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AASLD PRACTICE GUIDELINES
   Diagnosis and Management of Autoimmune Hepatitis
          Michael P. Manns,1 Albert J. Czaja,2 James D. Gorham,3 Edward L. Krawitt,4 Giorgina Mieli-Vergani,5
                                         Diego Vergani,6 and John M. Vierling7


This guideline has been approved by the American                                     ment on Guidelines;3 and (4) the experience of the
Association for the Study of Liver Diseases (AASLD)                                  authors in the specified topic.
and represents the position of the Association.                                         These recommendations, intended for use by physi-
                                                                                     cians, suggest preferred approaches to the diagnostic,
1. Preamble                                                                          therapeutic and preventive aspects of care. They are
                                                                                     intended to be flexible, in contrast to standards of
   Clinical practice guidelines are defined as ‘‘systemati-                           care, which are inflexible policies to be followed in ev-
cally developed statements to assist practitioner and                                ery case. Specific recommendations are based on rele-
patient decisions about appropriate heath care for spe-                              vant published information. To more fully characterize
cific clinical circumstances.’’1 These guidelines on                                  the quality of evidence supporting the recommenda-
autoimmune hepatitis provide a data-supported                                        tions, the Practice Guidelines Committee of the
approach to the diagnosis and management of this dis-                                AASLD requires a class (reflecting benefit versus risk)
ease. They are based on the following: (1) formal                                    and level (assessing strength or certainty) of evidence
review and analysis of the recently-published world lit-                             to be assigned and reported with each recommenda-
erature on the topic [Medline search]; (2) American                                  tion.4 The grading system applied to the recommenda-
College of Physicians Manual for Assessing Health                                    tions has been adapted from the American College of
Practices and Designing Practice Guidelines;2 (3)                                    Cardiology and the American Heart Association Prac-
guideline policies, including the AASLD Policy on the                                tice Guidelines, and it is given below (Table 1).
Development and Use of Practice Guidelines and the
American Gastroenterological Association Policy State-                               2. Introduction
                                                                                        Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is a generally unresolv-
   All AASLD Practice Guidelines are updated annually. If you are viewing a
                                                                                     ing inflammation of the liver of unknown cause. A
Practice Guideline that is more than 12 months old, please visit www.aasld.org
for an update in the material.                                                       working model for its pathogenesis postulates that
   Abbreviations: AASLD, American Association for the Study of Liver                 environmental triggers, a failure of immune tolerance
Diseases; AIH, autoimmune hepatitis; ALT, alanine aminotransferase; ANA,             mechanisms, and a genetic predisposition collaborate
antinuclear antibody; AST, aspartate aminotransferase; CYP1A2, cytochrome
P450 1A2; HCV, hepatitis C virus; IBD, inflammatory bowel disease; IgG,               to induce a T cell–mediated immune attack upon liver
immunoglobulin G; LKM-1, liver/kidney microsome type 1; PBC, primary                 antigens, leading to a progressive necroinflammatory
biliary cirrhosis; PSC, primary sclerosing cholangitis; SMA, smooth muscle           and fibrotic process in the liver.5,6 Onset is frequently
antibodies.
   From the 1Medical School of Hannover, Department of Gastroenterology,
                                                                                     insidious with nonspecific symptoms such as fatigue,
Hepatology and Endocrinology, Hannover, Germany; 2Mayo Clinic College of             jaundice, nausea, abdominal pain, and arthralgias at
Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Rochester, MN;                presentation,7 but the clinical spectrum is wide, rang-
3
4
  Dartmouth Medical School, Department of Pathology, Lebanon, NH;                    ing from an asymptomatic presentation8,9 to an acute
  University of Vermont College of Medicine, Department of Medicine, Given
Building, Burlington, VT; 5Pediatric Liver Centre and 6Institute of Liver Studies,   severe disease.10,11 The diagnosis is based on histologic
King’s College London School of Medicine at King’s College Hospital, Denmark         abnormalities, characteristic clinical and laboratory
Hill, London, UK; and 7Baylor Liver Health, Baylor College of Medicine,              findings, abnormal levels of serum globulins, and the
Houston, TX.
   Received January 22, 2010; accepted January 25, 2010.
                                                                                     presence of one or more characteristic autoantibod-
   Address reprint requests to: Michael P. Manns, M.D., Department of                ies.12-16 Women are affected more frequently than
Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Endocrinology, Hannover Medical School,             men (sex ratio, 3.6:1).17-19 and the disease is seen in
Carl-Neuberg-Straße 1, D-30625 Hannover, Germany. E-mail: manns.
michael@mh-hannover.de; fax: þ49 511 532-4896.
                                                                                     all ethnic groups20-34 and at all ages.21,35-44 There are
   Copyright V 2010 by the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases.
              C                                                                      no robust epidemiological data on AIH in the United
   Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com).              States. In Norway and Sweden, the mean incidence is
   DOI 10.1002/hep.23584                                                             1 to 2 per 100,000 persons per year, and its point
   Potential conflict of interest: Michael Manns has received research support,
lecture fees and took part in clinical trials for Falk Pharma GmbH, Freiburg,        prevalence is 11 to 17 per 100,000 persons per
Germany, and Roche Pharma, Basel, Switzerland.                                       year.45,46 A similar incidence and prevalence can be
                                                                                                                                             1
2     MANNS ET AL.                                                                                                 HEPATOLOGY, June 2010



Table 1. Description of Grading System Used to Assign Class                    3. Diagnosis: Criteria and Methods
                    and Level of Evidence
                                                                                  The diagnostic criteria for AIH and a diagnostic
Classification                             Description
                                                                               scoring system were codified by an international panel
Class I         Conditions for which there is evidence and/or general          in 199375 and revised in 199913 (Table 2). The clinical
                  agreement that a given diagnostic evaluation,
                  procedure or treatment is beneficial, useful, and effective   criteria for the diagnosis are sufficient to make or
Class II        Conditions for which there is conflicting evidence and/or       exclude definite or probable AIH in the majority of
                  a divergence of opinion about the usefulness/efficacy         patients. The revised original scoring system was devel-
                  of a diagnostic evaluation, procedure or treatment
Class IIa       Weight of evidence/opinion is in favor of usefulness/efficacy
                                                                               oped as a research tool by which to ensure the compa-
Class IIb       Usefulness/efficacy is less well established by                 rability of study populations in clinical trials (Table
                  evidence/opinion                                             3),13 and can also be applied in diagnostically challeng-
Class III       Conditions for which there is evidence and/or general
                  agreement that a diagnostic evaluation/procedure/treatment
                                                                               ing cases not readily captured by the descriptive crite-
                  is not useful/effective and in some cases may be harmful     ria.13 The treatment response is graded in the revised
Level of Evidence                         Description                          original scoring system, and a score can be rendered
Level A         Data derived from multiple randomized clinical trials
                                                                               both before and after treatment (Table 3).13 A pretreat-
                  or meta analyses                                             ment score of 10 points or higher, or a posttreatment
Level B         Data derived from a single randomized trial, or                score of 12 points or higher, indicate ‘‘probable’’ AIH
                  nonrandomized studies                                        at presentation. A pretreatment score of 10 points has a
Level C         Only consensus opinion of experts, case studies,
                  or standard of care                                          sensitivity of 100%, a specificity of 73%, and diagnos-
                                                                               tic accuracy of 67%.76 A pretreatment score of 15
                                                                               points, indicative of ‘‘definite AIH’’ has a sensitivity of
                                                                               95%, a specificity of 97%, and a diagnostic accuracy of
assumed for the Caucasian population of North                                  94%.76 A retrospective study supports the usefulness of
America.                                                                       the revised original system in children with AIH.77
   Data on the natural progression of untreated disease                           A simplified scoring system has been proposed
are derived principally from experiences published                             recently to ease clinical application78 and is based on
prior to the widespread use of immunosuppressive                               the presence and level of autoantibody expression by
agents for AIH and before the detection of the hepati-                         indirect immunofluorescence, serum immunoglobulin
tis C virus (HCV).47-54 These studies showed that as                           G (IgG) concentration, compatible or typical histologi-
many as 40% of patients with untreated severe disease                          cal features, and the absence of viral markers (Table
died within 6 months of diagnosis,47,49 and that survi-                        3).78 In three recent retrospective studies, the simpli-
vors frequently developed cirrhosis, esophageal varices                        fied scoring system performed with high sensitivity
and subsequent hemorrhage.47,49,50,55 An acute onset                           and specificity in the diagnosis of AIH, but it has yet
of illness is common ($40%),56-63 and an acute severe                          to be validated in prospective studies.76,79,80
presentation, characterized by hepatic encephalopathy
within 8 weeks of clinical symptoms, is sometimes                              3.1. Clinical, Laboratory, and Histological
seen.10,11,58,64-68                                                            Assessment
   Three randomized, controlled treatment trials estab-                           The diagnosis of AIH requires the presence of charac-
lished that prednisone alone or in combination with                            teristic clinical and laboratory features, and the exclu-
azathioprine improved symptoms, laboratory tests, his-                         sion of other conditions that cause chronic hepatitis and
tological findings, and immediate survival.48-50 These                          cirrhosis (Table 2).13 The clinical assessment should
studies led to the acceptance of immunosuppressive                             include an evaluation of alcohol consumption and the
regimens as the standard in treatment, and supported                           use of drugs known to be hepatotoxic. The laboratory
an autoimmune pathogenesis of the disease. However,                            assessment should include determinations of the levels
these studies were completed decades ago before the                            of serum alanine (ALT) or aspartate (AST) aminotrans-
discovery of HCV. Therefore, HCV infection could                               ferases, alkaline phosphatase (AP), albumin, total or
not be excluded in these studies and one can assume                            c-globulin, IgG, and bilirubin (conjugated and uncon-
that several of these patients were indeed infected with                       jugated). AIH can be asymptomatic in 34%-45% of
HCV. Liver transplantation has also evolved as an                              patients.8,9,269 Typically, these patients are men and
effective treatment for the decompensated patient, and                         have significantly lower serum ALT levels at presenta-
the 5-year patient and graft survivals now exceed                              tion than do symptomatic patients.8 Histological find-
80%.69-74                                                                      ings, including the frequency of cirrhosis, are similar
HEPATOLOGY, Vol. 51, No. 6, 2010                                                                                                               MANNS ET AL.        3



                            Table 2. Codified Diagnostic Criteria of the International Autoimmune Hepatitis Group
          Features                                             Definite                                                                  Probable

Liver histology                   Interface hepatitis of moderate or severe activity with or without          Same as for ‘‘definite’’
                                     lobular hepatitis or central portal bridging necrosis,
                                     but without biliary lesions or well defined granulomas or other
                                     prominent changes suggestive of a different etiology
Serum biochemistry                Any abnormality in serum aminotransferases, especially if the               Same as for ‘‘definite’’ but patients with
                                     serum alkaline phosphatase is not markedly elevated. Normal                abnormal serum concentrations of copper
                                     serum concentrations of alpha antitrypsin,                                 or ceruloplasmin may be included, provided
                                     copper and ceruloplasmin.                                                  that Wilson disease has been excluded
                                                                                                                by appropriate investigations
Serum immunoglobulins             Total serum globulin or c globulin or IgG concentrations                    Any elevation of serum globulin or c globulin
                                     greater than 1.5 times the upper normal limit                              or IgG concentrations above the upper normal limit
Serum autoantibodies              Seropositivity for ANA, SMA, or anti LKM 1 antibodies at titers             Same as for ‘‘definite’’ but at titers of 1:40
                                     greater than 1:80. Lower titers (particularly of anti LKM 1)               or greater. Patients who are seronegative for these
                                     may be significant in children. Seronegativity for AMA.                     antibodies but who are seropositive for other
                                                                                                                antibodies specified in the text may be included.
Viral markers                     Seronegativity for markers of current infection with                        Same as for ‘‘definite’’
                                    hepatitis A, B, and C viruses
Other etiological factors         Average alcohol consumption less than 25 g/day.                             Alcohol consumption less than 50 g/day and no
                                    No history of recent use of known hepatotoxic drugs.                         recent use of known hepatotoxic drugs. Patients
                                                                                                                 who have consumed larger amounts of alcohol
                                                                                                                 or who have recently taken potentially hepatotoxic
                                                                                                                 drugs may be included, if there is clear evidence
                                                                                                                 of continuing liver damage after abstinence from
                                                                                                                 alcohol or withdrawal of the drug.

