Anatomy & Physiology Slides

Slide 1: Nursing Review of Anatomy and Physiology Review for Philippine Nursing Licensure Examination

Slide 3: Outline of Selected Topics in Anatomy and Physiology The Cell  Integumentary  Musculoskeletal  Nervous  Endocrine  Cardiovascular and Hematologic  Gastrointestinal  Urinary/Fluids and Electrolytes  Reproductive 

Slide 4: The Cell  BasicStructural and Functional Unit of the body

Slide 5: Functions of the Cell Basic unit of life 1. Protection and support 2. Movement 3. Communication 4. Cell metabolism and energy release 5. Inheritance 6.

Slide 6: The Cell  Composed of the Cytoplasm, Cell Membrane, the organelles, the nucleus and the inclusions

Slide 8: The Cell The cytoplasm is the viscous,  translucent, watery material where the organelles are located

Slide 9: The Cell The Cell membrane is a semi-  permeable membrane that serves as the boundary separating the cellular structures from the external environment

Slide 11: The cell membrane  Selectively permeable  Bi-lipid layers  Functions to regulate passage of substances

Slide 12: The cell membrane Phagocytosis- cell eating  Pinocytosis- cell drinking  Endocytosis- cell engulfment  Exocytosis- cell excretion 

Slide 15: Cell connections Tight junction= binds adjacent cell together and form permeability barrier, which regulates what material crosses Desmosome= mechanical link that functions to bind cell to one another Hemidesmosomes= anchor the cell to the  basement membrane Gap junction= small channel that allows molecules and ions to pass from one another

Slide 17: The cellular organelles These are the cellular metabolic  units with specific functions to maintain the life of the cell  These include the mitochondrion, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosome, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, cytoskeleton and centrosomes

Slide 18: The mitochondrion The POWERHOUSE of the cell  Contains enzymes and the complexes  responsible for the production of the ATP Also contains mitochondrial DNA  Metabolic processes occurring in this  organelle include – Kreb’s cycle, beta- oxidation of fats, urea cycle, heme synthesis This organelle is maternally inherited 

Slide 20: The endoplasmic reticulum An extensive network of membrane-  enclosed tubules There are two types- Rough and  Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Rough endoplasmic reticulum is  covered with ribosomes site of protein synthesis Smooth endoplasmic reticulum has no  ribosome site of lipid synthesis

Slide 22: Ribosome Together with the endoplasmic  reticulum is the site of protein synthesis  Maybe found in the cytoplasm and in the mitochondria  They may be free or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum

Slide 23: Golgi Apparatus This organelle modifies, concentrates  and packages proteins  This also packages enzymes into lysozomes  Proteins and enzymes usually are transported from the rough endoplasmic reticulum to the golgi apparatus

Slide 25: The lysosomes These are membrane-limited  digestive bodies that contain enzymes that break down foreign or damaged materials  The enzymes digest all materials brought in by phagocytosis

Slide 27: The peroxisomes Similar to lysosomes, these are  membrane-bound sacs containing oxidases (not found in the lysosomes)  Oxidases are enzymes capable of reducing oxygen to hydrogen peroxide

Slide 28: The cytoskeleton A series of tubules and rods that  runs through the cytoplasm supporting the cellular structures  This is also responsible for cellular movements

Slide 30: The centrosomes  Thiscontains the centrioles short cylinders adjacent to the nucleus responsible for cellular division

Slide 31: The cellular inclusions These are non-functional units  made up of chemical substances  These may or may not be present in all cells  Examples are pigments, granules, and fat globules

Slide 32: Cilia and Flagella Cilia are short, hair-like extensions  that occur in large numbers on the outer surface of the cell  Flagella are long projections formed by centrioles that propel the cell

Slide 34: The Nucleus The central control of the cell  Controls cell growth, metabolisms and  reproduction Contains DNA  Contains chromosomes DNA +  proteins appearing as granules in the non-dividing cell Genes segments of chromosomes 

Slide 36: Cell Division Formation of two daughter cell  from a single parent cell. Mitosis – formation of new cell d. necessary for growth and tissue repair. Meosis – formation of sex cell e. necessary for the reproduction.

Slide 37: Cellular division Two types- Mitosis and Meiosis  Mitosis- equal division of materials  which yields two exact duplicates of the original cell The diploid number (46) of  chromosomes is maintained All of the body cells undergo mitosis  except the gametes or sex cells

Slide 38: Mitosis All body cell undergo mitosis except sex  cell. There are two step in mitosis: Genetic material within the cell is e. replicated. Cell divided to form two daughter with f. same amount and type of DNA.

