Society, Culture and Family Planning with Population Education

Society, Culture and Family Planning
with Population Education
Mylene G. Almario
Instructor

INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY
Sociology is the systematic study of social behaviour
and human groups. It focuses primarily on the influence
of social relationships upon people’s attitudes and
behaviour and on how societies are established and
change.
It deals with families, gangs, business firms, computer
networks, political parties, schools, religions, and
labour unions. It is concerned with love, poverty,
conformity, technology, discrimination, illness,
alienation, overpopulation and community.

DEFINITION OF SOCIOLOGY
 George Simmel - it is a subject which studies human
inter-relationship.
 Max Weber – it is a science which attempts imperative
understanding of social actions.
 Sorokin - sociology is a study first of all the relationship
and correlations between various classes, second
between the social and non social aspects of life and,
third it studies general characteristics common to all
classes of society.

DEFINITION OF SOCIOLOGY
 Ogburn - sociology is concerned with the study of social
life and its relations to the factors of culture, natural
environment, heredity and group.
 Emile Durkheim - It is the science of collective
representation.
 E.S Bugardus - Sociology may be defined as the study of
the ways in which social experiences function in
developing, maturing and repressing human beings
through inter-personal stimulations.

WHY STUDY SOCIOLOGY?
 To obtain factual information about our society and
different aspects of our social life.
 To understand our society and to analyse the social
factors causing problems.
 To learn the application of scientific methodology.
 To enhance broad-mindedness and tolerance of the ways
of the other people.

THE SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION
 According to Charles Wright Mills, it is the ability to
see the relation between our personal life and the social world.
It enables us to see things beyond our established ways of
acting and behaving, and gain a better grasp of the situation
by relating oneself to the bigger society. It is a set of mind
that enables us to locate ourselves in the period in which we
live and study the events in our personal lives against events in
society, thus gaining a wider freedom.
 It can help us understand what is happening to us and why
such social phenomena occur.

SOCIOLOGY IS A SCIENCE?
 According to Robert Stead sociology is a social science and not
a natural science, because it deals with human beings and social
phenomena. It is positive and not normative science because it
studies social phenomena as it is and not as it ought to be. It is
pure and not applied science because it studies underlying factors
of a social phenomenon. Sociology is an abstract and not a
concrete science because it studies society in general. It is a science
of generalization and not that of particularization because it
studies a social problem in general and not in particular way. It
does not study a social phenomenon from a particular angle. It is
an empirical or rational science because it tries to follow logical
method of data collection.

SOCIOLOGY AND OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES
 Anthropology – is the study of humanity and the
similarities and diversity of culture.
 Psychology – it is mainly interested in a wide range of
mental, psychological, and behavioural processes.
 Economics – concerned with the human activities
related to the production, consumption, and distribution
of goods, services, and wealth within societies.
 Political Science – concerned with the history and
theory of government.
 History – the study of past events of human beings.

DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY
EUROPE
Auguste Comte (French)
-he coined term “sociology” which derived from the Latin
word socius (social/being with others), and Greek logos
(study/science).
-Father of Sociology
He believed that in order to improve society the
theoretical science of society should be developed and a
systematic investigation of behaviour should be carried.
-Positive Philosophy – a book summarizes the stages of
development of all knowledge about humanity.

 Karl Marx (Germany)
- He wrote Communist Manifesto together with his life-long
friend Friedrich Engels.
- In Marx’s analysis, society was fundamentally divided
between two classes i.e. Bourgeoisie and Proletariat who
have opposite interests. In his examination of industrial
society, he saw the factory as the centre of conflict
between the exploiters (the owners of the means of
production and the exploited (the workers).

 Emile Durkheim (France)
- He was the first professor of Sociology in the University
of Paris. He taught and became a prolific writer and critic.
- He asserted that behaviour must be understood in that
larger social context, rather an individual action.
- Division of Labour in the Society – rapid social
change and specialized division of labour produce strains
in society.
- Suicide – showed the relationship between the
individual and the society when the values of life become
dangerous.

 Max Weber (Germany)
- He studied legal and economic history in the University
of Heidelberg, where he obtained his doctorate degree at
the age of 25. He taught to his student the “Verstehen”
(sympathetic understanding of the mind of others).
- He believed that understanding human action by
examining the subjective meaning that people attach to
their own behaviour and the behaviour of others. The
significance of the subjective perceptions of power,
wealth, ownership, and social prestige, as well as the
objective aspects of these factors.

 Henri Saint-Simon
- He believed that the law of human behaviour could be
determine in the same manner that the law of nature had
been arrived at by natural scientist.
 Herbert Spencer
- His theory of social evolution espoused the idea that
societies develop from relative homogeneity and
simplicity to heterogeneity and complexity. (survival of the
fittest)

Other sociologist were:
 George Simmel
Ferdinand Toennies
Wilfredo Pareto
Karl Mannheim

UNITED STATES
Robert E. Park – pioneered in the multi-disciplinary
approach and social ecology.
James Adams – popular female social thinkers who
studies in the impoverished areas of Chicago.
Charles Horton Cooley
Herbert Mead
W.I Thomas
- They formulated theories emphasizing the importance of
social interaction in the development of human thought of
action (Symbolic Interaction Perspective)

 William Summer – collected data on the customs and
moral laws of different societies.
 Talcott Parsons – he was the founder of the sociology
department in Harvard, developed general theory of
action that analysed social phenomena ranging from
individual behaviour to the larger structure of society.
He was a follower of Durkheim.
 Robert K. Merton – known for the middle-range
theory (concerning with linking general theory to
empirical testing and developing concept of social
structure – functions, self-fulfilling prophecies, deviance,
and bureaucracies).

PHILIPPINES
-It was introduced in the Philippines after the Spanish Regime.
First thought by Fr. Valentin Marin to criminology at UST, using
social philosophical way.
-It was followed by American educators named A.W Salt and
Murray Barlett (UP-D),Clyde Heflin (Silliman University in
Dumaguete).
-Some Filipino educators named Condrado Benitez and Luis
Rivera also taught sociology in western orientation.
-Serafin N. Macaraeg view sociology as a problem-oriented
discipline using scientific view but wasn’t successful.

- Social sciences studies made by western social sciences on
Philippine ethnic group when sociology and anthropology
were merged by H. Otley Beyer.
- Significance of social facts increasingly became popular in
decision-making, and Benicio Catapusan benchmark the
data collection to the rural community of different region.
- Philippine Sociological Society (PSS) was organized by
different universities such as (ADMU, UP-D and SU-D). The
objective of the organization is to increase knowledge about
social behaviour, gather data about social problems, train
social sciences teachers and develop cooperation to the other
countries.

- Philippine Social Science Council (PSSC) (1968), was
formed to improved the quality and relevance of the social
sciences. The PSSC Committee drafted a set of guidelines
regarding the sets of responsibilities of social scientists in the
“New Society”. It stated that Filipino social scientist had made
significant contribution to society and urged them to continue their
tasks under the new social order.
- Some Filipino sociologists named: Randolf David, Cynthia
Bautista, Sylvia Guerrero, Fr. Renato A. Ocampo, and
Ledevina V. Cariño.

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES IN
SOCIOLOGY
Structural – Functionalism Perspective
-It also referred as social system theory, equilibrium theory,
or functionalism.
The society is composed of interrelated parts, each of
which serves a function and contributes to the overall
stability of the society. Societies develop social structure or
institutions that persist because they play a part in helping
society survive. These institutions include the family,
education, government, religion, and the economy. If
anything adverse happens to one of these institutions or
part are affected and the system no longer functions
properly.

SOCIOLOGY
Conflict Perspective
-A group in society are engaged in a continuous power struggle
for control of scare resources. Conflict may take the form of
politics, litigation, negotiations or family discussions about
financial matter. Simmel, Marx and Weber contributed
significantly to this perspective by focusing on the inevitability
of clashes between social groups. Today, advocates of the
conflict perspective view social continuous power struggle
among competing social group.
Conflict theorists are primarily concerned with the kinds of
changes that can bring about, whereas functionalists look for
stability and consensus.

SOCIOLOGY
Symbolic Interaction Perspective
-It focuses on the communication aspects or language that
enables the individual to develop a personal identity within a
society with members having scripted statuses and roles.
-It involves the individuals in the society , their definitions or
perceptions of situations, meanings, roles, and interaction
patterns.
-The society is reflected in every socialized individual, and its
external forms an structures are likewise reflected through
the social institutions occurring among individuals at the
symbolic level.

GOALS OF SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
 To understand the observable social world.
 To test or verify a hypothesis.
 To present repetitive human pattern of behaviour
according to logically related hypothesis and supported
by empirical evidence.
 To be meaningful.

STEPS IN CONDUCTING SOCIOLOGICAL
INQUIRY
 Define the research problem and review related
literature.
 Formulate the hypothesis.
 Plan the research design.
 Gather the data.
 Analyse the data.
 Check or verify the results.
 Communicate the results to others.

METHODOLOGICAL DESIGN IN
SOCIOLOGY
 Experimental Method – it is a method for studying the
relation between two or more variables under highly controlled
conditions.
 Survey Research – it involves a systematic and large-scale
collection of information from people and about the people
through the use of questionnaire.
 Field Research (Participant Observation) – the researcher/s
goes to the field lives with the people for some months, and
participates in their activities in order to know and feel their
culture.
 Participatory Research – this method utilizes the people
who are the actual targets of the development projects, in the
entire research process.