  Adapted from Alvarez F, Berg PA, Bianchi FB, et al. J Hepatol 1999;31:929 938.



between asymptomatic patients and symptomatic                                       long, preferably by an expert, to monitor for changes in
patients. Because as many as 70% of asymptomatic                                    disease activity.
patients become symptomatic during the course of their                                 In children, the gamma glutamyl transferase level
disease,8,9 asymptomatic patients must be followed life-                            may be a better discriminator of biliary disease,

                        Table 3. Revised Original Scoring System of the International Autoimmune Hepatitis Group
Sex                                              Female              þ2           HLA                                         DR3 or DR4                         þ1
AP:AST (or ALT) ratio                              >3                  2          Immune Disease                        Thyroiditis, colitis, others             þ2
                                                  <1.5               þ2
c globulin or IgG level above normal              >2.0               þ3           Other markers                   Anti SLA, anti actin, anti LC1, pANCA          þ2
                                                 1.5 2.0             þ2
                                                 1.0 1.5             þ1
                                                  <1.0                0
ANA, SMA, or anti LKM1 titers                    >1:80               þ3           Histological features                     Interface hepatitis                  þ3
                                                  1:80               þ2                                                         Plasmacytic                      þ1
                                                  1:40               þ1                                                           Rosettes                       þ1
                                                 <1:40                0                                                       None of above                       5
                                                                                                                              Biliary changes                     3
                                                                                                                              Other features                      3
AMA                                               Positive               4        Treatment response                              Complete                       þ2
                                                                                                                                   Relapse                       þ3
Viral markers                                    Positive             3
                                                 Negative            þ3
Drugs                                              Yes                4           Pretreatment aggregate score:
                                                   No                þ1             Definite diagnosis >15
                                                                                    Probable diagnosis 10 15
Alcohol                                         <25 g/day            þ2           Posttreatment aggregate score:
                                                >60 g/day             2             Definite diagnosis >17
                                                                                    Probable diagnosis 12 17

   Adapted from Alvarez F, Berg PA, Bianchi FB, et al. J Hepatol 1999;31:929 938.
   AMA, antimitochondrial antibody; anti LC1, antibody to liver cytosol type 1; anti LKM1, antibody to liver/kidney microsomes type 1; anti SLA, antibody to soluble
liver antigen; ANA, antinuclear antibody; AP:AST (or ALT) ratio, ratio of alkaline phosphatase level to aspartate or alanine aminotransferase level; HLA, human leuko
cyte antigen; IgG, immunoglobulin G; pANCA, perinuclear anti neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody; SMA, smooth muscle antibody.
4     MANNS ET AL.                                                                                                                         HEPATOLOGY, June 2010



                                        Table 4. Autoantibodies in the Diagnosis of Autoimmune Hepatitis
      Antibody                          Target Antigen(s)                               Liver Disease                                    Value in AIH

ANA*                   Multiple targets including:                            AIH                                   Diagnosis of type 1 AIH
                        chromatin,                                           PBC
                        ribonucleoproteins                                   PSC
                        ribonucleoprotein complexes                          Drug induced
                                                                              Chronic hepatitis C
                                                                              Chronic hepatitis B
                                                                              Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease
SMA*                   Microfilaments (filamentous actin) and                   Same as ANA                           Diagnosis of type 1 AIH
                          intermediate filaments (vimentin, desmin)
LKM 1*                 Cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6)                           Type 2 AIH                            Diagnosis of type 2 AIH
                                                                              Chronic hepatitis C
LC 1*                  Formiminotransferase cyclo deaminase (FTCD)            Type 2 AIH                            Diagnosis of type 2 AIH
                                                                              Chronic hepatitis C                   Prognostic implications
                                                                                                                    Severe disease
pANCA (atypical)       Nuclear lamina proteins                                AIH                                   Diagnosis of type 1 AIH
                                                                              PSC                                   Re classification of cryptogenic
                                                                                                                       chronic hepatitis as type 1 AIH
SLA                     tRNP(SER)Sec                                          AIH                                   Diagnosis of AIH
                                                                              Chronic hepatitis C                   Prognostic implications
                                                                                                                    Severe disease
                                                                                                                    Relapse
                                                                                                                    Treatment dependence
LKM 3                  family 1 UDP glucuronosyl transferases (UGT1A)         Type 2 AIH                            Diagnosis of type 2 AIH
                                                                              Chronic hepatitis D
ASGPR                  Asialoglycoprotein receptor                            AIH                                   Prognostic implications
                                                                              PBC                                   Severe Disease
                                                                              Drug induced hepatitis                Histological activity
                                                                              Chronic hepatitis B, C, D             Relapse
LKM2                   Cytochrome P450 2C9                                    Ticrynafen induced hepatitis          None, does not occur after withdrawal of ticrynafen
LM                     Cytochrome P450 1A2                                    Dihydralazine induced hepatitis       Diagnosis of APECED hepatitis
                                                                              APECED hepatitis

   *Antibodies highlighted as bold letters indicate the conventional serological repertoire for the diagnosis of AIH. The other autoantibodes may be useful in
patients who lack the conventional autoantibody markers.
   AIH, autoimmune hepatitis; ANA, antinuclear antibody; APECED, autoimmune polyendocrinopathy candidias ectodermal dystrophy; ASGPR, antibody to asialoglycoprotein
receptor; LC1, liver cytosol type 1; LKM, liver kidney/microsome; LM, liver microsome antibody; pANCA, perinuclear anti neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody; PBC, primary bili
ary cirrhosis; PSC, primary sclerosing cholangitis; SLA, soluble liver antigen; SMA, smooth muscle antibody; UGT, uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase.


specifically primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC), than                                 start of therapy. Interface hepatitis is the histological
the AP level, which can be elevated due to bone activ-                                 hallmark (Fig. 1), and plasma cell infiltration is typical
ity in the growing child.77 Neither the gamma glu-                                     (Fig. 2).83-87 Neither histological finding is specific for
tamyl transferase nor AP levels, however, discriminate                                 AIH, and the absence of plasma cells in the infiltrate
between the presence or absence of cholangiopathy in                                   does not preclude the diagnosis.84 Eosinophils, lobular
children with AIH.36 The conventional serologic                                        inflammation, bridging necrosis, and multiacinar ne-
markers of AIH should also be assessed, including an-                                  crosis may be present.55,86,87 Granulomas rarely occur.
tinuclear antibody (ANA), smooth muscle antibody                                       The portal lesions generally spare the bile ducts. In all
(SMA), antibody to liver/kidney microsome type 1                                       but the mildest forms, fibrosis is present and, with
(anti-LKM1) and anti-liver cytosol type 1 (anti-LC1)                                   advanced disease, bridging fibrosis or cirrhosis is
(Table 4).12-16 Diagnostic evaluations should be under-                                seen.55,83-85 Occasionally, centrizonal (zone 3) lesions
taken to exclude hereditary diseases (Wilson disease                                   exist (Fig. 3),10,60-62,88-91 and sequential liver tissue
and alpha 1 antitrypsin deficiency), viral hepatitis, stea-                             examinations have demonstrated transition of this pat-
tohepatitis and other autoimmune liver diseases that                                   tern to interface hepatitis in some patients.62 The his-
may resemble AIH specifically primary biliary cirrho-                                   tological findings differ depending on the kinetics of
sis (PBC) and PSC.12,13,36,81,82                                                       the disease. Compared to patients with an insidious
   Liver biopsy examination at presentation is recom-                                  onset, patients with acute severe hepatic failure exhibit
mended to establish the diagnosis and to guide the                                     more interface and lobular hepatitis, lobular disarray,
treatment decision.12,13,15,16 In acute presentation                                   hepatocyte necrosis, central necrosis and submassive
unavailability of liver biopsy should not prevent from                                 necrosis, but less fibrosis and cirrhosis.10,92,93
HEPATOLOGY, Vol. 51, No. 6, 2010                                                                                            MANNS ET AL.       5



                                                                            medications, or infections that could cause liver
                                                                            injury.13,76,78 There is no time requirement to establish
                                                                            chronicity, and cholestatic clinical, laboratory, and his-
                                                                            tologic changes generally preclude the diagnosis. If the
                                                                            conventional autoantibodies are not detected, a proba-
                                                                            ble diagnosis can be supported by the presence of
                                                                            other autoantibodies such as atypical perinuclear anti-
                                                                            neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (atypical pANCA) or
                                                                            those directed against soluble liver antigen (anti-
                                                                            SLA).102,103

                                                                            3.2. Serological Assessment
                                                                               ANA, SMA, anti-LKM1, and anti-LC1 constitute
                                                                            the conventional serological repertoire for the diagnosis
                                                                            of AIH (Table 4).12-16,104-109 In North American
   Fig. 1. Interface hepatitis. The limiting plate of the portal tract is
disrupted by a lymphoplasmacytic infiltrate. Hematoxylin and eosin           adults, 96% of patients with AIH have ANA, SMA, or
stain; magnification, Â200.                                                  both,110 and 4% have anti-LKM1 and/or anti-LC1.111
                                                                            Anti-LKM1 are deemed more frequent in European
   Some patients exhibit features of both AIH and                           AIH patients and are typically unaccompanied by
another disorder such as PSC, PBC, or autoimmune                            ANA or SMA.112 They are possibly underestimated in
cholangitis, a variant syndrome.94-100 Certain histo-                       the United States.113 Anti-LKM1 are detected by indi-
logic changes such as ductopenia or destructive cholan-                     rect immunofluorescence, but because they may be
gitis may indicate the presence of one of these variant                     confused with antimitochondrial antibody (AMA)
types.101 In these cases, the revised original scoring sys-                 using this technique, they can be assessed by meas-
tem can be used to assist in diagnosis (Table 3).13,76                      uring antibodies to cytochrome P4502D6, the major
The findings of steatosis or iron overload may suggest                       molecular target of anti-LKM1, using commercial
alternative or additional diagnoses, such as nonalco-                       enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). Auto-
holic fatty liver disease, Wilson disease, chronic hepatitis                antibodies are not specific to AIH104-109 and their
C, drug toxicity, or hereditary hemochromatosis.84,85,101                   expressions can vary during the course of the dis-
   Differences between a definite and probable diagno-                       ease.110 Furthermore, low autoantibody titers do not
sis of AIH by the diagnostic scoring system relate                          exclude the diagnosis of AIH, nor do high titers (in
mainly to the magnitude of serum IgG elevation, titers                      the absence of other supportive findings) establish the
of autoantibodies, and extent of exposures to alcohol,                      diagnosis.110 Seronegative individuals may express