Slide 39: The cellular division Five steps of cellular division I-P-  M-A-T Interphase- inactive or resting  state Prophase-Chromatin coils to form  chromosomes, centrioles begin to assemble Metaphase-chromosomes line the  equator, and they split lengthwise Anaphase-Chromatids separate and  move to the opposite poles Telophase-chromosomes uncoil and  nucleoli reappear

Slide 40: INTERPHASE – time between cell division during which DNA replicate. DNA strand separate where old strand joined with new strand of DNA to form two new DNA molecule.

Slide 41: Four stage of Mitosis Prophase – chromatin condensed into chromosome. 2. Chromosome consist of two chromatin join by centromere. Centriole move to opposite pole.  Nucleus and nuclear envelope disappear.  2. Metaphase – chromosome aligned at the center, w/ spindle fiber. 3. Anaphase – chromatin separate to form two sets of identified chromosome. Chromosome assisted by spindle fiber.

Slide 42: 4. Telophase – chromosome disperse.  Nuclear membrane and nucleolus formed.  Cytoplasm divided into two cell.

Slide 43: Differentiation – process by which cell develop with specialized function. Egg and sperm cell formed single cell during  fertilization divided by mitosis to form two cell then become four cell and so forth which differentiate, give rise to different cell. E.g. bone cell, muscle cell

Slide 45: The cellular division Meiosis is a reduction division  occurring in the sex cells  Sex cells have only one pair of chromosomes (23)haploid number

Slide 46: Cell Physiology

Slide 48: DIFFUSION  The movement of SOLUTES or particles in a solution from a higher concentration to a lower concentration  This is a passive process, no energy is required

Slide 50: OSMOSIS  The movement of solvent or water from a diluted solution into a more concentrated solution through a semi-permeable membrane  The pressure that draws water inside the vessel which is more concentrated is called Osmotic pressure

Slide 52: Filtration If a sugar is placed in plain water,  the glucose molecules will dissolve and distribute in the solution  Factors that affect diffusion- concentration gradient, particle size, solubility and temperature

Slide 53: Special osmosis A special type of osmotic pressure is exerted by the proteins in the plasma. It is called ONCOTIC PRESSURE

Slide 54: FILTRATION  The movement of both solute and solvent by hydrostatic pressure, i.e., from an area of a higher pressure to an area of a lower pressure  An example of this process is urine formation

Slide 55: Hydrostatic pressure  Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by the fluid against the container  Increased hydrostatic pressure is one mechanism producing edema

Slide 56: Active transport This is the movement of solutes  across a membrane from a lower concentration to a higher concentration with utilization of energy  Example is the Sodium-Potassium pump, Endocytosis and Exocytosis

Slide 59: Tissue Group of cells with similar structure and  function There are four (4) Basic types 4. Epithelial 5. Connective 6. Muscle 7. Nervous

Slide 60: BODY TISSUES Epithelium  Lining, covering and glandular tissues of the body  The functions are to protect, absorb, filtrate and secrete substances

Slide 61: Epithelial tissues  Simple epithelium  Lined by ONE Layer of cell  Stratified epithelium  Lined by many layers of cells

Slide 62: Epithelial tissues  Simple epithelia  1. Simple squamos- alveoli, BV  2. Simple cuboidal- glands  3. Simple columnar- GI tract  4. Pseudo stratified epithelium- bronchial lining

Slide 63: Epithelial tissues  Stratified epithelium  1. Stratified Squamos- skin  2. Stratified cuboidal- reproductive duct  3. Transitional epithelium- bladder and ureter

Slide 67: Connective tissues Bone  Cartilage  Muscle  Blood  Blood vessels  Adipose tissue 

Slide 72: The Integumentary System The largest body system  Includes the skin and accessory  structures like the hair, nails, and glands Function: Protection of body  structures and regulation of body temperature

Slide 74: The Skin as first line protection The skin seals off the body  from the immediate environment  There are three layers of the skin: Epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis.

