Go Higher Arts Structure Arguments

Go Higher Arts Study Skills
Structure of Arguments
Academic writing is a structure of arguments.
Your essay is a construction of arguments based on evidence found in your research which is
based on the texts you have studied.
Arguments can be constructed as supporting one another, conflicting or opposing each other,
or offering alternative viewpoints.
Logical argument structure show that you have:-
1. Collected the data
Read the texts you have supposed to have read.
If necessary carry out a literary search in that area (if you tutor wants you to
do more reading than is on the reading list, check with them about this).
Look at your handouts and notes.
Consider how much time you have for this task and apportion it wisely. If the
essay is due in three days you can only spend one day in collecting your data.
2. Collated the data
Put supporting data together and opposing data together and alternative data in
your work.
See how various ideas fit together.
This is the time to drop some material that may be irrelevant. You do not have
to use ALL your ideas or data.
What is the main crux of your overall essay argument? This will be your
thesis statement.
Think about what your introduction and conclusion might be.
3. Created a pattern from the collation
What patterns are emerging from this research, are there any gaps in your
source arguments, arguments that are not logical or do not follow coherently,
is this the fault of your writing or of not finding a counter argument in the
texts?
Depth of arguments
Showing both pros and cons of data/text, even pointing out flaws in your own arguments and
giving counter claims to your arguments or their supporting arguments is good academic
writing. If you do not supply counter claims or opposing claims in your essay structure (“this
could be seen in another way ...”) while hopefully demolishing them (“but this is not as
strong as ... this claim can be dismissed because ...this evidence is flawed because ...this
reading of the text is ambiguous because...) can make your writing look weak. It can look
like either you are not mentioning counter arguments because you cannot think of a rebuttal
or because you have not research the texts enough to find the counter claims.

Logical construction of arguments will probably have a structure similar to the following :
Trigger Connectives
There are some words that show a text is using supporting, opposing and alternative
evidence. Often they are shown by conjunctions.
Conjunctions are words and phrases such as and or but which join parts of a sentence
together.
There are six main types of conjunctions:
a) Addition: Furthermore, child mortality rates must be examined.
b) Result: Prices are rising worldwide, thus encouraging investment.
c) Reason: Owing to the strike today’s classes are cancelled.
d) Time: Thirdly, the role of the architect will be reviewed.
e) Example: Various writers have examined the issue, for instance Van
Exel (2000).
f) Opposition: Although this study concentrates mainly on peak-time
travellers …
1 The ‘AND’ connectives
Used when the discussion, arguments or topics are developed in a straightforward or linear
way. The most common form is of course ‘and’ but other forms are:
a) Listings
Whichleadsback to ...
Introduction & Thesis
Statement
Supporting/ background
information
Main developments of
arguments
Conclusion
Opposing
arguments
Alternative
proposals
1
1
1
3
3
2
2

i.Enumeration, this indicates a catalogue of what is being said. Most enumeration
belongs to clearly defined sets.
First ... furthermore, ... finally
one, ...two, ... three, ...
first(ly) , ... second(ly), ... third(ly)
above all
last but not least
first and foremost
first and most importantly
to begin with/ to start with,
moreover
and to conclude
ii.Addition to what has been previously indicated :
(a) Reinforcement includes the sense of confirmation to previous argument.
Connections include:
also, again, furthermore, further, moreover, what is more, then, in addition,
besides, above all, too, as well (as)
(b) Equation shows a similarity to the preceding argument:
equally, likewise, similarly correspondingly, in the same way, ... the truth of
the previous assertion may be confirmed or contradicted by ..., indeed,
actually, in (actual) fact, really, in reality
(b) Cause and Effect connectives
It is also possible to use conjunctions that demonstrate cause and effect.
Cause Effect
because (of) so
since therefore
as consequently
owing to which is why
due to
Because it rained heavily, the flooding was severe. (because + verb)
The flooding occurred because of days of heavy rain. (because + noun)
marks the endof
an ascendingorder
marks the beginningof
an ascendingorder