   Fig. 2. Plasma cell infiltration. Plasma cells, characterized by cyto-       Fig. 3. Median centrilobular zone 3 necrosis. Centrilobular zone 3
plasmic halo about the nucleus, infiltrate the hepatic parenchyma. He-       necrosis associated with a mononuclear inflammatory infiltrate. Hema-
matoxylin and eosin stain; magnification, Â400.                              toxylin and eosin stain; original magnification, Â200.
6   MANNS ET AL.                                                                                HEPATOLOGY, June 2010



conventional antibodies later in the disease114-118 or       LKM1,133 but are more commonly found in associa-
exhibit nonstandard autoantibodies.104-109,119 Autoan-       tion with the conventional autoantibodies, especially if
tibody titers in adults only roughly correlate with dis-     sensitive immunoassays are used.133-136 Anti-SLA are
ease severity, clinical course, and treatment response.110   highly specific for the diagnosis of autoimmune liver
In pediatric populations (patients aged 18 years),           disease,133 and their detection may identify patients
titers are useful biomarkers of disease activity and can     with more severe disease and worse outcome.137-140
be used to monitor treatment response.120                    Commercial ELISAs are available for their detection.
   When tested on rodent tissues, an autoantibody titer         The conventional and nonstandard autoantibodies
of 1:40 is significant in adults, whereas in children         described in AIH are shown in Table 4. Figure 4 pro-
titers of 1:20 for ANA and SMA, and 1:10 for anti-           vides an algorithm for the use of autoantibodies in the
LKM1, are clinically relevant, because autoantibody          diagnosis of AIH.
reactivity is infrequent in healthy children.13 If present
in high titer, anti-LKM1 strongly support the diagno-        3.3. Genetic Considerations
sis of AIH, even if liver biopsy is precluded by other          Multiple genetic associations with AIH have been
clinical considerations.                                     described in different ethnic groups.29,141-154 The pri-
   The mainstay technique for autoantibody screening         mary genetic association is with the major histocom-
is indirect immunofluorescence on composite sections          patibility complex locus, and associations of HLA al-
of freshly frozen rodent stomach, kidney and liver.14        leles with disease predisposition, clinical phenotype,
This technique not only permits the detection of             response to therapy, and outcome have been stud-
ANA, SMA, anti-LKM1, and AMA but also suggests               ied.18,155-168 AIH is a complex polygenic disorder169
the presence of other autoantibodies of an evolving          unlikely to be transmitted to subsequent generations;
clinical importance, such as antibody to liver cytosol       thus, routine screening of patients or family members
type 1 (anti-LC1)111,121 and antibody to liver kidney        for genetic markers is not recommended.
microsome type 3 (anti LKM-3).122,123 Confirmation               AIH may be present in patients with multiple endo-
of the presence of the latter autoantibody is obtained       crine organ failure, mucocutaneous candidiasis, and
with assays detecting antibodies to their molecular tar-     ectodermal dystrophy. Such patients have the rare
gets, formiminotransferase cyclo-deaminase (FTCD)            genetic disorder autoimmune polyendocrinopathy-can-
and family 1 UDP-glucuronosyl-transferases (UGT1A),          didiasis-ectodermal dystrophy (APECED), caused by a
respectively (Table 4).                                      single-gene mutation located on chromosome 21q22.3
   Other autoantibodies that may be useful in classifying    that affects the generation of the autoimmune regula-
patients who lack the conventional serological findings       tor (AIRE) protein.170 AIRE is a transcription factor
are anti-SLA124-128 and atypical pANCA.119,129,130,131-139   expressed in epithelial and dendritic cells within the
Atypical pANCA, originally considered specific for PSC        thymus that regulates clonal deletion of autoreactive T
and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD),124,125 are fre-         cells (i.e., negative selection). APECED has an autoso-
quently present in patients with AIH,126,127 and occa-       mal recessive pattern of inheritance and lacks HLA
sionally can be the only autoantibodies detected (Table      DR associations and female predilection. The liver
4).128 ANCA typically do not coexist with anti-              autoantigens associated with APECED are cytochrome
LKM1.127 Recent evidence indicates that the target of        P450 1A2 (CYP1A2), CYP2A6 in addition to
atypical pANCA is located within the nuclear membrane.       CYP2D6.171-174 Antibodies to cytochrome P450 1A2
For this reason, a more suitable designation may be          were previously called anti liver microsomal (anti-LM)
peripheral anti-neutrophil nuclear antibody (pANNA)          antibodies (Table 4). This is the only syndrome involv-
(Table 4).102,103                                            ing AIH that exhibits a Mendelian pattern of inheri-
   Anti-SLA129 and anti–liver-pancreas (anti-LP),130         tance, and genetic counseling for the patient and fam-
originally described as separate autoantibodies in AIH,      ily members are warranted.
were later found to target the same antigen and to rep-
                                                               Recommendations:
resent a single serological entity. These antibodies are
now referred to as anti-SLA or anti-SLA/LP. Their mo-           1. The diagnosis of AIH should be made when
lecular target is a transfer ribonucleoprotein (Table        compatible clinical signs and symptoms, laboratory
4).119,131,132 SLA has recently been renamed SEPSECS         abnormalities (serum AST or ALT, and increased se-
(Sep [O-phosphoserine] tRNA synthase) Selenocysteine         rum total IgG or c-globulin), serological (ANA,
Synthase. Anti-SLA are occasionally found in patients        SMA, anti-LKM 1, or anti-LC1), and histological
with AIH who are negative for ANA, SMA, and anti-            (interface hepatitis) findings are present; and other
HEPATOLOGY, Vol. 51, No. 6, 2010                                                                                               MANNS ET AL.        7




   Fig. 4. The use of serological tests assisting in the diagnosis of AIH. Serological tests in the evaluation of acute or chronic hepatitis of unde-
termined cause. The initial serological battery includes assessments for antinuclear antibodies (ANA), smooth muscle antibodies (SMA), antibod-
ies to liver/kidney microsome type 1 (LKM-1), and antimitochondrial antibodies (AMA). The results of these conventional tests then direct the
diagnostic effort. If one or more tests are positive, the diagnosis of autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) or primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) should be pur-
sued. If these tests are negative, other serological assessments are appropriate, including tests for antibodies to actin (F-actin), soluble liver
antigen/liver pancreas (SLA/LP), liver cytosol type 1 (LC-1), UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (LKM-3), the E2 subunits of the pyruvate dehydrogen-
ase complex (PDH-E2), perinuclear anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (pANCA). The results of these supplemental tests may suggest other
diagnoses, including primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC), or cryptogenic chronic hepatitis.



conditions that can cause chronic hepatitis, includ-                        cal entities.13 A proposed third type (type 3) has been
ing viral, hereditary, metabolic, cholestatic, and                          abandoned, as its serologic marker (anti-SLA) is also
drug-induced diseases, have been excluded (Table 2).                        found in type 1 AIH and in type 2 AIH.176-179 Type 1
(Class I, Level B)                                                          AIH is characterized by the presence of ANA, SMA or
   2. Diagnostically challenging cases that have few                        both, and constitutes 80% of AIH cases.175 Seventy
or atypical clinical, laboratory, serological or histo-                     percent of patients are female, with a peak incidence
logical findings should be assessed by the diagnostic                        between ages 16 and 30 years.180,181 Fifty percent of
scoring systems (Table 3). (Class IIa, Level B)                             patients are older than 30 years, and 23% are at least 60
   3. In patients negative for conventional autoantibod-                    years old.38,43,44,181 Associations with other autoim-
ies in whom AIH is suspected, other serological markers,                    mune diseases are common (15%-34%); these include
including at least anti-SLA and atypical pANCA,                             autoimmune thyroid disease, synovitis, celiac disease,
should be tested. (Table 4; Fig. 4). (Class I, Level B)                     and ulcerative colitis.43,44,182 At the time of diagno-
   4. In patients with AIH and multiple endocrine                           sis, cirrhosis is present in $25% of patients.183,184
disorders, the APECED syndrome must be excluded                             Antibodies to SLA have emerged as possible prognos-
by testing for the typical mutations in the AIRE                            tic markers that may identify patients with severe
gene. (Class I, Level C)                                                    AIH who are prone to relapse after corticosteroid
                                                                            withdrawal.134,137-140,179,185 Type 2 AIH is character-
                                                                            ized by the presence of anti-LKM1112 and/or anti-LC1
4. Autoantibody Classification                                               and/or anti-LKM-3. Most patients with type 2 AIH
  Two types of AIH (type 1 and type 2) have been rec-                       are children, and serum immunoglobulin levels are usu-
ognized based on serological markers112,129,130,175 but                     ally elevated except for the concentration of IgA, which
have not been established as valid clinical or pathologi-                   may be reduced.112 Concurrent immune diseases are
8   MANNS ET AL.                                                                                    HEPATOLOGY, June 2010



common,112 progression to cirrhosis occurs,112 and an          cal syndrome has been associated with various herbal
acute severe presentation is possible.58,64                    medications255-258 and with vaccination.259-261
   Recommendations:                                            5.3. Ethnic Differences
   5. Classification of autoimmune hepatitis into two              Manifestations of AIH vary among ethnic groups.
types based on the presence of ANA and SMA (type               African-American patients have a greater frequency of
1 AIH) or anti-LKM1 and anti-LC1 (type 2 AIH)                  cirrhosis at presentation than do white Ameri-
can be used to characterize the clinical syndrome or           cans.26,31,32 Alaskan natives exhibit a higher frequency
to indicate serological homogeneity in clinical inves-         of acute icteric disease than non-native counterparts,27
tigations. Anti-LKM1 antibodies should be routinely            whereas Middle Eastern patients commonly have cho-
investigated to avoid overlooking type 2 AIH. (Class           lestatic features.28 Asian patients typically present with
IIa, Level C)                                                  late onset, mild disease,20,262 whereas South American
                                                               patients are commonly children with severe liver
5. Diagnostic Difficulties                                      inflammation.21,22 Aboriginal North Americans have a
5.1. Mixed Clinical and Histological Features                  disproportionately high frequency of immune-medi-
   PSC and PBC can have clinical, laboratory, histo-           ated disorders, cholestatic features, and advanced dis-
logical, and genetic findings that resemble those of            ease at presentation,33,34 and Somali patients are fre-
AIH,95,206-212 and AIH can have features that resemble         quently men with rapidly progressive disease.30
each of these cholestatic syndromes.36,81,82,213-217 These     Socioeconomic status, healthcare access, and quality of
nonspecific shared features can confound the codified            care are additional factors that must be considered
diagnostic scoring system.13,76,78 The prevalence of           when assessing nonclassical disease manifestations
AIH among patients with PSC was determined to be               within racial groups.31,32,263,264
21%-54% using the original scoring system,218,219 but
this prevalence decreased to 8% in PSC when the re-            5.4. Acute Severe Presentation
vised original scoring system was applied.206,220,221             AIH can have an acute severe presentation that
Application of the original scoring system in a retro-         can be mistaken for a viral or toxic hepati-
spective review of 141 patients with PBC showed that           tis.10,11,58,64,65,67,68,265 Sometimes autoimmune hepati-
19% and 0% scored as probable and definite AIH,                 tis may present as acute liver failure. Corticosteroid
respectively.222 Clinical judgment is required to deter-       therapy can be effective in suppressing the inflamma-
mine the predominant phenotype of the disease and to           tory activity in 36%-100% of patients,11 whereas delay
manage the process appropriately.95,223                        in treatment can have a strong negative impact on out-
                                                               come.265-267 In addition, unrecognized chronic disease
5.2. Serological Overlap                                       can exhibit a spontaneous exacerbation and appear
    AIH patients may demonstrate serological features          acute.92 If extrahepatic endocrine autoimmune features
that suggest another diagnosis. AMA occur in about 5%          are present in children with severe acute presentation
of AIH patients in the absence of other biliary features       the APECED syndrome must be excluded.268
(‘‘serological overlap’’),178,224-228 and their presence may
confound the clinical diagnosis. AMA may disappear226          5.5. Concurrent Immune Diseases
or persist as long as 27 years without an evolution into          Concurrent immune disorders may mask the under-
PBC.227 The revised original scoring system can render         lying liver disease.16,17,38,43,44,182 Autoimmune thy-
a diagnosis of ‘‘probable AIH’’ in these patients, if other    roiditis, Graves’ disease, synovitis and ulcerative colitis
features of AIH are sufficiently strong.229,230                 are the most common immune-mediated disorders asso-
    Other acute and chronic liver diseases of diverse etiol-   ciated with AIH in North American adults,43,44,180,270
ogies that can have serological features of AIH include        whereas type I diabetes mellitus, vitiligo, and auto-
alcoholic231 and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease,232,233      immune thyroiditis are the most common concurrent
acute234 and chronic54,235-241 viral hepatitis, and drug-      disorders in European anti-LKM1þ AIH patients.112
induced hepatitis.242,243 Drugs such as minocycline,244-       In children with AIH, autoimmune sclerosing cholan-
246
      diclofenac,247,248 infliximab,249 propylthiouracil,250    gitis can be present, with or without IBD.36 In adults
atorvastatin,251 nitrofurantoin,252 methyl dopa,253 and        with both AIH and IBD, contrast cholangiography
isoniazid254 can cause a syndrome that resembles AIH           showing biliary changes suggestive of PSC are present
replete with autoantibodies that generally disappear after     in 44% of patients.81 In adults with AIH but not
discontinuation of the drug. Similarly, an AIH-like clini-     IBD, magnetic resonance imaging indicating biliary
HEPATOLOGY, Vol. 51, No. 6, 2010                                                                                                        MANNS ET AL.        9



                                             Table 5. Indications for Immunosuppressive Treatment
               Absolute                                               Relative                                                   None