TECHNIQUES AND TOOLS IN
SOCIOLOGICAL INQUIRY
 Observation – it uses various senses in studying a social
phenomenon or social behaviour. It can be overt or covert.
 Interviews
 Structured interview – the researcher followed a more
definite order of questions.
 Unstructured interview – the researcher leaves the it to the
key informants to guide the conversation.
- Interview can also be guided by a questionnaire.
 Historical Research – this involves the continuous and
systematic search for information and knowledge about past
events related to the life of a person, a group, society, or the
world.

TECHNIQUES AND TOOLS IN
SOCIOLOGICAL INQUIRY
 Life History – study of personal life of a person.
 Case Study – an extensive examination of a specific
group over a long period of time is carried out. Ex. A
case study of a drug addict, a prostitute, a professional or
a gang.
 Content Analysis – this involves the analysis of how
people communicate and the messages people talk or
write about.
 Use of films and Tape recorder – used to gain more
accurate data such as the visual information and to
preserve in formation.

EVOLUTION OF HUMAN
A). Origin of Species (Sir Charles Darwin)
It traced the biological evolution of living organisms from
simple unicellular amoeba to the most complex multi
cellular organism like human being.
B). Theory of Creation

EVOLUTION OF SOCIETY
A) Hunting and Gathering Society
-It is the oldest and the simplest form of society. It was also
characterized by a small and sparse population and having a
nomadic way of life and a very primitive technology. They have
the most primitive tools such as stone axes, spears and knives.
(e.g. Eskimo tribe)
B) Horticultural Society
-It was associated with the elementary discovery that plants can
be grown from seeds. While herding is common in areas with
poor soil, horticultural is more common as means of
subsistence in regions with fertile soil.(e.g. Masai tribe in Kenya)

EVOLUTION OF SOCIETY
Agricultural or Feudal Society
-This society introduced the harnessing of animal power. The
mode of production of the hunter gathering society which
produces none of its food, and the horticultural society which
produces food in small gardens rather than big fields. (e.g. early
Egyptian society)
Industrial Society
-This is a society based on the modern scientific knowledge.
(e.g. European modern era)
Post-Industrial Society
-It described the economic and social changes in the late
twentieth century.

SOCIAL GROUP
Society
- It includes the totality of social organizations and the
complex network of interconnected, interdependent, and
overlapping social relationships.
-A large social grouping whose members share the same
geographical territory and are subject to the political
authority and dominant cultural expectations.
-According to Perucci and Knudsen: Society have two
aspects. A) society is external to individual B) The
members perceive society and its experiences as a
constraints upon their lives.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL
GROUPS
 Collection of individuals.
 Interaction among members.
 Mutual awareness.
 “We”-feeling.
 Group unity and solidarity.
 Common interests.
 Group norms.
 Size of the groups.
 Groups are dynamics.
 Stability.

SOCIAL GROUP
Clusters of the Society
Aggregates – a number of persons cluster but do not
interact with each other. (Example: people standing in a
street corner waiting for a jeepney)
Social Category – the groups whose members may
never met and do not interact socially, but possess
common identifying status characteristics. (Example: males,
females, infants, adults)
Collectivity – temporary group like crowds, masses,
public, and social movements interacting with each other,
but the interactions are passing or short-lived.

TYPES OF SOCIAL GROUPS
PRIMARY GROUP SECONDARY GROUP
- They are characterized by
intimacy, sympathetic
understanding and
friendliness among the
members.
- The small face-to-face
structures, where
personalities are fused into
common whole.
- They tend to impose the
patterns of conformity on
their members.
- They serve to offset the
prejudices or vested control
of the immediate locality.
- This may be observed in the
planning of business, labour,
economic, political and
religious organizations.

GEMEINSCHAFT GESSELSCHAFT
- Close communal relationship
or community.
- It is a community of intimate,
private, and exclusive living
and familism.
- They live and work together
and share a common
language, traditions, and
customs which are not
questioned.
- Organized impersonal
relationship or society.
- There is division of labour,
specialization, functional
dependence, and solidarity
or cohesion are achieved.
- The members are guided by
rational will characterized by
forethought and deliberation.

IN-GROUP OUT-GROUP
- The individual identifies and
which gives on her a sense of
belonging, solidarity,
camaraderie, espirits de corps,
and a protective attitude
towards the other members.
- “we are in”
- It is a group which an
individual is in sufficient
contact with as to be
aware of its existence, but
he or she is prone to
criticize.
- “they are out”

FORMAL ORGANIZATIONS INFORMAL GROUPS
- They are social structures
which are deliberately
organized for the attainment
of specific goals which meet
their most fundamental
needs.
- Examples: schools, hospitals,
churches, industrial
establishments, etc.
- They are within the
structure of formal
organizations.
- They may introduced new
and unofficial goals into the
group, redefine channels of
communications and
interactions, or create new
procedures to get job done.

RACE AND ETHNICITY
RACE ETHNICITY
- The classification of
humans according to
physical characteristics
transmitted at birth to a
group of people.
- It is biological concept is
determined on the basis
of a group’s blood line.
- The culturally defined
differences between
ethnic group in the
society.
- It involves a sharing of
culture and certain culture
traits.

RACE AND ETHNICITY
Ethnic Group
- It refers to the group with common cultural backgrounds.
-The theory of “definition of the situation” in ethnic group
relations implies that, what is important is not the physical
characteristics that identify a group but how such relationship
determine the feeling of belonging to each other.
-The Philippine population is composed of Christian
Malay(91.5%), Muslim Malay (4%), Chinese (1.5%), and
other cultural minorities (3%).

RACE AND ETHNICITY
Minority Group
-It refers to the group that is numerically lesser than the rest of
the population. There are in a non-dominant position, whose
members possess ethnic, religious, or linguistic characteristics
which distinguish them from the rest of the population.
-Some features of minority group are:
a.The members suffer various disadvantages at the and of the
another group.
b.They are identified by group characteristics that are socially
visible.
c.It is a self-conscious group with a strong sense of “oneness).

CULTURE AND ITS SOCIETY
Culture
-It is that complex whole which includes knowledge belief, art,
law, morals custom and other capabilities and habit acquired by
man as a member of society. (Edward Taylor)
-It is the complex whole that consists of all the ways we think
and do and everything we have as member of society. (Robert
Bierstadt)
-The realm of styles of values of emotional attachments of
intellectual adventures. (MacIver and Page)
Therefore, culture define as the sum total of behaviour traits
which a person, comes to acquire through instruction and learning.

FUNCTIONS OF CULTURE
 Culture defines situations.
 Culture is the treasury of knowledge.
 Culture provides behaviour patterns.
 Culture defines attitudes, values and goals.
 Culture models personality.
 Culture decides our careers.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
 Culture is learned.
 Culture is transmitted.
 Culture is social and collective.
 Culture is ideational.
 Culture is gratifying.
 Culture is adaptive.
 Culture is an integrated whole.
 Culture is shared.

COMPONENTS OF CULTURE
A. Knowledge - the total range of what has been or perceived
as true. It includes:
a)Natural knowledge – the accumulated facts about the natural
world, including both the biological and physical aspects.
b)Technological knowledge – these are useful in dealing practical
problems.
c)Supernatural knowledge – the perception about the actions of
gods, demons, angels or spirits.
d)Magical knowledge – perceptions about the methods of
influencing supernatural events by manipulating certain laws of
nature.

B. Norms – It pertains to society’s standards of propriety,
morality, ethics and legality. Some examples are: eating,
talking, dressing, cooking, courtship, child rearing, working,
spending leisure time and some special occasions.
-It was divided into three: folkways, mores and laws.
i. Folkways – are commonly known as the customs,
traditions, and conventions of society.
Example: In the Tagalog areas, people eat three
times a day with merienda in the afternoon.

ii. Mores - norms people consider vital to their well being and
most cherished values; they are special customs with moral and
ethical significance, which are strongly held and emphasized.
Kinds of Mores
1.Positive mores/Duty - it refers to the behavior, which must
and ought to be done because they are ethically and morally
good. E.g. Giving assistance to the poor and needy.
2.Negative mores/Taboo - it refers to societal prohibitions
on certain acts which must not be done because they are not
only illegal, but amoral and unethical. E.g. incest, rape, cannibalism,
murder etc

iii. Laws - these are formalized norms enacted by people
vested with legitimate authority. They are group
expectations, which have formal sanction by the state.
Examples: Republic Acts, Revised Penal Code of the Philippines,
statutes and Batas Pambansa.


C. Ideas, Beliefs and Values
i.Ideas - the non-materials aspects of culture and embody
man’s conception of his physical and cultural world. E.g.
idea of a marriage, an educated person
ii.Beliefs - the person’s conviction about a certain idea, it
embodies people’s perception of reality and includes the
primitive ideas of the universe as well as the scientist’s
empirical view of the world. E.g. spirits, life after death,
superstitions
iii.Values - abstract concept of what is important and
worthwhile. E.g. nationalism, heroism

D. Material Culture - the concrete and tangible objects
produced and used by man to satisfy his varied needs and
wants. It ranges from the pre-historic stone tools and
weapons to sophisticated and modern spaceships and
weapons of mass destruction. E.g. artifacts (simple man-made
tools and objects such as knapped flint, which presents evidence
of an ancient culture).
E. Symbols - refers to an object, gesture, sound, color or
design that represent something “other than itself “. E.g.
Cross for Christianity, Dove for peace.