Owing to the heavy rain the flooding was severe.
It rained heavily for days, therefore the flooding was severe. (used in midsentence)
NB It is more common to use conjunctions to illustrate particular situations.
2. The BUT and NEGATIVE AND connectives
Often you will need to include opposing and hypothesise to your main theories. This shows
that you are aware of all aspects of your essay topic and have considered/ included all
relevant material. A sign of a well researched essay is that it will present ALL viewpoints,
however briefly you may touch on the opposition.
(a) Contrast with the preceding arguments:
Instead, conversely, then, on the contrary, by (way of) contrast, in comparison,
(on the one hand) ...on the other hand
(b) Negative AND, there are some negative equivalents of the AND connection, these
include
Either, neither, nor, not only ...(but) also, neither ...nor.
Neither leaves the set open for further addition while nor concludes the set.
(c) Concessions indicate the unexpected, surprising nature of what is being said in
view of what was said before:
besides yet
(or) else in any case
however at any rate
nevertheless for all that
nonetheless in spite of / despite that
notwithstanding after all
only at the same time
still on the other hand
while all the same
(al)though even if/ though
.Conjunctions of opposition
Note the position of the conjunctions in the following examples.
The economy is strong, but/yet there are frequent strikes.
Although there are frequent strikes, the economy is strong.
In spite of/despite the frequent strikes, the economy is strong.

There are frequent strikes. However/nevertheless, the economy is strong.
What are the implications of each?
It is difficult to give rules for academic style which apply to all subject areas.
When reading books and journals in your area you should note what is acceptable. You will
probably meet exceptions to the points below as you read, but if you follow these guidelines
you should be able to develop a suitable style of your own.
a) Do not use idiomatic or colloquial vocabulary: dad, guy. Use Standard English: father,
man.
b) Use vocabulary accurately. There is a difference between rule and law, or currency and
money, which you are expected to know.
c) Be as precise as possible when dealing with facts or figures. Avoid phrases such as about a
hundred or hundreds of years ago. If it is necessary to estimate numbers use ‘approximately’
rather than ‘about’.
d) Conclusions should use tentative language. Avoid absolute statements such as education
reduces crime. Instead use cautious phrases: may reduce crime or tends to reduce crime.
e) Avoid adverbs that show your personal attitude: luckily, remarkably, surprisingly.
f) Do not contract verb forms: don’t, can’t. Use the full form: do not, cannot.
g) Although academic English tends to use the passive more than Standard English, it should
not be over-used. Both have their place. Compare:
Manners (1995) claims that most companies perform worse when …
It is widely agreed that most companies perform worse when …
In the first case, the focus is on the source, in the second on what companies do.
h) Avoid the following:
like for introducing examples. Use such as or for instance.
thing and combinations: nothing or something. Use factor, issue or topic.
lots of. Use a significant/considerable number.
little/big. Use small/large.
get phrases such as get better/worse. Use improve and deteriorate.
i) Do not use question forms such as What were the reasons for the decline in wool exports?
Instead use statements: There were four main reasons for the decline…
j) Avoid numbering sections of your text, except in certain reports. Use conjunctions and
signposting expressions to introduce new sections (Turning to the question of taxation …).
Sub-headings are widely used (but not normally in Literature essays). .

k) When writing lists, avoid using etc. or and so on. Insert and before the last item:
The forests of the twelfth century consisted of oak, ash and lime.
l) Avoid using two-word verbs such as go on or bring up if there is a suitable synonym. Use
continue or raise.
Thesis Statement Exercise (print and use this later!)
Write out the main idea from your paper (the point
you want the reader to get) in 25 or fewer words:
Now answer these questions:
What question is my assignment asking? How can I
answer that question AND focus on a small area of
investigation?
Can I sumup the main idea of my paper in a nutshell?
See if you can reduce to a sentence or two the main
idea that you wrote just now.
What "key words" (such as "relative freedom" or
"lifestyles") does the draft of my thesis statement
contain?
Are these words adequately explained?
As I read my paper, have I supported the thesis,or
digressed?
Where?
How?
Analysing the Question:Key Words in Rubric Analysis
Key words are words in a question that tell you the approach you should take when
answering an essay question.
• Task Words tell you what you have to do; the action(s) you need to perform.

• Limiting Words limit and define the essay, making it workable.
• Content Words tell you what the focus is and what you should write about.
Make sure you understand the meaning of all the key words in an essay question, especially
the Task words. As Task words direct you and tell you how to go about answering a question,
understanding the meaning helps you to know exactly what you have to do. Limiting words
define the scope of your assignment and take you halfway towards narrowing down your
material and selecting your answer. If you’re not sure about any aspect of the question, ask
your tutor/ lecturer for clarification. Never start any assignment until you know and
understand exactly what you are being asked to do.
A Five Step Plan to analysing the Question
From William, K. (1995) Writing Essays: developing writing, Oxford, OUP.
Example
Account for the emergence of the policy of privatisation developed by successive
Conservative governments during the 1980s.
Step 1: Identify the Subject, the CONTENT
This is the topic on the syllabus or course outline – the knowledge base. Ask yourself ‘What
is the gist of this question?’
 Here it is the policy of privatisation
Step 2: Identify the Instruction, the TASK word
This is the word that tells you how you are expected to write; do you compare and contrast/
Account for/ Discuss/ Evaulate...
 The instruction here is to account for
Step 3: Identify the Key Aspect(s)
What are the key aspect(s), the key words in the question; i.e. what words (after the subject
and the instructions) are most important in the question.
Step 4: Identify LIMITING words
Are there any other words that change or modify the meaning of the question that would
change the areas you need to look at to study the question
 Successive Conservative Governments (so do not bother with Labour Gov.)
 Developed (this question is looking for points of difference between Conservative
Government Policies)