Serum AST ! 10 fold ULN                      Symptoms (fatigue, arthralgia, jaundice)                     Asymptomatic with normal or near normal serum
                                                                                                             AST and c globulin levels
Serum AST ! 5 fold ULN and                   Serum AST and/or c globulin less than absolute criteria      Inactive cirrhosis or mild portal inflammation
   c globulin level ! 2 fold ULN                                                                             (portal hepatitis)
Bridging necrosis or multiacinar             Interface hepatitis                                          Severe cytopenia (white blood cell counts
   necrosis on histological examination                                                                      2.5 Â 109/L or platelet counts 50 Â 109/L)
                                                                                                             or known complete deficiency of TPMT activity
                                                                                                             precludes treatment with azathioprine
Incapacitating symptoms                      Osteopenia, emotional instability, hypertension, diabetes,   Vertebral compression, psychosis, brittle diabetes,
                                               or cytopenia (white blood cell counts 2.5 Â 109/L             uncontrolled hypertension, known intolerances
                                               or platelet counts 50 Â 109/L)                                to prednisone or azathioprine

  AST, serum aspartate aminotransferase level; ULN, upper limit of normal range.



changes are observed in 8% of patients.82 Unless bile                              histological findings of disease severity at presentation
duct changes are present, concurrent immune diseases                               are absolute indications for corticosteroid treatment
typically do not affect the prognosis of AIH.81 Chol-                              (Tables 4 and 5).274,275 Incapacitating symptoms
angiographic studies should be performed in patients                               associated with hepatic inflammation, such as fatigue
with both AIH and IBD, as well as in children and                                  and arthralgia, are also absolute indications for treat-
adults refractory to 3 months of conventional cortico-                             ment regardless of other indices of disease severity
steroid treatment. In a prospective pediatric study,                               (Table 5).
50% of patients with clinical, serological and histologi-
cal characteristics of AIH type 1 had bile duct abnor-
malities compatible with early sclerosing cholangitis on                           6.2. Uncertain Indications for Treatment
cholangiogram.36                                                                      The natural history of autoimmune hepatitis is
                                                                                   uncertain in patients who have no or only mild
   Recommendations:                                                                symptoms and in those who have mild laboratory
   6. The diagnosis of AIH should be considered in                                 and histological findings. Prospective, randomized,
all patients with acute or chronic hepatitis of unde-                              controlled treatment trials have not been performed
termined cause, including patients with acute severe                               in these patients, and their indications for treatment
hepatitis. (Class I, Level C)                                                      remain uncertain and highly individualized (Table
   7. Cholangiographic studies should be considered                                5).269,276 Asymptomatic individuals with inactive cir-
to exclude PSC in adults if there has been no                                      rhosis may have an excellent immediate survival with-
response to corticosteroid therapy after 3 months.                                 out corticosteroid treatment.8,9 Other asymptomatic
(Class IIb, Level C)                                                               patients who do not have cirrhosis may have inactive
   8. All children with AIH and all adults with both                               disease, and their natural 10-year survival may exceed
AIH and IBD should undergo cholangiographic                                        80%.9 There are no guidelines that reliably identify
studies to exclude PSC. (Class I, Level C)                                         this ‘‘safe’’ population who require no therapy. Spon-
                                                                                   taneous resolution is possible in some asymptomatic
                                                                                   patients with mild disease, but these patients improve
6. Treatment Indications                                                           less commonly (12% versus 63%, P  0.006) and
6.1. Absolute Indications for Treatment                                            more slowly than treated patients.269 Furthermore,
   Three randomized, controlled trials have demon-                                 untreated asymptomatic patients with mild disease
strated that patients with serum AST levels of at least                            have a lower 10-year survival than treated counter-
10-fold the upper limit of the normal range (ULN) or                               parts (67% versus 98%, P  0.01).269 The frequency
more than five-fold ULN in conjunction with a serum                                 of spontaneous improvement must be counterbal-
c-globulin level more than two-fold ULN have a high                                anced against the frequency of serious drug-related
mortality (60% at 6 month) if untreated. Furthermore,                              complications when making the treatment decision
histological findings of bridging necrosis or multilobu-                            (12% versus l4%).269 Since the mild autoimmune
lar necrosis at presentation progress to cirrhosis in                              hepatitis can progress and a rapid and complete
82% of untreated patients and are associated with a 5-                             response to a normal end point can be anticipated,
year mortality of 45%.55,86,87 These laboratory and                                corticosteroid therapy is favored in asymptomatic
10   MANNS ET AL.                                                                                 HEPATOLOGY, June 2010



mild disease, especially in young individuals who are             Recommendations:
likely to tolerate the medication satisfactorily.269              9. Immunosuppressive treatment should be insti-
Patients likely to have a poor outcome are those at            tuted in patients with serum AST or ALT levels
increased risk for drug intolerance, and they include          greater than 10-fold ULN, at least five-fold ULN in
individuals with advanced inactive cirrhosis, post-            conjunction with a serum c-globulin level at least 2-
menopausal osteopenia or vertebral compression,                fold ULN, and/or histological features of bridging
emotional instability or psychosis, poorly controlled          necrosis or multilobular necrosis (Table 5). (Class I,
hypertension, low thiopurine methyltransferase activ-          Level A)
ity, and brittle diabetes (Table 5).277                           10. Immunosuppressive treatment may be consid-
                                                               ered in adult patients without symptoms and mild
6.3. No Indications for Treatment                              laboratory and histological changes, but the decision
   Corticosteroid therapy is effective only in patients        must be individualized and balanced against the
who have clinical, laboratory or histological features of      possible risks of therapy. Consider referral to a hepa-
active liver inflammation. Patients with inactive or            tologist prior to starting therapy (Table 5). (Class
‘‘burned out cirrhosis’’ cannot benefit from therapy,9          IIa, Level C)
and they have an increased risk of drug-induced side              11. Immunosuppressive treatment should not be
effects because their associated hypoalbuminemia,              instituted in patients with minimal or no disease ac-
hyperbilirubinemia, and portosystemic shunting can             tivity or inactive cirrhosis, but these patients must
affect protein-binding and disposition of free predniso-       continue to be followed closely, i.e., 3-6 months (Ta-
lone.278 Patients with brittle diabetes, vertebral com-        ble 5). (Class IIa, Level C)
pression, psychosis, or severe osteoporosis must be crit-         12. Immunosuppressive treatment should not be
ically assessed for a treatment benefit before                  instituted in patients with serious pre-existent
administering corticosteroids, and azathioprine should         comorbid conditions (vertebral compression, psycho-
be avoided in patients with severe pretreatment cytope-        sis, brittle diabetes, uncontrolled hypertension), or
nia (white blood cell counts below 2.5 Â 109/L or              previous known intolerances to prednisone unless the
platelet counts below 50 Â 109/L) or known complete            disease is severe and progressive and adequate con-
deficiency of thiopurine methyltransferase activity             trol measures for the comorbid conditions can be
(Table 5).277                                                  instituted (Table 5). (Class III, Level C)
                                                                  13. Azathioprine treatment should not be started
                                                               in patients with a severe pretreatment cytopenia
6.4. Treatment Indications in Children
                                                               (white blood cell counts below 2.5 Â 109/L or plate-
   The indications for treatment in children are similar
                                                               let counts below 50 Â 109/L) or known complete
to those in adults (Table 5).35 The disease process in
                                                               deficiency of thiopurine methyltransferase activity
children appears to be more severe at presentation
                                                               (Table 5). (Class III, Level C)
than commonly seen in adults, perhaps because of
                                                                  14. Immunosuppressive treatment should be insti-
delays in diagnosis or other concurrent immune dis-
                                                               tuted in children at the time of diagnosis regardless
eases, such as autoimmune sclerosing cholangi-
                                                               of symptom status. (Class I, Level C)
tis.35,36,279-281 More than 50% of children have cirrho-
sis at accession, and the milder forms of the disease
described in adults are not typically seen in chil-
dren.35,36,279-281 The perceived aggressive course in          7. Treatment Regimens
most children and reports that delays in diagnosis and         7.1. Treatment Regimens in Adults
treatment adversely affect the long-term outcome have             Two treatment regimens are equally effective in
justified drug therapy at the time of diagnosis.35,36,279-281   severe AIH (Table 6).273,282-287 Prednisone alone (60 mg
Only those children with advanced cirrhosis without evi-       daily) or a lower dose of prednisone (30 mg daily)
dence of inflammatory activity are unlikely to benefit.          in conjunction with azathioprine (50 mg is usually
Therefore, all children in which the diagnosis of AIH has      used in the United States or 1-2 mg/kg body weight,
been established should be treated.                            which is widely used daily in Europe) (Table 6). Pred-
   If the diagnosis of autoimmune hepatitis or the             nisone may be tapered down to an individual level suf-
indications for the treatment are in doubt in children         ficient to maintain a remission from 20 mg daily
or adults, the patient should be referred to a hepatolo-       onward, reduction should be done by 5 mg every
gist before starting corticosteroid therapy.                   week until 10 mg/day are achieved and even further
HEPATOLOGY, Vol. 51, No. 6, 2010                                                                                                 MANNS ET AL.         11



                         Table 6. Immunosuppressive Treatment Regimens for Adults in Autoimmune Hepatitis
                                                                                                          Combination Therapy
                                                  Monotherapy                                                                   Azathioprine
                                            Prednisone only* (mg/day)             Prednisone* (mg/day)         USA (mg/day)                EU (mg/kg/day)

Week 1                                                60                                  30                        50                          12
Week 2                                                40                                  20                        50                          12
Week 3                                                30                                  15                        50                          12
Week 4                                                30                                  15                        50                          12
Maintenance until endpoint                       20 and below                             10                        50                          12
Reasons for Preference                             Cytopenia                                             Postmenopausal state
                                     Thiopurine methyltransferase deficiency                                  Osteoporosis
                                                                                                            Brittle diabetes
                                                                                                                 Obesity
                                                   Pregnancy                                                       Acne
                                                   Malignancy                                              Emotional lability
                                           Short course ( 6 months)                                          Hypertension

  *Prednisolone can be used in place of prednisone in equivalent doses.




reduction by 2.5 mg/week have been considered up to                           they should be introduced as appropriate to the indi-
5 mg daily. The maintenance regimen is then contin-                           vidual’s perceived risk.277,282-284 Such therapies should
ued until resolution of the disease, treatment failure,                       include a regular weight baring exercise program, vita-
or drug-intolerance.282-285 The combination regimen                           min D and calcium supplementation. The administra-
of prednisone and azathioprine is associated with a                           tion of bone active agents such as bisphosphonates
lower occurrence of corticosteroid-related side effects                       may be appropriate for individual patients.277,282,302
than the higher dose prednisone regimen (10% versus                           Patients on long-term corticosteroid treatment should
44%), and it is the preferred treatment.273 Advanced                          be monitored for bone disease by baseline and annual
cirrhosis can significantly impair the conversion of                           bone mineral densitometry of the lumbar spine and
prednisone to prednisolone, but this impairment is                            hip.277,282,300,303
insufficient to alter treatment response or mandate the                           Like other patients suffering from chronic liver dis-
administration of prednisolone.272 In Europe, prednis-                        ease patients with AIH should be protected against
olone is preferred over prednisone,272 Prednisone is                          hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis A virus (HAV).
appropriate as the sole medication in individuals with                        Vaccination should be done as early as possible even
severe cytopenia,288-292 those undergoing a short treat-                      before immunosuppression is started because of lower
ment trial (duration of therapy, 6 months),273,278                           response rates.
individuals who are pregnant or contemplating preg-
nancy,293-295 patients with some active malignan-                             7.2. Treatment Regimes in Children
cies,296,297 and individuals with known complete thio-                           Treatment regimens have been less rigorously estab-
purine methyltransferase deficiency (Table 6).291,292,298                      lished in children than in adults and to some extent,
The combination regimen is appropriate in patients                            they reflect the preferences of individual cen-
who will be treated continuously for at least 6 months                        ters.35,36,120,279-281,283,305-309 There have been no
or who are at increased risk for drug-related complica-                       randomized, controlled, treatment trials in children with
tions, including postmenopausal women and individu-                           autoimmune hepatitis, but several reports of 17 or more
als with emotional instability, osteoporosis, brittle                         children have documented the efficacy of regimens simi-
diabetes, labile hypertension, or obesity (Table                              lar to those used in adults (Table 7).35,36,279-281 Despite
6).43,44,277,282-287,299,300 Patients receiving prednisone                    the severe disease at presentation, the response to treat-
should undergo eye examinations for cataracts and                             ment with corticosteroids with or without azathioprine
glaucoma periodically during treatment, and those                             is generally excellent in children. Normalization of liver
receiving azathioprine in any dose should be moni-                            tests is noted after 6-9 months of therapy in 75%-90%.
tored at 6 month intervals for leukopenia and throm-                             Prednisone is the mainstay in virtually all reported
bocytopenia.277,282-284,301                                                   regimens for children, and it is usually administered
   Adjunctive therapies should be based on an aware-                          initially in a dose of 1-2 mg/kg daily (up to 60 mg
ness of possible complications of the medication, and                         daily) (Table 7).35,36,279-281 Tapering schedules vary
12    MANNS ET AL.                                                                                                         HEPATOLOGY, June 2010