ASPECTS OF CULTURE
Cultural Relativism - states that cultures differ, so that a
cultural act trait, act, idea has no meaning or function by itself,
but has a meaning only within its cultural setting.
Culture Shock - the feeling of disbelief, disorganization and
frustration one experiences when he encounters cultural
patters or practices which are different from his.
Ethnocentrism - the tendency to see the behaviors, beliefs,
values, and norms of one’s owns group as the only right way of
living and to judge other by those standards.
Xenocentrism - the idea that what is foreign is best and that
one’s lifestyle, products or ideas are inferior to those others.

ASPECTS OF CULTURE
Noble Savage Mentality - the evaluation of one’s culture that
of others based on the romantic notion that the culture and way
of life of the primitives or other simple cultures is better, more
acceptable, and more orderly.
Subculture - the smaller group which develop norms, values,
beliefs and special languages which make them distinct from the
broader society.
Counterculture or contra-culture - the subgroups whose
standards come in conflict with and oppose the conventional
standards of the dominant culture.

ASPECTS OF CULTURE
Culture Lag - the gap between the material and non-
material culture.
Cultural Diversity - the differences and variety of beliefs
practices, values and meanings to each culture universal by
the members of a society or by different cultural group.
Universal Patterns of Culture - the broad areas of
social living found in all societies. The features and elements
common to all cultures rather than to the special culture
traits.

VALUES
INCONSISTENCY AND CONFLICT
A) Affective – a person’s choice is prized and cherished,
and the person publicly affirms it. (e.g. one’s valuing his/her
professions, but not saying “teacher lang po ako”)
B) Behavioural – if ones values something, he or she
shows this in his or her actions, acts positively about it, and
does it habitually. (e.g. values honestly does not cheat because it is he right
thing to do not because someone is watching)
C) Cognitive – something that one’s values should be
chosen freely from alternatives after careful thought. (e.g. A
woman who decides to marry must have a good reason in doing so.)

BASIC FILIPINO VALUES
 Emotional closeness and security in a family,
however it tends to make the Filipino a nation of
dependent people.
 Approval from authority and of society.
 Economic and social betterment. This can be
considered a positive value, but negates itself if one goes
to the extent of “selling” oneself and sacrificing other
values.
 Patience, endurance and suffering.

ADOPTED FILIPINO VALUES
 Equal opportunity
 Achievement and success
 Material comfort
 Activity and work
 Practically and efficiency
 Progress
 Science
 Democracy and free enterprise
 Freedom
 Racism and group superiority

KEY VALUES THAT DOMINATE IN
PHILIPPINE WAY OF LIFE
Non-rationalism Rationalism
- States that the people
have to adapt themselves
to nature and the forces
outside themselves.
- The belief that one can
actively control and
manipulate his or her
destiny by systematic
planning, studying, and
training.

Personalism Interpersonalism
- It attach to the major
importance to personal
factors which guarantees
intimacy, warmth and
security of kinship, and
friendship in getting things
done.
- The tendency to eliminate
the influence the
friendship or kinship in
working situation.

Particularism Universalism
- A person concern’s is
centred on subgroups
made up of relatives,
friends, colleagues,
associates, religious
affiliates of his/her ethnical
regional group.
- Ethical rules
- A person’s concern is the
advancement of the
collective national good.
- Legal rules

Filipino Nationalism
-The advocacy of making ones own nation distinct and
separate from others in the intellectual, social, cultural,
economic, political, and moral matters.
-It is the feeling of oneness among the nationals who seek
to establish the identity and the good of the nation in these
matters.

Questions:
How does a newly born baby become a human or social
being?
How much our personality determine by our biological
inheritance (nature)?
How much our personality determine by socio-cultural
environment (nurture)?

PERSONALITY AND THE SOCIAL SELF
Human Development
Nature Nurture
- Biological traits
transferred from parents
to offspring through genes
in the chromosomes of
the sex are composed of
biological structures,
psychological process,
reflexes, urges, capacity,
intelligence, and other
physical traits.
- Influence one’s action
patterns and motivational
skills, factual knowledge,
values and tastes.
- It is the socio-cultural
activity in the
environment.

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
Freud’s Theory of Socialization
- According to Sigmund Freud, personality consisted of
the three major systems, namely: the id, ego, and
superego.
A. Id – is the biological component which is the source of a
number of drives and urges.
B. Ego – the mediator between the needs of the individual
and the real world.
C. Superego – the moral arm of the personality,
representing the traditional rules, values and ideals of the
society.

Stages of Development
1) Oral Stage – from birth to one year old. Eating (sucking) is the
major satisfaction of this stage that gives the baby nourishment
and pleasure. Freud described this stage as one primary
narcissism or self-love.
2) Anal Stage – from ages one to three years. The anal zone
become the centre of the child’s sexual interest. The influencing
factors at this stage is toilet training.
3) Phallic Stage – between the ages of three to six years. The
greatest source of pleasure comes from the sex organs. The
child feels erotic desires towards the parents of the opposite
sex. (Oedipus Complex and Electra Complex)

Stages of Development
4) Latency Stage – from ages six to eleven or early adolescent.
Their energies are redirected into concrete, socially acceptable
pursuit such as sports, games, and intellectual. The child possess
new composure and self-control.
5) Genital Stage (Puberty) – they focus on the opposite sex, look
around for a potential love-partner, prepare for marriage and
adult responsibilities.

Symbolic Interactionism
- This theory poses that the self-identity is developed
through the social interaction with others,
mediated by language in the process of
socialization.
- Language is crucial in the development of social-self.
- The symbols that constitute a language represent
concepts by which the person engaged in cooperative
activity acquires the attitudes of others involved in the
activity.

Looking-Glass Self
- Charles Horton Cooley
- The ability of children to visualize themselves
through the eyes of others, to imagine how they
appear to others.
- Three Elements of Looking-Glass Self
1. The imagination of how we appear to other persons.
2. The imagination of the judgement of that appearance.
3. A sort of self-feeling (pride or mortification).

Development of the Self
- George Herbert Mead expanded the idea of Cooley’s
idea of the social-self by relating the idea of the self-
concept to the role taking.
- Stages:
1. Play stage – they acquire a sense of self when they
develop the “me” or self-consciousness by seeing
themselves through the responses.
2. Game stage - they visualize their own action as a part of
a whole pattern of group activity.

Dramaturgical Approach
- Erving Goffman said that “All the world is a stage”
- The individuals are performing and acting for their
audience in everyday life.
- This theory elaborated the idea of role (acting in
accordance with the expected norms attached to a particular
position) and role performance (the actual conduct of the
role in accordance with the position).
Example: a priest/nun expected to be humble and compassionate

DEFINITIONS OF SOCIALIZATION
Socialization
-It is a life long process which enables the individual to learn
the content of her/his culture and the many behavioural
patterns of the group to which s/he belongs.
-It is process by which the helpless infant gradually becomes
self aware, knowledgeable person, skilled in the ways of
culture into which he or she is born. (Anthony Giddens)
-It is a learning process of development of habits, attitudes
and traits that differentiate individual from one another.
(Anderson and Parker)

PROCESS OF SOCIALIZATION
Stages of Process of Socialization
1. Imitation - self-conscious assumption of another’s acts or
roles.
2. Suggestion – the process of communicating information
which has not logical or self-evident basis.
3. Identification – the child cannot make a difference
between his/her own organism and the environment.
4. Language - It is the medium of social interaction.

AGENCIES OF SOCIALIZATION
Family
- The family is a permanent, the most complete and
primary institution that looks after the needs of an
individual. It is usually the most influential group in the
child’s life.
- The child comes in contact with human beings specially
the mother and the child has physical and social contact.
- It serves as a mediator between the individual and the
other agencies of socialization.
- The children learn to cooperate, compete, accommodate.

Church
- The children are brought to the church by their parents
as early as infancy and are initiated early into saying their
prayers and forming a notion of God.
- This is the agency where the children learn the norms of
conduct and codes of behaviour set forth by the church.
What s right and wrong are delineated, and
prescriptions of rewards and punishments established.
- Involvement in such organizations influences the
individual’s outlook and attitudes.

School
- It was considered to be an important formal setting
where the child spends many hours together with friends
and teachers.
- This the first formal agency which exposes the child to
the rules of larger society.
- This agency is responsible for inculcating knowledge and
skills, which prepare them for adulthood and become
productive and effective citizens of the country, however,
many children from poor families cannot afford higher
education.

Peer Group
- Peer group refers to people of almost the same who
share similar interests. The informal grouping of two or
more members, more or less of the same age,
neighbourhood, or school.
- The office norm, or the unwritten rules of behaviour, is a
product of peer socialization.
- This is the only agency of socialization not controlled
primarily by adults.
- They had no definite set of goals except companionship,
thus, values were observed such as utang na loob,
pakikisama, or damay.

Workplace
- Occupation brings about reality in front of the person as
the individual earns for survival to fulfil his ambition.
Personal goals and basic needs are fulfilled.
- The individual learns to cooperate, adjust with others at
the work place. This were provided in the form of
apprenticeship, orientation sessions, and training
seminars.
- The commitment wherein the work becomes part of the
person’s self-identity.