 During the 1980s (so no need to look at the 50s or the 90s then)
Step 1: Ask Questions about the Questions
This essay is about the policy of privatisations. What was that? What was its scope? A
definition is needed here. Emergence suggests process rather than an event, so you could ask
‘How did these policies emerge, whole or in bits little by little’ you could also ask ‘What
factors caused these development, why did they change and evolve?’ You must identify
which Governments ‘Successive..’ and how did they differ from other Conservative
Government ;where they more rightwing, more centre stage, did they have any specific or
new policies towards privatisation?
Explain how why?
A process of Define
how why?
Note the era, not the 1990s Which
Similar?
Different?
Glossary of Task Words
Task Words Function
Account for Explain, clarify, give reasons for. (Quite different from ‘Give an account of’ which
is more like ‘describe in detail’).
Analyse Break an issue down into its component parts,discuss themand showhow they
interrelate.
Assess Consider the value or importance of something, paying due attention to positive,
negative and disputable aspects,and citing the judgements of any known
authorities as well as your own.
Argue Make a case, based on appropriate evidence for and/oragainst some given point of
view.
Comment On Too vague to be sure, but safe to assume it means something more than ‘describe’
or ‘summarise’ and more likely implies ‘analyse’ or ‘assess’.
Compare Identify the characteristics or qualities two or more things have in common (but
probably pointing out their differences as well.
Contrast Point out the differences between two things (but probably point out their
similarities as well).
Criticise Spell out your judgement as to the value or truth of something, indicating the
criteria on which you base your judgement and citing specific instances ofhow the
criteria apply in this case.
Critically analyse Like analyse but using your own judgements on authorial sources and stances.
Define Make a statement as to the meaning or interpretation of something, giving
sufficient detail so as to allow it to be distinguished from similar things.
Describe Spell out the main aspects ofan idea or topic or the sequence in which a series of
things happened.

Discuss Investigate or examine by argument. Examine key points and possible
interpretations, sift and debate,giving reasons for and against. Draw a conclusion.
Evaluate Make an appraisal or the worth of something, in the light of its apparent truth;
include yourpersonal opinion. Like ‘assess’.
Enumerate List some relevant items, possibly in continuous prose (rather than note form) -
and perhaps ‘describe’ them (see above) as well.
Examine Present in depth and investigate the implications.
Explain Tell how things work or how they came to be the way they are, including perhaps
some need to ‘describe’ and to ‘analyse’ (see above).
To what extent Explore the case for a stated proposition or explanation, much in the manner of
‘assess’and ‘criticise’ (see above), probably arguing for a less than total
acceptance of the proposition.
How Far Similar to ‘to what extent . . .?’ (see above)
Identify Pick out what you regard as the key features of something, perhaps making clear
the criteria you use. structure or framework to showhow they interrelate.
Illustrate Similar to ‘explain’ (see above), but probably asking for the quoting of specific
examples or statistics or possibly the drawing of maps, graphs,sketches,etc.
Interpret Clarify something or ‘explain’ (see above), perhaps indicating how the thing
relates to some other thing or perspective.
Investigate Research and carefully survey all areas of the subject. Include any negative
findings as well as positive one.
Justify Express valid reasons for accepting a particular interpretation or conclusion,
probably including the need to ‘argue’ (see above) a case.
Outline Indicate the main features of a topic or sequence ofevents,possibly setting them
within a clear.
Prove Demonstrate the truth of something by offering irrefutable evidence and/orlogical
sequence of statements leading from evidence to conclusion.
Reconcile Show how two apparently opposed ormutually exclusive ideas or propositions can
be seen to be similar in important respects,if not identical. Involves need to
‘analyse’ and justify’ (see above).
Relate Either ‘explain’ (see above) how things happened or are connected in a cause-and-
effect sense,or may imply ‘compare’ and ‘contrast’ (see above).
Discourse Markers (Including Reporting Verbs)
Discourse markers (these are words like ‘however’, ‘although’, ‘nevertheless’) are referred to
more commonly as ‘linking words' and 'linking phrases’, or ‘sentence connectors’. They may
be described as the ‘glue’ that binds together a piece of writing, making the different parts of
the text ‘stick together’. They are used less frequently in speech, unless the speech is very
formal.
Without sufficient discourse markers in a piece of writing, a text would not seem logically
constructed and the connections between the different sentences and paragraphs would not be
obvious.
Care must also be taken, however, to avoid over-use of discourse markers. Using too many of
them, or using them unnecessarily, can make a piece of writing sound too heavy and
‘artificial’. They are important, but must only be used when necessary.