                       Table 7. Immunosuppressive Treatment Regimens for Children in Autoimmune Hepatitis
                Initial Regimen                                 Maintenance Regimen                                        Endpoint

Prednisone, 1 2 mg/kg daily (up to 60 mg/day),    Prednisone taper over 6 8 weeks to                  Normal liver tests for 1 2 years during treatment
   for two weeks either alone or in combination      0.1 0.2 mg/kg daily or 5 mg daily
   with azathioprine, 1 2 mg/kg daily
                                                  Azathioprine at constant dose if added initially    No flare during entire interval
                                                  Continue daily prednisone dose with or              Liver biopsy examination discloses no inflammation
                                                    without azathioprine or switch to alternate day
                                                    prednisone dose adjusted to response
                                                    with or without azathioprine



widely. In some centers, a rapid switch to alternate day                       18. Adjunctive therapies for bone disease include
regimens has been advocated, whereas in other centers,                       a regular weight baring exercise program, vitamin
maintenance of a low dose daily schedule is considered                       D, calcium and where appropriate bone active
essential. Because of the significant deleterious effects                     agents such as bisphosphonates. (Class IIa, Level C)
of long-term intermediate or high dose corticosteroid                          19. Pretreatment vaccination against HAV and
therapy on linear growth, bone development, and                              HBV should be performed if there has been no pre-
physical appearance, early use of azathioprine (1-2 mg/                      vious vaccination or susceptibility to these viruses
kg daily) or 6-mercaptopurine (1.5 mg/kg daily) for                          has been shown. (Class IIa, Level C)
all children without contraindications is usually recom-
mended.35,36,279-281,305 Experience with azathioprine                        8. Treatment-Related Side Effects
alone as maintenance therapy has been limited in chil-                          The nature and frequency of the side effects associ-
dren, but the drug appears to hold some promise for                          ated with each treatment regimen must be explained
those who do not tolerate complete cessation of treat-                       to the patient prior to the institution of therapy
ment.305 Regimens incorporating cyclosporin A as ini-                        (Table 8).284
tial treatment for children with autoimmune hepatitis
do not appear to confer a significant advantage over                          8.1. Corticosteroid-Related Side Effects
more traditional therapies, and they should be consid-                          Cosmetic changes, including facial rounding, dorsal
ered investigational.306-309 Pretreatment evidence of                        hump formation, striae, weight gain, acne, alopecia
susceptibility to HAV or HBV would justify vaccina-                          and facial hirsutism, occur in 80% of patients after 2
tion against these viruses in children.304                                   years of corticosteroid treatment regardless of the regi-
     Recommendations:                                                        men (Table 8).273,277,278 Severe side effects include
                                                                             osteopenia with vertebral compression, brittle diabetes,
   15. Treatment should be instituted with predni-                           psychosis, pancreatitis, opportunistic infection, labile
sone (starting with 30 mg daily and tapering down                            hypertension, and malignancy.273,277,282,299,300,310 Severe
to 10 mg daily within 4 weeks) in combination with                           complications are uncommon, but if they occur, it is
azathioprine (50 mg daily or 1-2 mg/kg body weight                           usually after protracted therapy (more than 18 months)
as widely used in Europe) or a higher dose of predni-                        with prednisone alone (20 mg daily).273,277,278
sone alone (starting with 40-60 mg daily and tapering                           Corticosteroid-related side effects are the most com-
down to 20 mg daily within 4 weeks) in adults with                           mon causes for premature drug withdrawal in autoim-
AIH. The combination regimen is preferred, and pred-                         mune hepatitis.277,311 Treatment is discontinued in
nisolone in equivalent dose can be used instead of                           13% of patients because of complications, and 47% of
prednisone (Table 6). (Class I, Level A)                                     these have intolerable cosmetic changes or obe-
  16. Treatment should be instituted with predni-                            sity.277,311 Twenty-seven percent have osteoporosis with
sone (1-2 mg/kg daily; maximum dose 60 mg daily)                             vertebral compression, and 20% have brittle diabetes.277,311
in children in combination with azathioprine (1-2
                                                                             8.2. Azathioprine-Related Side Effects
mg/kg daily) or 6-mercaptopurine (1.5 mg/kg daily)
                                                                                Complications of azathioprine therapy in autoim-
(Table 7). (Class I, Level B)
                                                                             mune hepatitis include cholestatic hepatitis,312 pancre-
  17. Patients on long-term corticosteroid treatment                         atitis,313,314 nausea,277 emesis,277 rash,277 opportunistic
should be monitored for bone disease at baseline                             infection,310 bone marrow suppression and malignancy
and then annually. (Class IIa, Level C)                                      (Table 8).288-292 Five percent of patients treated with
HEPATOLOGY, Vol. 51, No. 6, 2010                                                                                            MANNS ET AL.          13



         Table 8. Frequency and Nature of Side Effects Associated with Treatment in Adults with Autoimmune Hepatitis
                   Prednisone-Related Side Effects                                           Azathioprine-Related Side Effects

          Type                                       Frequency                    Type                                           Frequency

Cosmetic (usually mild)                     80% (after 2 years)       Hematologic (mild)                              46% (especially with cirrhosis)
   Facial rounding                                                      Cytopenia
   Weight gain
   Dorsal hump striae
   Hirsutism
   Alopecia
Somatic (usually mild)
   Emotional instability
   Glucose intolerance
   Cataracts
Somatic (severe)                            13% (treatment ending)    Hematologic (severe)                            6% (treatment ending)
   Osteopenia                                                           Leucopenia
   Vertebral compression                                                Thrombocytopenia
   Diabetes (brittle)
   Psychosis
   Hypertension (labile)
Inflammatory/neoplastic                      Rare                      Somatic (usually mild)                          5%
   Pancreatitis                                                          Nausea
   Opportunistic infection                                               Emesis
   Malignancy                                                            Rash
                                                                         Fever
                                                                         Arthralgias
                                                                      Neoplastic                                      3% (after 10 years)
                                                                         Nonhepatic cell types
                                                                      Hematologic/enteric                             Rare (treatment ending)
                                                                         Bone marrow failure
                                                                         Villous atrophy
                                                                         Malabsorption
                                                                      Teratogenic during pregnancy                    Rare (theoretical)

  Adapted from Czaja AJ. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2008;7:319 333.

azathioprine develop early adverse reactions (nausea,                thiopurine methyltransferase activity,320-322 and the
vomiting, arthralgias, fever, skin rash or pancreatitis),            most common cause of cytopenia in these patients is
which warrants its discontinuation.315 The overall fre-              hypersplenism associated with underlying cirrho-
quency of azathioprine-related side effects in patients              sis.320,322 Patients undergoing azathioprine therapy
with autoimmune hepatitis is 10%,273 and the side                    should have blood leukocyte and platelet counts
effects typically improve after the dose of azathioprine             assessed at 6-month intervals.
is reduced or the therapy is discontinued.277,282 An                     Chronic immune suppression in autoimmune hepa-
important but rare complication of azathioprine treat-               titis has been associated with an increased risk of
ment is a diarrheal syndrome associated with malab-                  malignancy (Table 8).296,297,326,327 The incidence of
sorption and small intestinal villus atrophy that                    extrahepatic neoplasm in treated autoimmune hepatitis
improves after azathioprine withdrawal.316 The sinu-                 is 1 per 194 patient-years, and the probability of tu-
soidal obstruction syndrome (‘‘veno-occlusive disease’’)             mor occurrence is 3% after 10 years.297 Tumors do
described after renal transplantation has not been                   not have a predominant cell type, and they are not
reported in azathioprine-treated autoimmune hepati-                  related to age, sex, treatment regimen or cumulative
tis,317,318 nor has the nodular regenerative hyperplasia             duration of treatment.297,327 The low but increased
described in azathioprine-treated patients with inflam-               risk of malignancy associated with chronic low dose
matory bowel disease.319                                             azathioprine therapy (1.4-fold greater than normal)
   The principal side effect of azathioprine is cytope-              must be counterbalanced against the beneficial actions
nia, and the most dire consequence is bone marrow                    of the drug as a corticosteroid-sparing agent.297
failure (Table 8).277,289,292 The frequency of cytopenia
in azathioprine-treated patients with autoimmune hep-                8.3. Special Populations at Risk for Drug Toxicity
atitis is 46%, and the occurrence of severe hematologi-                 8.3.1. Patients with Cirrhosis. Individuals with cir-
cal abnormalities is 6%.320 These toxicities are not                 rhosis at presentation have a higher frequency of drug-
predictable by either genotyping or phenotyping for                  related complications than those without cirrhosis
14   MANNS ET AL.                                                                                HEPATOLOGY, June 2010



(25% versus 8%),273,278,328 They also have a high fre-        erbation after delivery has been variously reported
quency of cytopenia that may compromise their toler-          between 12%-86%.324,332,335 Its occurrence must be
ance for azathioprine.320,322 Patients with cirrhosis         anticipated, and conventional therapy must be
must be closely monitored during therapy, and those           resumed pre-emptively 2 weeks before anticipated
individuals with cytopenia should be assessed for thio-       delivery and maintained throughout the postpartum
purine methyltransferase activity prior to the adminis-       period. Contraception should be advised in women
tration of azathioprine.277,301,320                           with advanced liver disease and features of portal
   8.3.2. Pregnant Patients. Most experiences indicate        hypertension because they are at risk for variceal hem-
that pregnancy and the medication are well tolerated          orrhage during pregnancy.330
by the mother and the neonate.294,323-325,327-333 The            8.3.4. Patients with Low Thiopurine Methyltrans-
major risk is prematurity, and infant mortality relates       ferase Activity. Patients with near-zero erythrocyte
directly to the degree of prematurity. Fetal loss is          concentrations of thiopurine methyltransferase activity
higher than in normal mothers, but no greater than in         are at risk for myelosuppression during azathioprine
mothers with other chronic illnesses.294,323-325,330-333      treatment.291,292 Only 0.3%-0.5% of the population
   Fetal mortality has been reported as high as 19%           has a severe enzyme deficiency,336-340 and not all
with deliveries usually before the 20th week.325 Perina-      patients with a deficiency of this degree experience
tal mortality is 4%;325 maternal mortality is 3%;325          bone marrow failure.341 Individuals with abnormally
the frequency of serious maternal complications is            decreased but not extreme reductions in thiopurine
9%;332 and the occurrence of an adverse outcome of            methyltransferase activity (heterozygous state) tolerate
any type is 26%.332 Outcomes in autoimmune hepati-            azathioprine satisfactorily at the low dose of 50 mg320
tis are similar to those in the general population where      and the level of enzyme activity may actually increase
the frequencies of fetal loss, caesarian section, and still   with continued administration of the drug.320,342,343
births are 21%, 17%, and 5%, respectively.324 Further-        The rarity of severe azathioprine-induced myelosup-
more, mothers with autoimmune hepatitis have better           pression, the low dose of azathioprine used in conven-
outcomes than women with diabetes in whom the fre-            tional treatment (50 mg-150 mg daily), and the inabil-
quency of fetal loss ranges from 24%-29%.324                  ity to reliably predict risk by phenotypic and
   Preconceptional counseling is advised and termina-         genotypic assessments have not supported routine
tion of immunosuppressive therapy should be                   screening for thiopurine methyltransferase activity in
attempted where possible. Azathioprine has a category         AIH. Pretreatment cytopenia, cytopenia developing
D pregnancy rating by the FDA. It has been associated         during therapy, or the administration of higher than
with congenital malformations in pregnant mice,293 and        conventional doses of azathioprine (150 mg daily)
low levels of the 6-thioguanine nucleotides are detecta-      justifies determination of enzyme activity.277
ble in the newborns of mothers treated for Crohn’s dis-
                                                                 Recommendations:
ease (Table 8).295 Teratogenicity associated with azathio-
                                                                 20. The possible side effects of therapy with corti-
prine therapy therefore is a theoretical consideration,293
                                                              costeroids must be reviewed with the patient prior
but increased birth defects have not been reported in
mothers receiving this treatment,323-325,330-333 nor have     to treatment (Table 8). (Class Ia, Level C)
there been apparent adverse consequences of breast               21. Patients must be counseled regarding the
feeding by treated mothers.333 Nevertheless, these            uncertain risk of azathioprine in pregnancy, and
human experiences have been anecdotal, and there has          azathioprine should be discontinued, if possible, in
not been a comprehensive human study establishing             patients during pregnancy. (Class III, Level C)
the safety of azathioprine in pregnant women. These              22. Azathioprine has a category D pregnancy rating
findings, however, do justify caution when using aza-          by the FDA, and it should be discontinued, if possible,
thioprine during pregnancy.323-325                            in patients during pregnancy. (Class III, Level C)
   Autoimmune hepatitis can improve during preg-                 23. Postpartum exacerbation of AIH must be
nancy, and this improvement may allow reductions in           anticipated by resuming standard therapy 2 weeks
immunosuppressive therapy during pregnancy.334,335            prior to anticipated delivery and by closely monitor-
Intuitively, little or no treatment during pregnancy is       ing serum AST or ALT levels at 3-week intervals for
a desirable protective measure for the mother and             at least 3 months after delivery. (Class IIa, Level C)
fetus.                                                           24. Blood thiopurine methyltransferase activity
   Exacerbations of disease commonly follow delivery          should be assessed in patients with cytopenia before
as blood estrogen levels fall.334 The frequency of exac-      or during azathioprine therapy. (Class IIa, Level C)
HEPATOLOGY, Vol. 51, No. 6, 2010                                                                                                MANNS ET AL.         15