Mass Media
- It refers to all instruments of communication such as
television, radio, newspapers, magazines, movies, and
records. Media imparts information through audio visual
and print.
- Its function are primarily to inform, entertain, and educate.
- Radio and television programs transmit music and other
forms of entertainment to the viewers.
- To children, television is very appealing, and has a certain
extent, become a substitute for activities like reading or
playing, however, some TV shows are infused with sex,
crime, scandals, or gossips.

GENDER SOCIALIZATION
First three word for a new born baby:
“It’s a boy” or “It’s a girl”
Sex
-Refers to the biological or anatomical differences between
males and females.
Gender
-The psychological, social, and cultural differences between
males and females.
“Gender socialization begins from the moment that
the baby was born.”

POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION
- The process by which people come to acquire political
attitudes and values. There are four types of political
socialization such as;
1. Manifest socialization - the certain values and feelings
towards a political system are directly expressed.
2. Latent manifestation - there is no direct approach to the
problems, and that ideas are transmitted indirectly.
3. Particularistic socialization – the political ideas of
individuals are directed towards a particular value, which they
are required to adhere and appreciate.
4. Universalistic socialization - the political energies are not
directed in one direction, but a liberal outlook is developed.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Family
- The simplest form of social institution each members
have its own role in the society. It unites the individuals
into cooperative group to oversee the bearing and raising
of children.
- The family is built on kinship based on blood, marriage,
and adoption.
- It consists of a social structure providing a more or less
stable framework for the performance of reciprocal roles
and of certain functions to make the relationship
enduring..

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Types of Family
Based on internal organization/membership
A. Nuclear Family
-It is composed of a husband and his wife and their children
in a union recognized by the other members of the family.
A nuclear family classified into two:
1.Family of Orientation (origin) – the family into which one is
born, and where one is reared or socialized.
2.Family of Procreation – the family established through
marriage and consists of a husband, a wife, sons and a
daughter.

Family of
Orientation
Family of
Procreation
Fig. 1.1. Nuclear Family

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Types of Family
B. Extended Family
-It is composed of two or more nuclear families,
economically and socially related to each other.
-The extensions may be through the parent-child
relationship; where the unmarried and married children
lives with their families live with their parents.
-This type of family emphasizes independent residence,
strong allegiance to the members, romantic love, and
sexual attraction.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Types of Family
Based of Structure
A. Conjugal Family
-The spouse and their offspring as of prime importance and
which has a fringe comparatively unimportant relatives.
Marital bond is emphasized.
B. Consanguine Family
- The nucleus of blood relatives as more important than
the spouses. Blood relationships formed during are
emphasized.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Types of Family
Based on Descent
A. Patrilineal
-Descent affiliates a person with a group of relatives
through his or her father.
B. Matrilineal
-Descent affiliates a person with a group of relatives related
through his or her mother.
C. Bilateral
- Descent affiliates a person with a group of relatives
related both to his and her parents.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Types of Family
Based on Residence
A. Patrilocal
-The newly weds are expected to live in the same house
close to the groom’s family and common in rural areas.
- This is consistent with the expectation of society that “a
man must always provide for the needs of his family”.
B. Matrilocal
-The wife brings her husband to her parent’s house. This is
most common when the wife is the only child/daughter or
the last of the offspring to get married.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Types of Family
Based on Residence
C. Neolocal
-The couple established residence independent and far form
their parent’s residence.
-This is most prevalent in the urban areas and couples are
financially stable.
D. Bilocal
-The couple has the option to live either with the bride’s or
groom’s family.
-The couple resorted to this method if they are financially
stable.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Types of Family
Based on Authority
A. Patriarchal Family
-It gives the oldest male (husband-male) control over the rest
of the members. This is most dominant in many societies since
the biblical times.
-The males speak for the familial group with regard to property
relationship, legal obligations, and criminal offenses.
B. Matriarchal Family
- An extremely rare phenomenon, which is a system where
the wife-mother has the authority and power over husband-
father.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Types of Family
C. Egalitarian Family
-The authority is divided more or less between husband
and wife. This is promoted by the bilateral system of
descent.
D. Matricentric Family
- The father commutes to work and his absence gives the
mother a dominant position in the family, although the
father may also share with the mother in decision-making.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Functions of the Family
 Regulates sexual behaviour
 Reproduction
 Performs biological maintenance
 Socialization
 Status-placement
 Welfare and protection

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Social Change and the Family
- The family can be a source of social change instigator and a
recipient as well.
- More favourable attitude to working women and mothers due
to increase educational and job opportunities, decrease
number of children and law protecting the women’s and
children’s rights.
- Changing role structure of the family due to employment of
wives, household chores and child care are shared with
spouses.
- Changing in the authority of husbands and father due to
wives’ increased economic independence.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
- Decline of the family’s influence on the individual member
if activities are carried outside the home.
- Industrial system, economic individualism and
employment offers the individual the opportunity to
develop skills, and feel privileged to choose mate
personally.
- More permissive norms and behaviour due to city-life
urbanization where daily process of commuting an
working away from home tends to undercut family ties.
- Breakdown of consanguineal family as a functional unit.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
- Dual earner and dual career marriage –provision for the
economic needs of the family is responsibility of both
spouses.
- Mate selection – due to independence we can now select
whom we want to marry.
- Solo parenthood
- Gender role (redefinition of roles)
- Change patterns in child-rearing

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Economy
- It refers to the structuring and functioning of the
development and utilization of human and natural
resources in the production, processing, distribution, and
consumption and material goods and services.
- It can influence habits, skills, knowledge, expectations,
motivations, aspirations, and ideology.
- It also affects social norms, values, and personal
relationships within the society.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Sociology of Economy
 Property – the network of “rights and duties of one person
as against all other persons and groups with respects to some
scarce goods”.
 Technology – it consists of knowledge, skills, and attitudes
necessary to convert available resources into objects people
need or want.
 Division of Labour – represent the differentiation of function
performed by the individual member and small groups of the
society.
 Organization of Work – concerned with application of
sociological principles to the study of economic structures,
changes in these structures, and the values and ideologies
related to them.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Types of Economic Systems
 Capitalism – it focuses on the right to own private
property, to invest it as capital productive enterprises,
and to obtain profits form each investment.
 Socialism – based on the set political theories that
espouses the collective ownership of the means of
productions and distribution of goods.
 Communism – it is a social, political, and economic
system whereby property is publicly owned.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Function of Economy
1. Provides physical subsistence necessary for group
survival in a society.
2. Generates social changes for the continuity of society.
3. Maintain a balance with the other social systems and its
social subsystems in the production, processing,
distribution, and consumption of economic goods and
services.
4. Indicates the nature of social stratification in the
society, social class, and mobility differences.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Religion
- It is a universal and widespread phenomenon, a part of the
cultural system.
- It is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred
things, uniting into a single, moral community all those who
adhere to those beliefs and practices. (Durkheim)
- According to Edward Taylor (1968), religion came about as people
tried to comprehend occurrences and conditions which they could
not understand or explain.
- According to Anthony Giddens, all religions involves a set of symbols
which arouses feelings of reverence and awe, and are linked to
ceremonial rituals such as church services practiced by a community
of believers.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Elements of Religion
1. Beliefs – set of institutionalized beliefs and practices
dealing with the ultimate meaning of life. (e.g. engkanto)
2. The sacred (reverence) and the profane (irreverence)
3. Rituals (prayers, songs etc.) and ceremonies (baptism,
wedding etc.)
4. Moral community – the believers of the religions who
shares common beliefs, rituals, and subjective
experiences to heighten up group identification.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Functions of Religion
Functionalist Perspective
Religion provides explanation the unknown and some
measure of certainty in an unknown world.
Religion gives meaning and purpose to certain beliefs and
provides people with a perspective for looking at the
world.
Religion integrates and maintains the fundamental values
form the ultimate values of the Supreme Being to the
subordinate, material, and practical values.
Religion allays the fears and anxieties of an individual by
reassuring them of the care and protection of their deity

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Religion has an integrative function and is means of social
cohesion or group solidarity.
Religion performs welfare, education and recreation
functions.
Religion serves as a means of social control.
Religion legitimizes the foundation of the society’s culture
and integrates the value system of society.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Social-Conflict Perspective
Religion is the “opiate of the people”. It can provide unity
for those with the faith, but it can spur conflict between
opposing religious group. (Karl Marx)
Symbolic – Interactionist Perspective
It focused their attention on micro-level analysis and
examines the meanings and significance of the teaching,
doctrines, and symbols of religions in an individual’s life.
The religious symbols come to the fore and one gains
strength or courage danger and even death.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Types of Religious Institutions
 Church
- It is a type of religious organization that is well integrated
into the larger society with well established rules and
doctrines.
- A church generally accepts the norms and values of the
society and frequently regards itself as the guardian of the
established social order.
- It identifies with the state and is integrated with the
social, political and educational functions.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Types of Religious Institutions
 Sect
- A highly cohesive group of believers who strictly adhere
to a religious doctrine and reject many beliefs and
practices of the general society and replace them with
beliefs and practices which may appear strange to the
non believer.
 Cult
- It is a religious organization often inspired by a
charismatic leader and largely outside a society’s cultural
tradition. People voluntarily follow a leader who preaches
new beliefs and practices.