Slide 75: Skin cells There are many other cells aside  from the keratinized squamos cells of the skin. Melanocytes produce pigment  melanin. Langerhan’s cells participates in the  immune system. Histiocytes are specialized  macrophages

Slide 77: Skin as temperature regulator Abundant nerves, blood  vessels and glands are within the skin’s deeper layer  They aid in temperature regulation  Blood vessels constrict or dilate depending on the temperature

Slide 78: Skin functions Sweat glands produce sweat to  control temperature by evaporation The piloerector (arrector pili)  muscles will contract to raise the hairs to trap the heat

Slide 79: Other skin functions Vitamin D synthesis  7-dehydrocholesterolCholecalciferol (D3)  Route of excretion   Insensible fluid loss of about 500 ml/day  Sweat contains water, electrolytes, urea and lactic acid

Slide 80: Other skin functions Skin and mucus membrane are the  first line defense of the body in immunity Skin has receptors for pain, cold,  pressure and heat.

Slide 81: The Skin layers: EPIDERMIS The outermost layer with stratified  squamos epithelium Varies in thickness depending on  the body part Thinnest in the eyelids and thickest  in the soles and palms

Slide 82: EPIDERMIS The layers are- C-L-G-S-B  The outermost layer is the stratum  corneum with keratin The stratum basale is the layer  which regenerates/replaces new skin cells Melanocytes in the skin produce  melanin

Slide 83: The Skin layers: DERMIS The second layer- cutis vera  Is flexible and elastic  Two layers- papillary and  reticular Contains blood vessels, lymphatic  vessels, nerves and appendages

Slide 84: The Skin layers: DERMIS The connective tissues in the  dermis contain collagen (gives its strength)  elastin (gives its flexibility) and  reticular fibers (connect collagen  and elastin)

Slide 85: The Skin layers: Hypodermis This is the subcutaneous  tissue  Not strictly a part of the skin  Functions to insulate the body to conserve heat

Slide 86: Hypodermis Serves as the energy storage  and mechanical shock absorber  With little vascular supply and scant nerve supply

Slide 87: The Skin appendages Hairs- long shafts composed of  keratin. Expanded lower end is called hair bulb or root. There are extensive nerve and blood supply in the hair bulbs Nails-flattened structure of  specialized type of keratinized surface. The visible part is the nail body.

Slide 88: Fig. 5.5

Slide 89: Appendages Sebaceous glands-glands which  produces an oily material called sebum, found in all body parts except the palms and soles. Sweat glands or sudoriferous  glands- glands which secrete sweat, found in all body parts except in the nipples. Two types exist- Eccrine and Apocrine

Slide 90: Fig. 5.6

Slide 91: The Musculoskeletal System This system consists of the  muscles, tendons, ligaments, bones, cartilage, joints, and bursae

Slide 92: The Musculoskeletal System Functions:  • Locomotion and protection • blood production in the bone marrow • heat generation, • maintenance of posture and • storage of minerals

Slide 93: The Muscles Three types of muscles exist in our body  Voluntary skeletal muscle  Involuntary cardiac muscle  Involuntary visceral smooth muscle

Slide 94: The Muscles Muscles are composed of muscle fibers having numerous nuclei and striations

Slide 98: Properties of Muscles Electrical excitability  • Ability to contract to certain stimuli Contractility  • Ability to contract forcefully when stimulated Extensibility  • Ability to stretch without being damaged Elasticity  • Ability to return to its original length and shape

Slide 99: Muscle Physiology Muscle fibers are enclosed  sheaths- perimysium, epimysium and endomysium Each muscle cell has actin and  myosin filaments arranged in a sarcomere This sarcomere is the basic  structural unit of the muscle

Slide 100: Muscle Physiology Muscle contraction occurs as actin  and myosin slide past one another causing the sarcomeres to shorten Calcium ion is released by the  muscle endoplasmic reticulum to initiate contraction ATP is used both for muscle  contraction and muscle relaxation

Slide 103: Fig. 7.5a

Slide 104: Fig. 7.6

Slide 105: Fig. 7.7a

Slide 106: Fig. 7.7b

Slide 107: Muscle Physiology Muscle contraction can be of two types  1. ISOMETRIC- iso= same, metric=distance: The length of the muscle does not change, but the tension increases  2. ISOTONIC- iso=same, tonus=tone: The amount of muscle tension is constant but the length of the muscle varies

Slide 108: Muscle Physiology Muscle tone= refers to the constant  tension produced by muscles of the body for long periods of time FAST-twitch muscles= contract quickly and fatigue quickly SLOW-twitch muscles=contract slowly and are more resistant to fatigue