            Table 9. Endpoints of Initial Immunosuppressive Treatment and Courses of Action in Autoimmune Hepatitis
 Treatment Endpoint                                   Criteria                                                     Courses of Action

Remission               Disappearance of symptoms, normal serum aminotransferases,             Gradual withdrawal of prednisone over 6 week period
                           bilirubin and c globulin levels, normal hepatic                     Serum AST or ALT, total bilirubin, and c globulin levels
                           tissue or inactive cirrhosis                                           determined at 3 week intervals during and for 3 months
                                                                                                  after drug withdrawal
                                                                                               Repeat laboratory assessments thereafter every 6 months
                                                                                                  for at least 1 year and then every year life long
Treatment failure       Worsening clinical, laboratory, and histological features              Prednisone, 60 mg daily, or prednisone, 30 mg daily,
                          despite compliance with therapy                                         and azathioprine, 150 mg daily, for at least 1 month
                        Development of jaundice, ascites or hepatic encephalopathy             Dose reduction of prednisone by 10mg and azathioprine
                                                                                                  by 50 mg for each month of improvement until standard
                                                                                                  treatment doses are achieved
Incomplete response     Some or no improvement in clinical, laboratory, and histological       Reduction in doses of prednisone by 2.5 mg/month until
                          features despite compliance with therapy after 2 3 years                lowest level possible ( 10 mg daily) to prevent
                                                                                                  worsening of serum AST or ALT abnormalities
                        No worsening of condition                                              Indefinite azathioprine therapy (2 mg/kg daily) as an
                                                                                                  alternative treatment if corticosteroid intolerance
Drug toxicity           Development of intolerable cosmetic changes, symptomatic               Reduction in dose or discontinuation of offending drug
                          osteopenia, emotional instability, poorly controlled hypertension,   Maintenance on tolerated drug in adjusted dose
                          brittle diabetes or progressive cytopenia



9. Treatment Endpoints and Courses of                                          patients who achieve long-term remission have normal
Action                                                                         laboratory indices prior to the termination of ther-
                                                                               apy.345 Therefore, the biochemical endpoint in previous
   Conventional therapy in adults is continued until                           studies of 2 times the upper limit of normal should
remission, treatment failure, incomplete response, or                          not be accepted in future studies as endpoint or goal of
drug toxicity (Table 9).283,284 There is no prescribed                         treatment because relapse after termination of therapy
minimum or maximum duration of treatment. The                                  in those patients is universal. However, the normaliza-
length of therapy can be based on a fixed minimum                               tion of tests and tissue does not protect against relapse,
duration that is usually associated with a complete                            and 60% of patients who relapse do so despite disap-
response344 or on a variable duration that is individu-                        pearance of inflammatory features.345 The frequency
alized to the desired result and tolerance.345                                 that corticosteroid treatment can achieve full resolution
                                                                               of the laboratory tests and liver tissue abnormalities is
9.1. Remission                                                                 unclear, and whereas pursuit of an ideal treatment end-
   All adult patients should be given the opportunity                          point is desirable, it must be tempered by the realization
to enter a sustained remission that is free of medica-                         that not all patients can achieve this result or tolerate
tion (Table 9).282-285,345-347 Ninety percent of adults                        the required treatment.345 Daily maintenance doses of
have improvements in the serum AST, bilirubin, and                             medication should remain fixed in adults until the goal
c-globulin levels within 2 weeks.266 Adults rarely                             of therapy is achieved. Titrations in dose are associated
achieve resolution of their laboratory and liver tissue                        with delayed or incomplete histological improvement,
abnormalities in less than 12 months, and the proba-                           and it can prolong the durations of therapy.273 Alternate
bility of remission during therapy diminishes after 2                          day schedules of prednisone can induce symptomatic
years.346-348 Histological improvement lags behind                             and laboratory improvement, but not histological
clinical and laboratory improvement by 3-8 months.49,349                       resolution.273
   Resolution of the laboratory indices (normal serum                             Liver biopsy assessment prior to termination of
AST or ALT, c-globulin, and IgG levels) and tissue                             treatment is the only method by which to ensure full
manifestations of active liver inflammation (normal                             resolution of the disease and an optimal endpoint of
liver tissue examination) is the ideal treatment endpoint                      therapy. Interface hepatitis is found in 55% of patients
and the goal of initial therapy (Table 9).345,350-353                          with normal serum AST and c-globulin levels during
The average duration of treatment is 18-24                                     therapy,349 and these individuals typically relapse after
months.283-285,345 Normal laboratory indices before ter-                       cessation of treatment.311,347 Their recognition by liver
mination of treatment reduces the relative risk of relapse                     biopsy examination prior to drug withdrawal can jus-
after drug withdrawal by 3-fold to 11-fold compared to                         tify an extension of treatment. Therefore, a liver bi-
patients who do not achieve these results, and 87% of                          opsy is recommended before termination of
Hepatitis Autoinmune .PDF - Medicina Interna II
Hepatitis Autoinmune .PDF - Medicina Interna II
Hepatitis Autoinmune .PDF - Medicina Interna II
Hepatitis Autoinmune .PDF - Medicina Interna II
Hepatitis Autoinmune .PDF - Medicina Interna II
Hepatitis Autoinmune .PDF - Medicina Interna II
Hepatitis Autoinmune .PDF - Medicina Interna II
Hepatitis Autoinmune .PDF - Medicina Interna II
Hepatitis Autoinmune .PDF - Medicina Interna II
Hepatitis Autoinmune .PDF - Medicina Interna II
Hepatitis Autoinmune .PDF - Medicina Interna II
Hepatitis Autoinmune .PDF - Medicina Interna II
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Hepatitis Autoinmune .PDF - Medicina Interna II