SOCIAL INSTITUITONS
Sub-concept about Religion
Folk Catholicism/Folk Protestantism – the beliefs and
practices of indigenous that are woven into Christian
practices. (e.g. anting-anting, mangkukulam etc.)
Split-level Christianity - two or more thought-and-
behaviour system which are inconsistent with each other
coexist within the same person. (e.g. a person who gets
married, prepares an elegant and grant feast for the occasion,
but continue to maintain a querida)
Magic and Faith Healing - mysterious thing and
practices related to supernatural forces beyond the five
senses. (e.g. psychic power)

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Political Institutions
- It is the social arrangements for legislating and enforcing
laws, and providing social services like education, public
health, and welfare, distributing public funds, collecting
taxes, conducting foreign affairs, and deciding on issues of
war and peace.
- It involves the theory, art, and practice of government.
- They consist of relatively stable cluster of norms,
statuses, and roles that are involved in the acquisition and
exercise of power and decision-making.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
State and Government
State
-It is organized under a government that exercises
authority over its subjects with the legitimate monopoly of
physical force, to imprison and even executes members
within its jurisdiction. The state exercises its political
authority through governments at the national, state and
local levels.
Government
-It is a complex legal system that has the power and
authority to carry out the functions of the state. The
government consists of the legislature, executive and
judiciary.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Basis of Power in Philippine Politics
 Voting – right to suffrage (Art. V)
 Political Counselling – information middlemen in cities
were consulted on political, legal and other technical matters
by voters.
 Patronage – straight buying and selling of votes operates
with a network of personalized reciprocity.
 Moulding of public opinion – the efforts to provide more
scientific public opinion polling are done by professional
statistical centres.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Power beyond the Law
 People Power – large gathering of unarmed people
united by set of political call.
 Corruption – impedes sustainable development, robs
the children of today of the resources they will need to
survive.
 Terrorism – acts of violence or the threat of violence
employed by an individual or group as a political strategy.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Education
- It defined as a preparation for effective participation in social
relation. It is the controlled process whereby changes in
behaviour are produced in the person on a group.
- Formal Education – is synonymous with school education. It
consists of sets of definite learning goals and objectives,
generally making use of a more flexible curriculum and more
participative teaching methods.
- Informal Education – learning through interaction with others
outside in the group. Ideas and facts are acquired through
suggestion, observation, example, imitation, and inculcations
from the family, play group, neighbourhood, or occupational
group.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Functions of Education
 To transmit the cultural heritage.
 To help individuals select social roles and to train them
for the roles they have chosen.
 To integrate into the cultural mainstream the various
sub-cultures and identities
 To serve as source of social and cultural innovation.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Key Issues in Philippine Education
 Quality of Education – elementary and secondary students
scored bellows the mean target of 75% based on standardized
tests. This scores is low compared to other countries.
 Accessibility of Education – drop-out rate is higher among
socio-economically disadvantage students. Tertiary schools are
concentrated in the developed areas.
 Government Budget for Education – the Constitution
provides that the highest proportion if the budget should go to
education, but this is hardly applied.
 Mismatch – training and actual jobs are available are not given
due consideration. This result in the unemployment or
underemployment of certificate or degree holders.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Proposed Reform in Philippine Education
 Upgrade the salary of teachers to attract more good students
to train as teachers
 Budget per region is based on participation and unit cost; this
system factors favours the more developed regions
 Expand the scholarship program for poor students in both
public and private tertiary schools
 Encourage participation of the business and industry sector in
higher education
 Development of a rationalized apprenticeship program by the
private sector
 K-12 learning education for the us to follow the international
standard

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
- It is perpetuated by the way wealth, power, and prestige
are distributed and passed on from one generation to the
next.
- The presence of the following were observed:
1. Inequality - the unequal distribution of scarce goods or
resources, exists in many different types of cultures.
2. Social differentiation - how people vary according to
social characteristics.
3. Social stratification - how people are ranked
according to the scarce resources they control.

Class Status
- It defined as the rank or position in a social hierarchy.
The status may be classified as:
i. Ascribed
- Assigned at birth
- Caste system - It represents a rigid form of stratification
based on hereditary status, traditional occupation and
restrictions on social relationships.
i. Achieved
- Earned by performance.
- Class system - It is the classification of people based on
their economic positions in society.

Types of Stratification System
Open Stratification System
-Stratification system in which merit rather than
inheritance (ascribed characteristics) determines social
rank .
-It allows for social change.
-It is reflected in a meritocracy.
-Positions are achieved, not ascribed.
-Characterized by equal opportunity and high social
mobility (movement up or down a social hierarchy).

Social Rank in Open Stratification System
Class – the position in an economic hierarchy
occupied by individuals or families with similar access
to, or control over, material resources (e.g., working
class, professional class).
Class structure - relatively permanent economic
hierarchy comprising different social classes.
Socioeconomic status - the person’s general status
within an economic hierarchy, based on income,
education, and occupation.

Closed Stratification System
-Stratification system in which inheritance rather than
merit determines social rank.
-Little social change possible.
-Reflected in a caste system.
-Positions are ascribed, not achieved.
-Characterized by little social mobility.

Social Mobility in Closed Stratification System
-Is the changing one’s social position, occurs in a variety
of ways.
Upward Mobility -the change to a higher rank.
Downward Mobility – the movement to a lower rank.
Intergenerational Mobility - the change of people’s class
or status within their own lifetime experience.
Intergenerational Mobility - the movement between
generations, usually measured by comparing the
positions of parents and children.

Gender and Age
 Gender Stratification - women all across the globe
have been accorded inferior position in comparison to
men. Men have had and continue to have more physical
and social power and status than women in the public
sphere. (Sexism)
 Age Stratification - it refers to the social ranking of
individuals at different stages in their lives. There is
unequal distribution of wealth, power and privileges
among people at different stages in the life course.
(Ageism)

DEVIANT BEHAVIOUR
Deviant Behaviour
-The behaviour that violates norms.
-It varies in different cultures or in a given culture in a
period of time.
Deviant
-The expression of radical or unusual political or religious
belief.
Deviance
-The function of the pigment of a particular group who
observe the behaviour.

EXPLANATION FOR DEVIANT BEHAVIOUR
Biological
-Being deviant is coming form physical or biological makeup.
-According to some biologist, said that deviant behaviour is
a result of aberrant genetic traits.
Psychological
-Being deviant is a result of personality disorder or
maladjustment that develops during childhood.
-It can be observe in from aggression against others or
against society because of frustration.

SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO DEVIANCE
-According to Durkheim and Merton assert that deviant
behaviour is a consequence of anomie or normlessness
which results from the existence of diverse sets of norms,
with none of them closely binding upon everybody.
Control Theory
-It asserts that deviance is learned. Participation in
subcultures and counter-cultures is part of the
socialization process of being a deviant.

SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO DEVIANCE
Conflict Theory
-The heterogeneous nature of society and the differences in the
distribution of social power lead to a struggle between social
classes. The conflict between the powerful and the weak affect
the creation of deviance and society’s response to it.
Symbolic Interactionism
- As the people interact with a deviant, they acquire the
techniques, motives, drive, and attitudes appropriate to such
behaviour. Labelling theory, is also belong to this perspective
explaining on how crime and deviance become defined and
labelled and the effect on a person being so labelled, especially by
official agencies and other persons.

FORMS OF DEVIANT BEHAVIOUR
 Drug abuse
- The use of drugs, lawful or unlawful, which result in
physical, emotional, social, or behavioural impairment.
 Crime
- The violation of a norm codified into law and carries
punishment for it. The result of crime is injury to the
individual and the society.

SOCIAL CHANGE
- The alterations in the patterns and regulations regarding social
interaction.
- This is manifested in the rise and fall of groups, communities,
or institutional structures and functions, or changes in the
statuses and roles of members in the family, works setting,
church, school, government, leisure, and other subsystems of
the social organizations.
- Its dimensions includes the transformation of culture and social
institutions over time.
- The changes in the society involves the comparisons of the
past and present in the hope for improvement, stability, or
security in the future.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL
CHANGE
1. It happens everywhere although the rate varies from
place to place.
2. Social change is sometimes intentional but often
unplanned.
3. Social change often generates controversy.
4. Social change are more important than fads and
fashions which only have a passing significance, like
innovations.

SOCIAL CHANGE AND TECHNLOGICAL
DEVELOPMENT
There are social patterns which are inked to
industrialization. Peter Berger notes four general
characteristics of modernizations:
1.The decline of small, traditional communities.
2.The expansions of personal choices. People see their lives
as an unending series of options.
3.Increasing social diversity. Traditions loses its hold and
morality becomes a matter of individual attitude.
4.Future orientation and growing awareness of time.
Changes of thinking in terms of sunlight and seasons to
hours and minutes.

LEVEL OF HUMAN ACTION AND
CHANGE
1ST
: Individual personality – it focuses to externally induced
stimuli which are stimuli abstracted from the social world that
is either ignored or considered relevant.
2nd
: Interaction among individuals – this involves not only
in the relation among human beings but also the personality
development virtually entirely from human interaction.
3rd
: Group of social systems – explains that the unit of
analysis, particularly the emergent properties of the group
where the social level is thought to reside.
4th
: Cultural system – the major emphasis is given by society
to the learning and transmission of values and symbols.

THEORIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE
Evolutionary Theory - characterized primarily by an
assumption of smooth, cumulative change, often in a linear
fashion, and always in the direction of increasing complexity and
adaptability.
Equilibrium Theory - characterized by the concept of
homeostasis, and focuses on conditions tending towards stability
as a consequence.
Conflict Theory - characterized by the assumption that change
is endemic to all social organisms, and focuses on conditions that
tend towards instability as a consequence.
Rise and Fall Theory – characterized by the assumption that
societies, cultures, or civilization regress as well as grow, and
that all societies do not move in the same direction.

CAUSES, SOURCES AND BARRIERS
OF SOCIAL CHANGES
- It is the result of cultural change and/or technological
change, and it can influence either or both. Its rate,
direction, and form can be gauged through the factors of
time, place, goals, and objectives.
- It is caused by the interplay of a large number of non-
social and social factors.
- Some sources of social change are evolution, discovery,
invention, and diffusion. Its order may be understood in
terms of how individuals, groups, or institutions accept
change.

What are the impacts of social change?

SOCIAL MOVEMENT
- It is a type of collectivity composed of people who share
sentiments or grievances who unite to promote or resist
change.
- It is directed toward changing the established norms,
values, or social structures. Somehow, it challenges the
existing social order.
- They are large, sometimes informal, groupings of
individuals or organizations which focus on specific
political or social issues.
- Ideology is an important value of social movement.

TYPES OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS
According to Scope
1.Reform movement – they advocate changing some norms
and laws. (e.g. revisions of laws/norms if is not effective)
2. Radical movement – they dedicate to change the value
systems in a fundamental way. (e.g. monarchy to democracy)
According to Change
1. Innovation movement – they want to introduce/change
particular norms, values, etc. (e.g. changing particular aspects
in general way)
2. Conservative movement – they want to preserve existing
norms, values, etc. (e.g. preservation of norms: pagmamano)

According to Targets
1.Group-focus movement – hey focused on affecting group in the
society in general. (e.g. people who are involved specifically in a one
perspective)
2.Individual-focused movement – they focused on the affecting
individual. (e.g. religious movement)
According to methods of work
1.Peaceful movements – various movements which use non-violent
means of protest as part of a campaign of non-violent resistance.
2.Violent movements – various movements which resort to
violence.

According to Range
1.Global – social movement with global objectives and goals.
2.Local – social movement with local scope.
According to level of support/activity
1.Insiders – often exaggerate the level of support by
considering people supporters whose level of activity/support
is weak.
2.Outsiders – those who may tend either
underestimate/overestimate the level of support/activity of
elements of a movement, by including/excluding those that
insiders would exclude/include.

SOCIAL MOVEMENT THEORIES
 Collective action theories (Robert E. Park) – states that the
behaviour is always driven by group dynamics,
encouraging people to engage in acts they might consider
unthinkable under typical social circumstances.
 Relative deprivation theory – it emphasize the individual
experience of discontent when being deprived of
something to which one believes to be self to be entitled.
 Marxist theory/Conflict theory- commonly exist in the
economic functions.
 Value-added/Social strain theory – states that the rapid
social changes came from social movements.

COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOUR
- The forms of social behaviour bot guided by usual
conventions and involving a transgression of established
institutional patterns and structures. (Turner and Killian)
- It occurs in stress situations, usually brought by social
changes, and is characterized by a high degree of
emotions.
- It refers to “ways of thinking” feeling, and acting that
develop among a large number of people which are
relatively spontaneous and unstructured.

TYPES OF COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOUR
 Crowd – is a transitory group of persons in an ambiguous and, to some
degree, unstructured situation in which participants do not have a clear
and pre-existing knowledge of how to behave, but feel that they can do
something to correct the situation.
Types of Crowd
1. Casual crowd – loosely organized and very momentary type of grouping
whose member come and go. (e.g. people in a midnight sale)
2. Conventionalized crowd – established regular ways of behaving, depending
upon the time and place of performance and order of activities. (e.g.
people in ball games)
3. Acting crowd – volatile group of excited person whose attention is
focused on a controversial or provocative issue which arouses action if
not indignation.

 Mass – composed of desperate individuals, each
responding independently to the same stimulus in a
similar way.
- The mass has no social organization, no established
leader, no structure of statuses and roles.
- The mass behaviour must be observe in migration
evacuation (refugee), reported sties of miracles, sensational
crime trial, public scandal or dramatic scandal or Typhoon
Yolanda victim.

 Public – the members are confronted by issues and they
discuss, argue, debate, compromise, and form composite
views.
- The public behaviour can be seen on the issue of public
opinion and through the use of mass communication
(newspaper, radio, television, motion picture, movie, and
internet).
 Social movement (see previous discussion)

THEORIES ON COLLECTIVE
BEHAVIOUR
 Convergence perspective – according this theory the
participants have common characteristics such as similarity in
social positions based on income, education, social class, and
relative deprivation.
 Emergent perspective – according this theory collective
behaviour is not characterized by unanimity but by differences
in expressions and emotions.
 Smelser’s Value Added Approach –it assess the
behaviour involved and work out some forms of social
control.

COMMUNITY
- It is a social organization that is territorially localized and
through which its members satisfy most of their daily needs
and deal with most of their common problems.
- A social grouping where members carry on a common
interdependent life and share commodities or bonds.
- It may be classified as rural and urban, in highly
industrialized societies, the distinction between the two
becomes blurred.
- The difference in occupation, population density, social
interaction, social stratification, social differentiation, and
social unity became the criteria.

RURAL COMMUNITY
- Rural community are often small. The occupations of the people
are farming, fishing, forestry, supplemented by cottage industries.
- Families in rural areas are usually nuclear, consanguineal,
bilateral, and either bilocal or neolocal. A highly incidence of
poverty prevails.
- Education in these areas are not accessible to many pupils on
some barangay. Dropouts rates are higher in the rural than in
urban areas. Many colleges graduates eventually migrate to the
urban areas.
- Majority of the people are Roman Catholic, Aglipayan (north)
Islam (south) but believing in folk catholicism. Usually fiesta was
associated with the religious beliefs and activity.

RURAL COMMUNITY
- Healthcare in rural community are deplorable, and a
great number of children suffer from severe malnutrition.
- The government provide services to the rural areas in
the country however, the exist of exploitation and
capitalism come into place that became the hindrance of
development to the said area.
- Today, in order to improve the conditions the
government still have a LOT of project to be done.

URBAN COMMUNITY
- Is where the concentration of the people within a relatively
small geographic area. The urban community may be a city of
something resembling a city, which is a relatively large, dense,
and permanent settlement of socially heterogeneous
individuals.
- The occupations are usually non-agriculture.
- In urban community, the idea of urbanization emerged it
refers to the process of concentrating people within a relatively
small geographic area. It is related to social change and growth. It
requires a shift in values, attitudes, and behaviour that are
compatible with the local urban patterns and, therefore, requires a
long period of time for a peasants to internalize an urban life-style.

URBAN SOCIAL PROBLEMS
 Pollution – classified into two namely:
1. Air pollution – mostly form fumes and smoke from motor
vehicles, factories and other industrial establishments.
2. Water Contamination – results of indiscriminate dumping
of garbage into the creeks, rivers and lakes.
 Garbage – aside from being eyesore, it also serves as the
contributor for floods during rainy days.
 Traffic – result of lack of master plan for the authorities
and lack of discipline among the owner of the vehicles
and people.

DEMOGRAPHY AND POPULATION
- Population refers to the total number of person inhibiting
a country, city or any district. It also deals with the
observable and measurable data.
- Demography is the study of the size and make-up of the
human population and how it change. The main sources of
demographic data are:
1. The population census, with data on age, sex, occupation,
employment status, and migration.
2. Vital registration statistics like birth, death, and marriages.
3. Sample or special surveys on households.
4. Data gathered and processed by government agencies.

MATHUSIAN THEORY OF POPULATION
Thomas Robert Malthus
-According to his “Essay on the Principle of Population”, because
of the strong attraction between the two sexes, the population
could multiply rapidly and, resulted to increase of reproduction
faster than food supply.
-Also, as the population grows bigger, food production would be
insufficient and most likely, famine and overcrowding would
cause widespread suffering and disease and an increase in death
rate, which is nature’s check on over population.
-He suggested that an alternative is to postpone married until a
much later age so that birth rate may be decreased.

MATHUSIAN THEORY OF POPULATION
Two solutions (Thomas Malthus)
Positive checks to overpopulation by increasing the death
rate; which include war, famine, pestilence, and disease.
Preventive checks to prevent overpopulation by limiting
the number of live births; which include abortion, infanticide,
sexual abstinence, delayed marriage, and contraceptive use.
- This theory debated in the form of science and technology

PROCESS IN POPULATION CHANGE
 Fertility
- It is the ability to produce offspring. It indicates the rate at
which babies are born. According to the demographers,
women have a potential for bearing age at age of 15 to 50.
- The fertility rate of a community was affected by some factors
such as weather, environment, religion and societal norms about
children and marriage.
 Life expectancy
- The average number of years a persons is expected to live
from time of birth. It is hard to determine this accurately
because local statistics on birth and death rates are incomplete
and inadequate because some data are not registered.

