
4.1.7. V NP NP
S
NP VP
Pro V NP NP
Pro Det N’
N
We sent her a letter.
75. 75
4.1.8. V + Q
S
NP VP
Det N’ V Q
N
Mike’s complaints were many.
4.2. Auxiliary verb
Auxiliaries are the “helping verb” – have, be and
modals (can, will, shall, etc.) as well as do used
in negation, questions, and emphasis.
VP Aux + V’
V’ = VP without auxiliaries