  • 1. AASLD PRACTICE GUIDELINES Diagnosis and Management of Autoimmune Hepatitis Michael P. Manns,1 Albert J. Czaja,2 James D. Gorham,3 Edward L. Krawitt,4 Giorgina Mieli-Vergani,5 Diego Vergani,6 and John M. Vierling7 This guideline has been approved by the American ment on Guidelines;3 and (4) the experience of the Association for the Study of Liver Diseases (AASLD) authors in the specified topic. and represents the position of the Association. These recommendations, intended for use by physi- cians, suggest preferred approaches to the diagnostic, 1. Preamble therapeutic and preventive aspects of care. They are intended to be flexible, in contrast to standards of Clinical practice guidelines are defined as ‘‘systemati- care, which are inflexible policies to be followed in ev- cally developed statements to assist practitioner and ery case. Specific recommendations are based on rele- patient decisions about appropriate heath care for spe- vant published information. To more fully characterize cific clinical circumstances.’’1 These guidelines on the quality of evidence supporting the recommenda- autoimmune hepatitis provide a data-supported tions, the Practice Guidelines Committee of the approach to the diagnosis and management of this dis- AASLD requires a class (reflecting benefit versus risk) ease. They are based on the following: (1) formal and level (assessing strength or certainty) of evidence review and analysis of the recently-published world lit- to be assigned and reported with each recommenda- erature on the topic [Medline search]; (2) American tion.4 The grading system applied to the recommenda- College of Physicians Manual for Assessing Health tions has been adapted from the American College of Practices and Designing Practice Guidelines;2 (3) Cardiology and the American Heart Association Prac- guideline policies, including the AASLD Policy on the tice Guidelines, and it is given below (Table 1). Development and Use of Practice Guidelines and the American Gastroenterological Association Policy State- 2. Introduction Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is a generally unresolv- All AASLD Practice Guidelines are updated annually. If you are viewing a ing inflammation of the liver of unknown cause. A Practice Guideline that is more than 12 months old, please visit www.aasld.org for an update in the material. working model for its pathogenesis postulates that Abbreviations: AASLD, American Association for the Study of Liver environmental triggers, a failure of immune tolerance Diseases; AIH, autoimmune hepatitis; ALT, alanine aminotransferase; ANA, mechanisms, and a genetic predisposition collaborate antinuclear antibody; AST, aspartate aminotransferase; CYP1A2, cytochrome P450 1A2; HCV, hepatitis C virus; IBD, inflammatory bowel disease; IgG, to induce a T cell–mediated immune attack upon liver immunoglobulin G; LKM-1, liver/kidney microsome type 1; PBC, primary antigens, leading to a progressive necroinflammatory biliary cirrhosis; PSC, primary sclerosing cholangitis; SMA, smooth muscle and fibrotic process in the liver.5,6 Onset is frequently antibodies. From the 1Medical School of Hannover, Department of Gastroenterology, insidious with nonspecific symptoms such as fatigue, Hepatology and Endocrinology, Hannover, Germany; 2Mayo Clinic College of jaundice, nausea, abdominal pain, and arthralgias at Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Rochester, MN; presentation,7 but the clinical spectrum is wide, rang- 3 4 Dartmouth Medical School, Department of Pathology, Lebanon, NH; ing from an asymptomatic presentation8,9 to an acute University of Vermont College of Medicine, Department of Medicine, Given Building, Burlington, VT; 5Pediatric Liver Centre and 6Institute of Liver Studies, severe disease.10,11 The diagnosis is based on histologic King’s College London School of Medicine at King’s College Hospital, Denmark abnormalities, characteristic clinical and laboratory Hill, London, UK; and 7Baylor Liver Health, Baylor College of Medicine, findings, abnormal levels of serum globulins, and the Houston, TX. Received January 22, 2010; accepted January 25, 2010. presence of one or more characteristic autoantibod- Address reprint requests to: Michael P. Manns, M.D., Department of ies.12-16 Women are affected more frequently than Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Endocrinology, Hannover Medical School, men (sex ratio, 3.6:1).17-19 and the disease is seen in Carl-Neuberg-Straße 1, D-30625 Hannover, Germany. E-mail: manns. michael@mh-hannover.de; fax: þ49 511 532-4896. all ethnic groups20-34 and at all ages.21,35-44 There are Copyright V 2010 by the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases. C no robust epidemiological data on AIH in the United Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). States. In Norway and Sweden, the mean incidence is DOI 10.1002/hep.23584 1 to 2 per 100,000 persons per year, and its point Potential conflict of interest: Michael Manns has received research support, lecture fees and took part in clinical trials for Falk Pharma GmbH, Freiburg, prevalence is 11 to 17 per 100,000 persons per Germany, and Roche Pharma, Basel, Switzerland. year.45,46 A similar incidence and prevalence can be 1
  • 2. 2 MANNS ET AL. HEPATOLOGY, June 2010 Table 1. Description of Grading System Used to Assign Class 3. Diagnosis: Criteria and Methods and Level of Evidence The diagnostic criteria for AIH and a diagnostic Classification Description scoring system were codified by an international panel Class I Conditions for which there is evidence and/or general in 199375 and revised in 199913 (Table 2). The clinical agreement that a given diagnostic evaluation, procedure or treatment is beneficial, useful, and effective criteria for the diagnosis are sufficient to make or Class II Conditions for which there is conflicting evidence and/or exclude definite or probable AIH in the majority of a divergence of opinion about the usefulness/efficacy patients. The revised original scoring system was devel- of a diagnostic evaluation, procedure or treatment Class IIa Weight of evidence/opinion is in favor of usefulness/efficacy oped as a research tool by which to ensure the compa- Class IIb Usefulness/efficacy is less well established by rability of study populations in clinical trials (Table evidence/opinion 3),13 and can also be applied in diagnostically challeng- Class III Conditions for which there is evidence and/or general agreement that a diagnostic evaluation/procedure/treatment ing cases not readily captured by the descriptive crite- is not useful/effective and in some cases may be harmful ria.13 The treatment response is graded in the revised Level of Evidence Description original scoring system, and a score can be rendered Level A Data derived from multiple randomized clinical trials both before and after treatment (Table 3).13 A pretreat- or meta analyses ment score of 10 points or higher, or a posttreatment Level B Data derived from a single randomized trial, or score of 12 points or higher, indicate ‘‘probable’’ AIH nonrandomized studies at presentation. A pretreatment score of 10 points has a Level C Only consensus opinion of experts, case studies, or standard of care sensitivity of 100%, a specificity of 73%, and diagnos- tic accuracy of 67%.76 A pretreatment score of 15 points, indicative of ‘‘definite AIH’’ has a sensitivity of 95%, a specificity of 97%, and a diagnostic accuracy of assumed for the Caucasian population of North 94%.76 A retrospective study supports the usefulness of America. the revised original system in children with AIH.77 Data on the natural progression of untreated disease A simplified scoring system has been proposed are derived principally from experiences published recently to ease clinical application78 and is based on prior to the widespread use of immunosuppressive the presence and level of autoantibody expression by agents for AIH and before the detection of the hepati- indirect immunofluorescence, serum immunoglobulin tis C virus (HCV).47-54 These studies showed that as G (IgG) concentration, compatible or typical histologi- many as 40% of patients with untreated severe disease cal features, and the absence of viral markers (Table died within 6 months of diagnosis,47,49 and that survi- 3).78 In three recent retrospective studies, the simpli- vors frequently developed cirrhosis, esophageal varices fied scoring system performed with high sensitivity and subsequent hemorrhage.47,49,50,55 An acute onset and specificity in the diagnosis of AIH, but it has yet of illness is common ($40%),56-63 and an acute severe to be validated in prospective studies.76,79,80 presentation, characterized by hepatic encephalopathy within 8 weeks of clinical symptoms, is sometimes 3.1. Clinical, Laboratory, and Histological seen.10,11,58,64-68 Assessment Three randomized, controlled treatment trials estab- The diagnosis of AIH requires the presence of charac- lished that prednisone alone or in combination with teristic clinical and laboratory features, and the exclu- azathioprine improved symptoms, laboratory tests, his- sion of other conditions that cause chronic hepatitis and tological findings, and immediate survival.48-50 These cirrhosis (Table 2).13 The clinical assessment should studies led to the acceptance of immunosuppressive include an evaluation of alcohol consumption and the regimens as the standard in treatment, and supported use of drugs known to be hepatotoxic. The laboratory an autoimmune pathogenesis of the disease. However, assessment should include determinations of the levels these studies were completed decades ago before the of serum alanine (ALT) or aspartate (AST) aminotrans- discovery of HCV. Therefore, HCV infection could ferases, alkaline phosphatase (AP), albumin, total or not be excluded in these studies and one can assume c-globulin, IgG, and bilirubin (conjugated and uncon- that several of these patients were indeed infected with jugated). AIH can be asymptomatic in 34%-45% of HCV. Liver transplantation has also evolved as an patients.8,9,269 Typically, these patients are men and effective treatment for the decompensated patient, and have significantly lower serum ALT levels at presenta- the 5-year patient and graft survivals now exceed tion than do symptomatic patients.8 Histological find- 80%.69-74 ings, including the frequency of cirrhosis, are similar
  • 3. HEPATOLOGY, Vol. 51, No. 6, 2010 MANNS ET AL. 3 Table 2. Codified Diagnostic Criteria of the International Autoimmune Hepatitis Group Features Definite Probable Liver histology Interface hepatitis of moderate or severe activity with or without Same as for ‘‘definite’’ lobular hepatitis or central portal bridging necrosis, but without biliary lesions or well defined granulomas or other prominent changes suggestive of a different etiology Serum biochemistry Any abnormality in serum aminotransferases, especially if the Same as for ‘‘definite’’ but patients with serum alkaline phosphatase is not markedly elevated. Normal abnormal serum concentrations of copper serum concentrations of alpha antitrypsin, or ceruloplasmin may be included, provided copper and ceruloplasmin. that Wilson disease has been excluded by appropriate investigations Serum immunoglobulins Total serum globulin or c globulin or IgG concentrations Any elevation of serum globulin or c globulin greater than 1.5 times the upper normal limit or IgG concentrations above the upper normal limit Serum autoantibodies Seropositivity for ANA, SMA, or anti LKM 1 antibodies at titers Same as for ‘‘definite’’ but at titers of 1:40 greater than 1:80. Lower titers (particularly of anti LKM 1) or greater. Patients who are seronegative for these may be significant in children. Seronegativity for AMA. antibodies but who are seropositive for other antibodies specified in the text may be included. Viral markers Seronegativity for markers of current infection with Same as for ‘‘definite’’ hepatitis A, B, and C viruses Other etiological factors Average alcohol consumption less than 25 g/day. Alcohol consumption less than 50 g/day and no No history of recent use of known hepatotoxic drugs. recent use of known hepatotoxic drugs. Patients who have consumed larger amounts of alcohol or who have recently taken potentially hepatotoxic drugs may be included, if there is clear evidence of continuing liver damage after abstinence from alcohol or withdrawal of the drug. Adapted from Alvarez F, Berg PA, Bianchi FB, et al. J Hepatol 1999;31:929 938. between asymptomatic patients and symptomatic long, preferably by an expert, to monitor for changes in patients. Because as many as 70% of asymptomatic disease activity. patients become symptomatic during the course of their In children, the gamma glutamyl transferase level disease,8,9 asymptomatic patients must be followed life- may be a better discriminator of biliary disease, Table 3. Revised Original Scoring System of the International Autoimmune Hepatitis Group Sex Female þ2 HLA DR3 or DR4 þ1 AP:AST (or ALT) ratio >3 2 Immune Disease Thyroiditis, colitis, others þ2 <1.5 þ2 c globulin or IgG level above normal >2.0 þ3 Other markers Anti SLA, anti actin, anti LC1, pANCA þ2 1.5 2.0 þ2 1.0 1.5 þ1 <1.0 0 ANA, SMA, or anti LKM1 titers >1:80 þ3 Histological features Interface hepatitis þ3 1:80 þ2 Plasmacytic þ1 1:40 þ1 Rosettes þ1 <1:40 0 None of above 5 Biliary changes 3 Other features 3 AMA Positive 4 Treatment response Complete þ2 Relapse þ3 Viral markers Positive 3 Negative þ3 Drugs Yes 4 Pretreatment aggregate score: No þ1 Definite diagnosis >15 Probable diagnosis 10 15 Alcohol <25 g/day þ2 Posttreatment aggregate score: >60 g/day 2 Definite diagnosis >17 Probable diagnosis 12 17 Adapted from Alvarez F, Berg PA, Bianchi FB, et al. J Hepatol 1999;31:929 938. AMA, antimitochondrial antibody; anti LC1, antibody to liver cytosol type 1; anti LKM1, antibody to liver/kidney microsomes type 1; anti SLA, antibody to soluble liver antigen; ANA, antinuclear antibody; AP:AST (or ALT) ratio, ratio of alkaline phosphatase level to aspartate or alanine aminotransferase level; HLA, human leuko cyte antigen; IgG, immunoglobulin G; pANCA, perinuclear anti neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody; SMA, smooth muscle antibody.