PROCESS IN POPULATION CHANGE
 Mortality
- The rate of death in population. A population with many
old people will naturally have a higher death rate than a
comparatively young population. It is also assumed that
because women live longer than men, a population with
many women will have lower death rate.
 Migration
- The movement of people for permanent residency. It
includes immigration, movement into an area, while
emigration is movement out of an area. This can be
divided into pull and push factors.

Fig. 3. Paradigm of Population in the Philippines and the Social Sciences Discipline

BASIS OF POPULATION EXPLOTION
Historical
-One of the most important of Spanish colonization in the
Philippines was the propagation of the Roman Catholic.
Since, the church does not favour birth control. There is a
high rate of population growth.
Sociological
-In rural areas, they believe that all events are
predetermined and inevitable and that the happening that
come their way are the results of fate and destiny.
-The men and women feel ashamed to submit in artificial
methods of family planning.

Economic
-In rural areas, the perception of some people that children serves
as their economic assets. They think that a big family is better than
a small one because children can earn a livelihood for the family.
Anthropological
- It assumed that basis of population explotion is the Filipino values,
belief system, customs and traditions. The extended family expected
that the couple to have a number of children during the marriage.
One is not surprised to hear remarks like, “bakit wala pa?”, if the
pregnancy does not takes place after marriage. The husband is
jokingly branded to be “mahina” if his first child is not followed by
another one year after.

Political science
-It is observed that those whose come from high income
groups, most often, come from educated parents who have
limited the number of their children. On the other hand,
the poor with many children, by and large, do not have
taxable income.
Geography
- The rate of population growth in the rural areas is
significantly higher than that in the urban. (debatable)

Why people marry???
Age preference for marriage??

MARRIAGE
- It is the foundation of the family, an inviolable social
institutions. This is also serves as the continuation of the
cultural mechanism of the family.
- Sex and sexual attraction is least consideration, but marriage
makes a sexual intercourse legitimate.
Family Code of the Philippines to Marriage
- A special contract of permanent union between a man and a
woman entered into in accordance with the law for the
establishment of conjugal and family life.
- As a contract, it applies to only a man and a woman, it is
permanent; the law prescribed penal and civic sanctions.
- As a status, it is created between parties.

FORMS OF MARRIAGE
 Monogamy - most common and universal forms of
marriage. It is involve the union of a man and a woman.
 Polygamy - the plural union where an individual is
married to several individuals at the same time. There are
three types: polygyny, polyandry and group marriage.
 Adoptive - it is transferred from father to son, many
wealthy family would want to preserve their surnames.
 Fictive - It is a union between two women, one old and
one young.
 Second marriage – sororate (sister-in-law) or levirate
marriage (brother-in-law).

FORMAL REQUISITES FOR MARRIAGE
Philippines
 Authority of the solemnizing officer (judge/priest)
 A valid marriage license (good for 120 days only)
- The legal capacity of the contracting parties who must be
a male and a female, and the consent freely given by the
couple in the presence of the solemnizing officer.
- The minimum age for marriage is 18 years but parental
consent is necessary for those below 21 years.
- Presently, some changes in the requisites for marriage
has made: a) no license is necessary if the couple has
lived as husband and wife for at least and there is no
legal impediment to their marriage.

PRINCIPLES OF MATE SELECTION
 Endogamy
- It dictates that one should marry within one’s clan or
ethnic group.
 Exogamy
- The one that marries outside one’s clan or ethnic group.
 Levirate
- The widows marries the brothers or nearest kin of the
deceased husband.
 Sororate
- The widower marries the sister or the nearest kin of the
deceased wife.

CONCEPT BEYOND MONOGAMY
 Husband -wife swapping - a formal organization which
handles the activities of the participating members.
Parties are usually held after nine in the evening, when
the children are expected to asleep. NO ONE must have
the same sex partner for two consecutive times. The
anonymity of each member is well-maintain.
 Cohabitation - relationship between single male and
females living together as husband and wife with the
formal marriage.
 Swingers - middle-aged men who finds pleasure in going
into bars and attracting women. They usually collect
women. The opposite for Cougars.

VOID AND VIODABLE MARRIAGE
 Annulment
- The process which makes the marriage contract null and
void, in which case, the law sees that no marriage has
taken place. The New Family Code recognizes the
annulment of marriage bond where the parties are free
to marry again without fear of violating any law.
- The grounds for annulment are lack of parental consent
of a minor before the marriage, insanity of one party,
fraud, force, intimidation or undue influence,
impotence of one party, and serious sexually
transmissible disease of the either party.

 Divorce
 Legal separation
- This is a judicial declaration when the separation of
husband and wife merely entitles the spouse to live
separately (in house or in bed), but not dissolving the
marriage.

Grounds for Legal Separation
1. Adultery/Concubinage
2. Attempt by one spouse against the life of the other.
3. Repeated physical violence or grossly abusive conduct directed against petitioner,
a common child, or a child of the petitioner.
4. Physical violence or moral pressure to compel the petitioner to change religious
or political affiliation.
5. Attempt of respondent to corrupt or induce the petitioner.
6. Drug addiction or habitual alcoholism of the respondents.
7. Final court judgement sentencing the respondent to imprisonment of more than 6
years, even if pardoned.
8. Lesbianism or homosexuality of the respondents.
9. Sexual infidelity or perversion.
10. Abandonment of the petitioner by respondent without a justifiable cause for
more than one year.

RIGHTS AND OBLIGATION OF THE PARENTS
Child and Welfare Code of the Philippines (PD No. 603)
Primary Rights of the Parent – the parents shall have the
rights to the company of their children and, in relation to all
other persons or institutions dealing with the child’s
development, the primary right and obligation to provide for the
upbringing.
Right under the Civil Code – parent shall continue to exercise
the rights mentioned in the Article 316 to 326 of the Civil Code
over the person and property of the child.
Right to Discipline Child – parents have the right to discipline
the child as may be necessary for the formation of his good
character, and may therefor require from him obedience to just
and reasonable rules, suggestions and admonitions.

PARENTAL RESPONSIBILITIES
1. To give him affection, companionship and understanding.
2. To extend to him the benefits of moral guidance, self-discipline
and religious instruction.
3. To supervise his activities, including his recreation.
4. To inculcate in him the value of industry, thrift and self-reliance.
5. To stimulate his interest in civic affairs, teach him duties of
citizenship, and develop his commitment to his country.
6. To advice him properly on any matter affecting his development
and well-being.
7. To provide him with adequate support.
8. To administer his property, according to his best interest.

FAMILY PLANNING
- This is a concept of enhancing the quality of life of every
member of the family through the use of family planning
methods to regulate the number of the children.
- It reduces the need for unsafe abortion.
- Some family planning methods help prevents the transmission
of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections.
- It reinforces people’s rights to determine the number and
spacing of their children.
- It allows people to attain their desired number of children
and determine the spacing of pregnancies. It is achieved
through use of contraceptive methods and the treatment of
infertility.

BENEFITS OF FAMILY PLANNING
 Preventing pregnancy-related health risks in women.
 Reducing infant mortality.
 Help to prevent HIV/AIDS.
 Empowering people and enhancing education.
 Reducing adolescent/pre-marital pregnancies.
 Slowing population.
Note: Benefits of family planning was not only for the society but
also for individual health.

METHODS OF FAMILY PLANNING
Natural family planning
-The natural way of avoiding pregnancy by observing,
recording, and interpreting changes in the cervical mucus
or basal body temperature in order to determine the safe
and unsafe days of menstrual cycle.
-The couple prevents pregnancy by avoiding unprotected
vaginal sex during most fertile days, usually by abstaining or
by using condoms.
-There should be an observation of few cycles which is
necessary before effective practice of method.

Calendar rhythm
-The use of calculations to determine safe and unsafe days
of the menstrual cycle, based on past cycles.
-This method is recommended for women with regular
menstrual cycles ad who feel themselves capable of
following the requirements of method and for women who
cannot use artificial contraceptive.
Coitus interruptus (Withdrawal)
-The male withdraws his penis from his partner's vagina,
and ejaculates outside the vagina, keeping semen away from
her external genitalia.

Cervical Mucus
Calendar Method

Tubal ligation
-This is don by cutting-off the fallopian tube to block
completely the passage of ovum and prevent it from
meeting the sperm.
Vasectomy
-This requires a simple operation by cutting-off the vas
deference so that the sperm will not entre the semen that is
discharged.
Note: Minor discomfort is experienced by the acceptor, who need
to rest from work for two to three days after the operation.

Intrauterine device (IUD)
-A small, soft plastic device that is inserted into the uterus.
It can be placed or removed by trained personnel only.
The acceptors may experience minor discomfort after
insertion and the possibility its being expelled.
Pills/Oral contraceptive
-It is a combination of synthetic hormones. It is intended
for women 19 to 34 years old who desire to space child-
bearing. It may be inconvenient since the pills is taken daily

Injectable Contraceptive
-This is administered by one-dose injectable contraceptive
containing progesterone and injected every three months.
This is intended for women 18-40 years old who wish to
space or limit child-bearing. It gives women freedom from
menstruation an the associated blood loss. however, one
advantages of this method may be vaginal spotting even
before the regular menstrual period.