Slide 109: Muscle Physiology Smooth Muscle= is not striated,  contracts more slowly, is autorhythmic and under involuntary control Cardiac muscle- is striated, is  autorhythmic, and under involuntary control

Slide 110: MUSCLE and JOINT MOVEMENTS Flexion- decreasing the angle  between two joints Extension- increasing the angle  between two joints Abduction- movement of the limb  away from the midline Adduction- movement of the limb  towards the midline

Slide 111: MUSCLE and JOINT MOVEMENTS Internal rotation- moving the body  part inward towards the midline External rotation- moving the body  part outward away from the midline Supination- turning a body part  upward Pronation- turning a body part  downward

Slide 112: MUSCLE and JOINT MOVEMENTS Inversion- turning the foot inward  Eversion- turning the foot  outward Retraction- moving a body part  backward Protraction- moving a body aprt  forward

Slide 113: Muscles of the face 1. Frontalis   2. Orbicularis oculi  3. orbicularis oris  4. Buccinator  5. Zygomaticus Facial Nerve innervation 

Slide 114: Muscles of Mastication 1. Masseter  2. Temporalis   3. Pterygoid muscles Innervated by TRIGEMINAL  NERVE

Slide 115: Muscles of the neck 1. Platysma  2. Sternocleidomastoid 

Slide 116: Muscle of the upper limb 1. Biceps  2. triceps  3. deltoid 

Slide 117: Muscles of the lower limb 1. Hamstring muscles  2. Quadriceps  3. Gluteal muscles  4. calf muscles 

Slide 118: TENDONS These are bands of fibrous  connective tissue that attach muscles to bones

Slide 119: LIGAMENTS These are dense, strong, flexible  bands of fibrous connective tissue that bind bones to other bones

Slide 120: BONES Bone is a living growing tissue  made of porous mineralized structure. The human skeleton contains 206  bones Axial bones are bones on the  midline like the vertebrae, skull, facial bones, ribs and sternum Appendicular bones include the  scapulae, bones of the arms and legs

Slide 122: Classification of Bones Long bones- - These bones have a  shaft and ends. Ex: tibia, humerus, femur Short bones- Small and cubical  shaped- Ex: carpals and tarsals Irregular bones- vertebrae, mandible  Sesamoid bones- bones embedded in  the tendons. Ex:patella Flat bones- with spongy bones  inside. Ex: scapulae, ribs, clavicle

Slide 123: Structure of the bone Long bones have a diaphysis  ( shaft) and epiphysis (ends)  Bones consist of layers of calcified matrix occupied by bone cells.  The outer layer of bone is composed of dense compact bone (cortical bone)  The inner layer is composed of spongy cancellous bones

Slide 125: Bone Structure Blood supply of bones reaches by  way of arterioles in the haversian canal, through the vessels in the Volkmann's canal Bone formation can be from the  cartilage and from the membrane

Slide 126: Bone Structure OSTEOBLAST- bone cell responsible  for bone formation and calcification OSTEOCLAST- bone cell responsible  for bone resorption and destruction

Slide 127: Bone Ossification Ossification is the formation of  bone by the osteoblasts. This involves the mineralization of bones from a cartilage (endochondral) and from a membrane (membranous).

Slide 128: Fig. 6.5a

Slide 129: Fig. 6.6

Slide 130: Bone Remodeling Bone remodeling involves the  removal of old bones by cells called osteoclasts and deposition of new bones by the osteoblasts. Bone is the major storage of  calcium If calcium levels in the blood falls,  it is removed from the bone

Slide 131: Bone repair When a bone is broken, blood  vessels are also damaged clot 2-3 days after injury, blood vessels  and cells invade the blood clot callus formation Osteoblasts enter the callus and  begin to form a spongy bone Immobilization of the bone is  required because the delicate new matrix of bone is easily damaged by excessive movement

Slide 132: Fig. 6.8

Slide 133: The Skull Skeleton of the head  Made of 21 bones  Cranial bones  • Frontal • Parietal • Temporal • occipital

Slide 134: The Skull Facial bones  • Maxilla • Mandible • Zygoma • Nasal • Vomer • Palatine

Slide 135: The paranasal sinuses These are air-filled cavities in the  facial bones surrounding the nose and open into the nasal cavity They decrease the weight of the  skull and act as resonator of sounds Frontal, maxillary, ethmoid and  sphenoid

Slide 137: The Vertebrae Composed of 32-33 bones  7 cervical  12 thoracic  5 lumbar  5 sacral  3-4 coccygeal 