TransitionalWords
Here is a list of transitional words; be certain you understand their meanings before you use
them. Often, there exists a slight, but significant, difference between two apparently similar
words. Also remember that while transitions describe relationships between ideas, they do not
automatically create relationships between ideas for your reader. Use transitions with enough
context in a sentence or paragraph to make the relationships clear.
Function Example Position within clause/sentence
Addition Moreover; In addition; Additionally;
Further; Further to this; Also; Besides;
What is more. And.
Initial
Starts a second/ subordinate clause
Illustrate Thus, for example, for instance, namely, to
illustrate, in other words, in particular,
specifically, such as.
Initial
Contrast On the contrary, contrarily,
notwithstanding, but, however,
nevertheless, in spite of, in contrast, yet,
on one hand, on the other hand, rather, or,
nor, conversely, at the same time, while
this may be true.
Initial position
Enumerate And, in addition to, furthermore,
moreover, besides, than, too, also, both-
and, another, equally important, first,
second, etc., again, further, last, finally,
not only-but also, as well as, in the second
place, next, likewise, similarly, in fact, as a
result, consequently, in the same way, for
example, for instance, however, thus,
therefore, otherwise.
Expressing a
condition
If; In the event of; As long as...; So long
as...; Provided that...; Assuming that...;
Given that....
Initial position
Time After, afterward, before, then, once, next,
last, at last, at length, first, second, etc., at
first, formerly, rarely, usually, another,
finally, soon, meanwhile, at the same time,
for a minute, hour, day, etc., during the
morning, day, week, etc., most important,
later, ordinarily, to begin with, afterwards,
generally, in order to, subsequently,
previously, in the meantime, immediately,
eventually, concurrently, simultaneously.
Initial position
Space At the left, at the right, in the center, on the
side, along the edge, on top, below,
beneath, under, around, above, over,
straight ahead, at the top, at the bottom,
surrounding, opposite, at the rear, at the
front, in front of, beside, behind, next to,
nearby, in the distance, beyond, in the
forefront, in the foreground, within sight,
out of sight, across, under, nearer,
adjacent, in the background.
Initial position
Concession Although, at any rate, at least, still,
thought,even though, granted that, while it
Initial position

may be true, in spite of, of course.
Similarity or
comparison
Similarly, likewise, in like fashion, in like
manner, analogous to.
Initial position
Emphasis Above all, indeed, truly, of course,
certainly, surely, in fact, really, in truth,
again, besides, also, furthermore, in
addition. On the contrary; As a matter of
fact; In fact.
Initial position
Details Specifically, especially, in particular, to
explain, to list, to enumerate, in detail,
namely, including.
Initial position
Examples For example, for instance, to illustrate,
thus, in other words, as an illustration, in
particular.
Initial position
Consequence or
result
So that, with the result that, thus,
consequently, hence, accordingly, for this
reason, therefore, so, because, since, due
to, as a result, in other words, then.
Initial position
Summary Therefore, finally, consequently, thus, in
short, in conclusion, in brief, as a result,
accordingly.
Initial position
Suggestion For this purpose, to this end, with this in
mind, with this purpose in mind, therefore.
Initial position
There are many discourse markers that express different relationships between ideas. The
most common types of relationship between ideas, and the sentence connectors that are most
often used to express these relationships, are given in the table below. The discourse markers
in the table are generally used at the start of a phrase or clause. (a clause is a minimal
grammatical structure that has meaning in its own right, and consists of a subject and verb,
and often an object too). Sentence connectors do not always begin a completely new
sentence; they may be separated from the previous idea with a semi-colon.
Reporting Verbs
When you wish to discuss a text or an author’s stance (viewpoint) you can use more than just
‘said’ or ‘stated’. Reporting verbs are a great way of giving your viewpoint regarding the
veracity/accuracy of the text (i.e., correct, neither correct/incorrect, incorrect), or it can
indicate the author’s viewpoint regarding the content of the literature (i.e., positive or
negative).
Reporting verbs differ in terms of their strength – for example ‘’to suggest’ is much weaker,
and more tentative, than ‘to argue’. The two verbs convey very different pictures about how
the author you are studying sees his or her materials and research.
Some reporting verbs are used principally to say what the writer does and does not do. These
verbs do not indicate any value judgement on the part of the writer – they are called ‘neutral’
reporting verbs.
A second group of verbs is used to show when the writer has an inclination to believe
something but still wishes to be hesitant – we call these ‘tentative’ reporting verbs.