Implants
-It is a small, flexible rods or capsules placed under the skin of
the upper arm; contains progesterone hormone only. Only the
health-care provider must insert and remove this product. It can
be used for 3–5 years depending on implant. Like injectable
irregular vaginal bleeding is common but not harmful.
Condom
-It is a soft and thin rubber sheath worn on the erect penis
before sexual intercourse to prevent the sperm. It gives
protection against the transmission of sexually transmitted
diseases. However, this may cause inconvenience to users, since
they have to interrupt love-making in order to put it on.

DIMENSIONS AND ORIGIN OF SOCIAL
PROBLEMS
- It may be inferred that no society succeeds in getting all
its people to behave as expected all the time because all
societies have social problems.
- A social problems exist when a significant number of
people perceive an undesirable difference between social
ideals and social realities.
- In addition, a social problem involves the deviance
among in the society and natural events such as
earthquake, typhoons, eruption of volcano, floods, famine
and epidemics that greatly affects the human lives in the
society.

POVERTY
- It is a condition that exist when people lack the means to
satisfy their basic needs. Extreme poverty is the main
cause of malnutrition and poor health.
- Sociologically, it defines as “denial of choices and
opportunities for living a tolerable life”. It is considered as
the symptom of a social cancer.
- It is associated to criminality, breakdown of morals and
socially accepted behaviour, low educational attainment,
low property values and poor life changes.
- It has also devastating effects in the families, often forcing
parents to abandon children to seek employment in their
countries, not aware of the social costs.

CAUSES OF POVERTY
 Colonial mentality
 Dependence of Philippine economy on foreign capital and
investment
 Capitalism and exploitation
 Cheap labour
 Graft and corruption
 Overpopulation
 Unemployment and underemployment
 Low and limited educational attainment and illiteracy

THEORIES OF POVERTY
Culture of poverty theory
-It is the result of cash and economy, labour wage and
production for profit, high rate of employment and
underemployment of unskilled labour, low wages and
inadequate social and economic organizations to serve the
low-income bracket of population.
-It observed that poor members of the society are less
permissive in socializing with other children, more fatalistic
about one’s views in life, lack an interest in formal
education, and usually pleasure-oriented.

THEORIES OF POVERTY
Dependency theory
-accordingly, poverty in underdeveloped society has been
the result of a colonial socio-economic structure. The
growing of poverty among the underdeveloped countries is
due to the forced incorporation of the economy of the
developed countries.
-The massive exodus of money from underdeveloped
regions of the world also intensifies the destruction of
natural resources.
-This apparent dependency of underdeveloped countries to
the highly developed countries has led to the increasing
impoverishment of the dependent country.

THEORIES OF POVERTY
Social Darwinist Theory
-It assumes that the assets that economic survival of any
society depends, to a large extent, on the individuals
endowed with superior intelligence that will plan, control,
regulate and lead its development.
-It also reveals that the upper and middle class students
who can speak and understand the English language have
better chances of passing the prescribed examinations for
job hunting.

THEORIES OF POVERTY
Theory of Capitalism
-The continuous exploitation of poverty of the people to
accumulate huge profits. The poor are always sacrificed the
price of technological development.
-This theory proposed by Karl Marx which reveals the
relationship and conflict between the exploiters and
exploiter. These relationships had been the entire system
of economic, social and political involvement, which has
virtually been established to maintain the power and
dominate of the owners over the workers.

FACES OF POVERTY
 Shanties under the bridge
 Brain-drain syndrome
 Criminals
 Prostitutions
 Malnutrition
 Increase of mortality rate
 Rapid growth of population
- This is according to the speech of former President Gloria
Macapagal-Arroyo during the UN Congress in New York City,
last 2009.

STRATEGIES TO REDUCE POVERTY
1.Equitable and sustained economic growth.
2.Focused targeting
3.Effective and efficient delivery of public goods and base
social services.
4.People empowerment
5.Long-term solution to the problems of hunger.
6.Developed literacy programs.
7.Expand employment opportunity.
“Don’t give them fish, instead teach them how to catch a fish”

CRIME
- The problem of juvenile delinquency and crime apart to
be common in all societies. Some of the major causes of
juvenile delinquency and crime are social disorganization,
poverty and broken homes.
- The Child and Youth Welfare Code explicitly defines the
youth offender as “one who is over nine years but under
twenty-one years of age at the time of the commission of the
offense”. A child which is nine years old or under when
the offense was committed shall be exempt from criminal
liability and shall be placed in the custody of the parents,
or the nearest relative, or the family friend, in the
discretion of the court and subject to its supervision.

CAUSES OF JUVENILE DELINQUENCY
1. Social Organization – the desire for power, wealth
and prestige, the atmosphere where fear, hate,
antagonism and hostility are prevalent are elegant
manifestation of social or disorganization.
2. Poverty – exist when the people didn’t satisfy his/her
basic needs.
3. Broken Home – the separation of husband and wife
brought about by war, migration, imprisonment,
employment outside the country, marital discord,
bickering, infidelity, and lack of trust that consequently
lead to legal separation.

PREVENTION OF JUVENILE
DELINQUENCY
Individual Programs
Individual Behaviour Therapy – aims to modify the
behaviour of the delinquent by changing the environment in
which the behaviour occurs.
Social Skills Training
-It focused on micro-skills, such as eye contact and body
postures; macro skills, such as negotiating with and handling
encounters with the police authority; and institutional
behaviour, such as avoiding fights and other forms of
brawls.

DELINQUENCY
Cognitive Behaviour Programs
Self-control and self-instruction
Anger control
Role Taking
-The program designed to encourage young male
delinquents to see themselves from the perceptive of other
people to develop their own role-taking activities.
Social Problem-solving
- It includes the skills of sensibility to interpersonal
problems, the ability to choose the desired outcome of a
social exchange (means-end thinking).

DELINQUENCY
Moral Reasoning Development
-It increase the morality belief of the young delinquent.
Multimodal Programs
-The program will improve the self-control, and reduced
problem behaviour.
Institutional and Community Program
-This program includes; secure institutions, residential
establishment, school-based intervention, family
intervention and diversionary projects.

PROSTITUTIONS
- Prostitution as a social problem is considered as old as
mankind. It is the sale and purchase of sexual relations.
- This is the act or practice of engaging in sexual relations in
consideration for money.
- There can be homosexual favours to women; but it is the sale
of female sexually to men that have usually been the
predominant pattern and, to a great extent, has given rise to
the greatest social concern.
- Also, there is an misleading view of prostitutions as being
something “done by” prostitutes while ignoring the casual
significance of male demand for their services, is itself indicative
of the sexual double standard on which phenomenon of
prostitutions rests.

TYPES OF PROSTITUTIONS
Female Prostitutes – they are usually seen in bar or street
and sometimes calls as “street walkers” or “hookers”. In
some cases, there were a called as high class prostitutes
known as the “escort girls” and “guest relation officers”,
sometime they are working as sauna attendants, night club
hostesses, hospitality girls, escorts and models.
Male Prostitutes – prostitutes that cater principally to
homosexual males.
They can be seen roaming around in conspicuous places
with no apparent purpose like department stores, shopping
malls, lobbies, and even hotels and gay bars where
homosexuals act as masseurs and escorts.

TYPES OF PROSTITUTIONS
Child Prostitution
-This common to some foreign tourists coming from
different countries and want to experience what our
country can offer. The issue of pedophilia surprising
nowadays, since we have always read the “fresh victim” of
prostitutions.
-It assumes that broken homes can make people shy way
from normal adult heterosexual relationship since children
are less threatening and more passive sex partners.
-I may also inferred that when the child prostitute grows
up, he/she likely to become a pedophile.

CAUSES OF PROSTITUTIONS
Poverty
-Being hopeful of a better life, so they sacrifice everything in
exchange of money.
Illegal recruitment
-Sometimes young people from rural areas are the target of illegal
recruitment, a promise of better job and better life makes them
involve in prostitution without knowing than they were became
one.
Lack of education and information
-The promise of a good-paying job, aside from other benefits like
free board and lodging, beautiful dresses and expensive jewelry
become the motivating factors why they are trapped into the illicit
trade.

Why prostitutes stay in their job?
1. For a better life until they meet someone who is willing take
them out of this job.
2. Enjoyment; they find it easy, glamorous and less demanding.
3. Maintenance of fabulous life.
4. Income higher than housemaids.
5. They were forced to this kind of job because of extreme
poverty.
6. No available jobs for survival.
7. Broken homes.
8. Being loners during adolescence.

EFFECTS OF PROSTITUTION
1. Promotes and facilitates the spread of sexually
transmitted diseases.
2. Health problems among prostitutes.
3. Drug addiction that lead to commit crimes.
4. It violates the monogamy which is sharing of sex with
only one partner.
5. Psychological demanding and adventurous to their
partners for satisfaction.

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
(AIDS)
- This is a human viral disease that ravages the immune system,
undermining the body’s capacity to defend itself against certain
microbial organisms.
- It is cause by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV), which attacks selected cells in the immune system and
produce defects functions.
- This leads to so-called neuropsychiatric abnormalities, or
psychological disturbances caused by physical damage to nerve
cells.
- Historically, the disease first identified in 1980 among
homosexual men and injection drug users in New York and
California, shortly after evidence grew of epidemics in Saharan-
Africa and Haiti.

Society, Culture and Family Planning with Population Education

Society, Culture and Family Planning with Population Education

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