Slide 138: Functions of the vertebrae 1. Supports the weight of the  head and trunk 2. Protects the spinal cord  3. Allows spinal nerves to exit the  spinal cord 4. Provides a site for muscle  attachment 5. Permits the movement of the  head and trunk

Slide 139: The Cervical Vertebrae 7 in number   C1- atlas  C2- axis  C7- cervical prominence  Atlas and occipital bone= “yes” motion  Atlas and Axis= “no” motion

Slide 140: The Thorax Made up of the sternum and ribs  The sternum has 3 parts  • Manubrium • Body • Xiphoid process • The slight elevation in the sternum is called the Sternal Angle of Louis. It identifies the location of the second rib

Slide 141: The Ribs The ribs are 12 pairs  • True ribs= 1-7 • False ribs= 8-10 • Floating ribs=11-12

Slide 143: The shoulder The clavicle and scapulae constitute  the shoulder The clavicle  • Articulates with the sternum • Most commonly fracture bone The Scapulae  • Attached to the ribs and vertebrae by muscles only • Has an acromion process, where the clavicle attaches

Slide 145: The Upper extremity Composed of the following bones  Humerus  Ulna  Radius  Carpals (wrist bones)  Metacarpals  Phalanges 

Slide 147: The pelvic girdle Composed of  the 3 fused bones- pubis, ilium and ischium Constitute the  hip bone

Slide 148: The pelvic girdle Female pelvis has the following  structure: The pelvic inlet is large/oval, symphysis is shallow. obturator foramen is oval or triangular, sacrum is broader The male pelvis has the following:  The pelvic inlet is small/round to heart-shape, symphysis is deep. Obturator foramen is round

Slide 149: Fig. 6.32

Slide 152: The Lower extremity bones Composed of the  Thigh bones- femur  The leg bones- Tibia and Fibula  The ankle- tarsal bones  The foot- metatarsal bones

Slide 154: CARTILAGE A dense connective tissue that  consists of fibers embedded in a strong, gel-like substance. Cartilage supports and shapes  various structures such as the ear pinna, intervertebral disks, ear canal, larynx, etc. It serves as cushion and shock  absorber

Slide 156: Types of Cartilage Fibrous cartilage  • Found in the intervertebral disks Hyaline cartilage  • Found in the symphisis, the thyroid cartilage Elastic cartilage  • Found in the ears, the epiglottis

Slide 158: Fig. 6.39a

Slide 159: Fig. 6.39b

Slide 160: Fig. 6.40a

Slide 161: Fig. 6.40b

Slide 162: Fig. 6.40c

Slide 163: Joints These are point of attachment or  contact between two bones Variously classified according to its  movement and flexibility Fibrous joints- with fibrous tissue  with little or no movement Cartilaginous joints- with cartilage  Synovial joints- with capsule;  freely movable joints

Slide 165: Synovial joints Freely movable joints   With joint cavity/capsule  Articular surface  Synovial membrane  Synovial fluid

Slide 166: Synovial joints Plane joint- intercarpal joint  of wrist  Hinge joint- elbow and ankle  Pivot- atlas and axis  Condyloid- “egg-shape” metacarpophalengeal joint

Slide 167: Synovial joints Saddle joint- joint of the  thumb  Ball and socket- hip joint

Slide 168: Bursae Small synovial fluid sacs  located at friction points around joints, between tendons, ligaments and bones  Act as cushions, decrease stress on adjacent structure

Slide 171: The Nervous System • The nervous system coordinates all body functions, enabling a person to adapt to changes in internal and external environment • The nervous system is composed mainly of the nerve cells (neurons) and supporting cells (neuroglia)

Slide 172: The neuron • This is the basic conducting cell of the nervous system • Highly specialized but cannot reproduce itself • Main parts are the cell body (soma), the fibers: axon and dendrites.

Slide 173: The neuron • The axon is a long process with myelin sheath. This conducts impulses away from the cell body • The dendrites are short, thick, diffuse branching processes that receive impulses and conduct them towards the cell body

Slide 175: The neuroglia • The supporting cells • They supply nutrients to the neurons and help maintain the electrical potential • They also form part of the blood- brain barrier

Slide 176: The neuroglia • Oligodendrocytes produce myelin sheath in the CN • Schwann cells produce myelin sheath in the peripheral NS

Slide 180: The Organization of the Nervous System • The nervous system is divided functionally and structurally into 2 pa