Finally, if the writer has strong arguments to put forward and is absolutely sure of his or her
ground, we can use ‘strong’ reporting verbs to refer to these ideas.
Student’s attitude
towards the literature
being cited:
CORRECT NEUTRAL INCORRECT
Reporting verbs
These are usually in 3rd
person singular or
plural simple present
tense form.
E.g. Brown (2004)
explains …
Smith and Bull (2003)
explain …
acknowledges
defines1
demonstrates
explains
identifies
observes
outlines
shows
throws light on
adds
argues
claims
clarifies2
concludes5
describes3
expresses
feels
finds
indicates
informs
presents
proposes4
remarks
reminds
reports
states
uses
confuses
disregards
ignores6
Care needs to be taken to ensure that these verbs are used appropriately – consult your
dictionary for the meaning and usage if you are not sure.
Examples:
1 Stein-Parbury (2000) defines listening as the ability to hear, understand, and appreciate a
patient’s experience.
2 De Cieri et al. (2003) clarify the role of human resources in terms of a company’s
improved competitiveness in their Australian Business Excellence Model.
3 In their presentation, Sawyer and Smith (2001) described* their sampling methods and
data analysis in great detail. [*Note: Simple past tense is used as the description of the
sampling methods was completed in the past.]
4 In their study on acculturation, Birman, Sharpe, and Angeles (2004) propose a variety of
solutions to the current problem facing urban constructs, that of “ghettoisation” (p. 77).
5 Previous studies on the work-study balance of tertiary students
(Campbell, 2004; Guthrie, Logan, & Tuomy, 2003; Smith, 1999) concluded* that most
students prioritise work over study. [*Note: Present perfect tense is used here as a number
of former studies and their findings are being discussed in terms of their relevance
today.]

6 Lygon (2001) ignores conflicting data in his review of the literature thereby compromising
the credibility of his research in the field.
Obviously, it is important (when we read) to ensure that we interpret the writer’s ideas
correctly. For instance, if we say ‘Jones (1999) argues…’ rather than ‘Jones (1999)
suggests…’ this is a major difference of meaning. The first indicates strength – the second
tentativity. It is very important, in academic writing, not to misinterpret a writer’s intentions
when we are reporting them.
Here is a list of possible reporting verbs indicating, from the author’s viewpoint:
• a positive attitude towards the content of the text/data
• a negative or uncertain attitude towards the content of the text/data.
Author’s
attitude
towards the
content being
discussed:
POSITIVE/NEUTRAL
NEGATIVE/UNCERTAIN
Reporting
verbs
These are
usually in 3rd
person singular
or plural
Simple present
tense form.
E.g. Brown
(2004)
insists …
Smith and Bull
(2003) insist …
accepts
advises
affirms
agrees
applauds
asserts
concurs7
insists maintains
notes8
praises
points out
posits
recommends
remarks
stresses
subscribes to9
suggests
supports
thinks
urges
attacks
challenges10
disagrees
dismisses11
disputes
doubts
mistrusts
opposes
questions12
rejects
suspects
warns

Function and strength Example verbs
NEUTRAL: verbs used to say what the writer
describes in factual terms, demonstrates,refers to, and
discusses,and verbs used to explain his/her
methodology.
describe, show, reveal, study,demonstate,note, point
out, indicate, report, observe,assume, take into
consideration, examine, go on to say that,state,
believe (unless this is a strong belief), mention, etc.
TENTATIVE: verbs used to say what the writer
suggests orspeculates on (without being absolutely
certain).
suggest,speculate,intimate, hypothesise,moot,
imply, propose,recommend, posit the view that,
question the view that,postulate,etc.
STRONG: verbs used to say what the writer makes
strong arguments and claims for.
argue, claim, emphasise, contend,maintain, assert,
theorize, support the view that, deny,negate, refute,
reject, challenge, strongly believe that, counterthe
view/argument that, etc.

Go Higher Arts Structure Arguments

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

What's hot

What's hot (19)

Similar to Go Higher Arts Structure Arguments

Similar to Go Higher Arts Structure Arguments (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Go Higher Arts Structure Arguments