  • 4. 4 MANNS ET AL. HEPATOLOGY, June 2010 Table 4. Autoantibodies in the Diagnosis of Autoimmune Hepatitis Antibody Target Antigen(s) Liver Disease Value in AIH ANA* Multiple targets including: AIH Diagnosis of type 1 AIH chromatin, PBC ribonucleoproteins PSC ribonucleoprotein complexes Drug induced Chronic hepatitis C Chronic hepatitis B Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease SMA* Microfilaments (filamentous actin) and Same as ANA Diagnosis of type 1 AIH intermediate filaments (vimentin, desmin) LKM 1* Cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) Type 2 AIH Diagnosis of type 2 AIH Chronic hepatitis C LC 1* Formiminotransferase cyclo deaminase (FTCD) Type 2 AIH Diagnosis of type 2 AIH Chronic hepatitis C Prognostic implications Severe disease pANCA (atypical) Nuclear lamina proteins AIH Diagnosis of type 1 AIH PSC Re classification of cryptogenic chronic hepatitis as type 1 AIH SLA tRNP(SER)Sec AIH Diagnosis of AIH Chronic hepatitis C Prognostic implications Severe disease Relapse Treatment dependence LKM 3 family 1 UDP glucuronosyl transferases (UGT1A) Type 2 AIH Diagnosis of type 2 AIH Chronic hepatitis D ASGPR Asialoglycoprotein receptor AIH Prognostic implications PBC Severe Disease Drug induced hepatitis Histological activity Chronic hepatitis B, C, D Relapse LKM2 Cytochrome P450 2C9 Ticrynafen induced hepatitis None, does not occur after withdrawal of ticrynafen LM Cytochrome P450 1A2 Dihydralazine induced hepatitis Diagnosis of APECED hepatitis APECED hepatitis *Antibodies highlighted as bold letters indicate the conventional serological repertoire for the diagnosis of AIH. The other autoantibodes may be useful in patients who lack the conventional autoantibody markers. AIH, autoimmune hepatitis; ANA, antinuclear antibody; APECED, autoimmune polyendocrinopathy candidias ectodermal dystrophy; ASGPR, antibody to asialoglycoprotein receptor; LC1, liver cytosol type 1; LKM, liver kidney/microsome; LM, liver microsome antibody; pANCA, perinuclear anti neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody; PBC, primary bili ary cirrhosis; PSC, primary sclerosing cholangitis; SLA, soluble liver antigen; SMA, smooth muscle antibody; UGT, uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase. specifically primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC), than start of therapy. Interface hepatitis is the histological the AP level, which can be elevated due to bone activ- hallmark (Fig. 1), and plasma cell infiltration is typical ity in the growing child.77 Neither the gamma glu- (Fig. 2).83-87 Neither histological finding is specific for tamyl transferase nor AP levels, however, discriminate AIH, and the absence of plasma cells in the infiltrate between the presence or absence of cholangiopathy in does not preclude the diagnosis.84 Eosinophils, lobular children with AIH.36 The conventional serologic inflammation, bridging necrosis, and multiacinar ne- markers of AIH should also be assessed, including an- crosis may be present.55,86,87 Granulomas rarely occur. tinuclear antibody (ANA), smooth muscle antibody The portal lesions generally spare the bile ducts. In all (SMA), antibody to liver/kidney microsome type 1 but the mildest forms, fibrosis is present and, with (anti-LKM1) and anti-liver cytosol type 1 (anti-LC1) advanced disease, bridging fibrosis or cirrhosis is (Table 4).12-16 Diagnostic evaluations should be under- seen.55,83-85 Occasionally, centrizonal (zone 3) lesions taken to exclude hereditary diseases (Wilson disease exist (Fig. 3),10,60-62,88-91 and sequential liver tissue and alpha 1 antitrypsin deficiency), viral hepatitis, stea- examinations have demonstrated transition of this pat- tohepatitis and other autoimmune liver diseases that tern to interface hepatitis in some patients.62 The his- may resemble AIH specifically primary biliary cirrho- tological findings differ depending on the kinetics of sis (PBC) and PSC.12,13,36,81,82 the disease. Compared to patients with an insidious Liver biopsy examination at presentation is recom- onset, patients with acute severe hepatic failure exhibit mended to establish the diagnosis and to guide the more interface and lobular hepatitis, lobular disarray, treatment decision.12,13,15,16 In acute presentation hepatocyte necrosis, central necrosis and submassive unavailability of liver biopsy should not prevent from necrosis, but less fibrosis and cirrhosis.10,92,93
  • 5. HEPATOLOGY, Vol. 51, No. 6, 2010 MANNS ET AL. 5 medications, or infections that could cause liver injury.13,76,78 There is no time requirement to establish chronicity, and cholestatic clinical, laboratory, and his- tologic changes generally preclude the diagnosis. If the conventional autoantibodies are not detected, a proba- ble diagnosis can be supported by the presence of other autoantibodies such as atypical perinuclear anti- neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (atypical pANCA) or those directed against soluble liver antigen (anti- SLA).102,103 3.2. Serological Assessment ANA, SMA, anti-LKM1, and anti-LC1 constitute the conventional serological repertoire for the diagnosis of AIH (Table 4).12-16,104-109 In North American Fig. 1. Interface hepatitis. The limiting plate of the portal tract is disrupted by a lymphoplasmacytic infiltrate. Hematoxylin and eosin adults, 96% of patients with AIH have ANA, SMA, or stain; magnification, Â200. both,110 and 4% have anti-LKM1 and/or anti-LC1.111 Anti-LKM1 are deemed more frequent in European Some patients exhibit features of both AIH and AIH patients and are typically unaccompanied by another disorder such as PSC, PBC, or autoimmune ANA or SMA.112 They are possibly underestimated in cholangitis, a variant syndrome.94-100 Certain histo- the United States.113 Anti-LKM1 are detected by indi- logic changes such as ductopenia or destructive cholan- rect immunofluorescence, but because they may be gitis may indicate the presence of one of these variant confused with antimitochondrial antibody (AMA) types.101 In these cases, the revised original scoring sys- using this technique, they can be assessed by meas- tem can be used to assist in diagnosis (Table 3).13,76 uring antibodies to cytochrome P4502D6, the major The findings of steatosis or iron overload may suggest molecular target of anti-LKM1, using commercial alternative or additional diagnoses, such as nonalco- enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). Auto- holic fatty liver disease, Wilson disease, chronic hepatitis antibodies are not specific to AIH104-109 and their C, drug toxicity, or hereditary hemochromatosis.84,85,101 expressions can vary during the course of the dis- Differences between a definite and probable diagno- ease.110 Furthermore, low autoantibody titers do not sis of AIH by the diagnostic scoring system relate exclude the diagnosis of AIH, nor do high titers (in mainly to the magnitude of serum IgG elevation, titers the absence of other supportive findings) establish the of autoantibodies, and extent of exposures to alcohol, diagnosis.110 Seronegative individuals may express Fig. 2. Plasma cell infiltration. Plasma cells, characterized by cyto- Fig. 3. Median centrilobular zone 3 necrosis. Centrilobular zone 3 plasmic halo about the nucleus, infiltrate the hepatic parenchyma. He- necrosis associated with a mononuclear inflammatory infiltrate. Hema- matoxylin and eosin stain; magnification, Â400. toxylin and eosin stain; original magnification, Â200.
  • 6. 6 MANNS ET AL. HEPATOLOGY, June 2010 conventional antibodies later in the disease114-118 or LKM1,133 but are more commonly found in associa- exhibit nonstandard autoantibodies.104-109,119 Autoan- tion with the conventional autoantibodies, especially if tibody titers in adults only roughly correlate with dis- sensitive immunoassays are used.133-136 Anti-SLA are ease severity, clinical course, and treatment response.110 highly specific for the diagnosis of autoimmune liver In pediatric populations (patients aged 18 years), disease,133 and their detection may identify patients titers are useful biomarkers of disease activity and can with more severe disease and worse outcome.137-140 be used to monitor treatment response.120 Commercial ELISAs are available for their detection. When tested on rodent tissues, an autoantibody titer The conventional and nonstandard autoantibodies of 1:40 is significant in adults, whereas in children described in AIH are shown in Table 4. Figure 4 pro- titers of 1:20 for ANA and SMA, and 1:10 for anti- vides an algorithm for the use of autoantibodies in the LKM1, are clinically relevant, because autoantibody diagnosis of AIH. reactivity is infrequent in healthy children.13 If present in high titer, anti-LKM1 strongly support the diagno- 3.3. Genetic Considerations sis of AIH, even if liver biopsy is precluded by other Multiple genetic associations with AIH have been clinical considerations. described in different ethnic groups.29,141-154 The pri- The mainstay technique for autoantibody screening mary genetic association is with the major histocom- is indirect immunofluorescence on composite sections patibility complex locus, and associations of HLA al- of freshly frozen rodent stomach, kidney and liver.14 leles with disease predisposition, clinical phenotype, This technique not only permits the detection of response to therapy, and outcome have been stud- ANA, SMA, anti-LKM1, and AMA but also suggests ied.18,155-168 AIH is a complex polygenic disorder169 the presence of other autoantibodies of an evolving unlikely to be transmitted to subsequent generations; clinical importance, such as antibody to liver cytosol thus, routine screening of patients or family members type 1 (anti-LC1)111,121 and antibody to liver kidney for genetic markers is not recommended. microsome type 3 (anti LKM-3).122,123 Confirmation AIH may be present in patients with multiple endo- of the presence of the latter autoantibody is obtained crine organ failure, mucocutaneous candidiasis, and with assays detecting antibodies to their molecular tar- ectodermal dystrophy. Such patients have the rare gets, formiminotransferase cyclo-deaminase (FTCD) genetic disorder autoimmune polyendocrinopathy-can- and family 1 UDP-glucuronosyl-transferases (UGT1A), didiasis-ectodermal dystrophy (APECED), caused by a respectively (Table 4). single-gene mutation located on chromosome 21q22.3 Other autoantibodies that may be useful in classifying that affects the generation of the autoimmune regula- patients who lack the conventional serological findings tor (AIRE) protein.170 AIRE is a transcription factor are anti-SLA124-128 and atypical pANCA.119,129,130,131-139 expressed in epithelial and dendritic cells within the Atypical pANCA, originally considered specific for PSC thymus that regulates clonal deletion of autoreactive T and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD),124,125 are fre- cells (i.e., negative selection). APECED has an autoso- quently present in patients with AIH,126,127 and occa- mal recessive pattern of inheritance and lacks HLA sionally can be the only autoantibodies detected (Table DR associations and female predilection. The liver 4).128 ANCA typically do not coexist with anti- autoantigens associated with APECED are cytochrome LKM1.127 Recent evidence indicates that the target of P450 1A2 (CYP1A2), CYP2A6 in addition to atypical pANCA is located within the nuclear membrane. CYP2D6.171-174 Antibodies to cytochrome P450 1A2 For this reason, a more suitable designation may be were previously called anti liver microsomal (anti-LM) peripheral anti-neutrophil nuclear antibody (pANNA) antibodies (Table 4). This is the only syndrome involv- (Table 4).102,103 ing AIH that exhibits a Mendelian pattern of inheri- Anti-SLA129 and anti–liver-pancreas (anti-LP),130 tance, and genetic counseling for the patient and fam- originally described as separate autoantibodies in AIH, ily members are warranted. were later found to target the same antigen and to rep- Recommendations: resent a single serological entity. These antibodies are now referred to as anti-SLA or anti-SLA/LP. Their mo- 1. The diagnosis of AIH should be made when lecular target is a transfer ribonucleoprotein (Table compatible clinical signs and symptoms, laboratory 4).119,131,132 SLA has recently been renamed SEPSECS abnormalities (serum AST or ALT, and increased se- (Sep [O-phosphoserine] tRNA synthase) Selenocysteine rum total IgG or c-globulin), serological (ANA, Synthase. Anti-SLA are occasionally found in patients SMA, anti-LKM 1, or anti-LC1), and histological with AIH who are negative for ANA, SMA, and anti- (interface hepatitis) findings are present; and other
  • 7. HEPATOLOGY, Vol. 51, No. 6, 2010 MANNS ET AL. 7 Fig. 4. The use of serological tests assisting in the diagnosis of AIH. Serological tests in the evaluation of acute or chronic hepatitis of unde- termined cause. The initial serological battery includes assessments for antinuclear antibodies (ANA), smooth muscle antibodies (SMA), antibod- ies to liver/kidney microsome type 1 (LKM-1), and antimitochondrial antibodies (AMA). The results of these conventional tests then direct the diagnostic effort. If one or more tests are positive, the diagnosis of autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) or primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) should be pur- sued. If these tests are negative, other serological assessments are appropriate, including tests for antibodies to actin (F-actin), soluble liver antigen/liver pancreas (SLA/LP), liver cytosol type 1 (LC-1), UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (LKM-3), the E2 subunits of the pyruvate dehydrogen- ase complex (PDH-E2), perinuclear anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (pANCA). The results of these supplemental tests may suggest other diagnoses, including primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC), or cryptogenic chronic hepatitis. conditions that can cause chronic hepatitis, includ- cal entities.13 A proposed third type (type 3) has been ing viral, hereditary, metabolic, cholestatic, and abandoned, as its serologic marker (anti-SLA) is also drug-induced diseases, have been excluded (Table 2). found in type 1 AIH and in type 2 AIH.176-179 Type 1 (Class I, Level B) AIH is characterized by the presence of ANA, SMA or 2. Diagnostically challenging cases that have few both, and constitutes 80% of AIH cases.175 Seventy or atypical clinical, laboratory, serological or histo- percent of patients are female, with a peak incidence logical findings should be assessed by the diagnostic between ages 16 and 30 years.180,181 Fifty percent of scoring systems (Table 3). (Class IIa, Level B) patients are older than 30 years, and 23% are at least 60 3. In patients negative for conventional autoantibod- years old.38,43,44,181 Associations with other autoim- ies in whom AIH is suspected, other serological markers, mune diseases are common (15%-34%); these include including at least anti-SLA and atypical pANCA, autoimmune thyroid disease, synovitis, celiac disease, should be tested. (Table 4; Fig. 4). (Class I, Level B) and ulcerative colitis.43,44,182 At the time of diagno- 4. In patients with AIH and multiple endocrine sis, cirrhosis is present in $25% of patients.183,184 disorders, the APECED syndrome must be excluded Antibodies to SLA have emerged as possible prognos- by testing for the typical mutations in the AIRE tic markers that may identify patients with severe gene. (Class I, Level C) AIH who are prone to relapse after corticosteroid withdrawal.134,137-140,179,185 Type 2 AIH is character- ized by the presence of anti-LKM1112 and/or anti-LC1 4. Autoantibody Classification and/or anti-LKM-3. Most patients with type 2 AIH Two types of AIH (type 1 and type 2) have been rec- are children, and serum immunoglobulin levels are usu- ognized based on serological markers112,129,130,175 but ally elevated except for the concentration of IgA, which have not been established as valid clinical or pathologi- may be reduced.112 Concurrent immune diseases are
  • 8. 8 MANNS ET AL. HEPATOLOGY, June 2010 common,112 progression to cirrhosis occurs,112 and an cal syndrome has been associated with various herbal acute severe presentation is possible.58,64 medications255-258 and with vaccination.259-261 Recommendations: 5.3. Ethnic Differences 5. Classification of autoimmune hepatitis into two Manifestations of AIH vary among ethnic groups. types based on the presence of ANA and SMA (type African-American patients have a greater frequency of 1 AIH) or anti-LKM1 and anti-LC1 (type 2 AIH) cirrhosis at presentation than do white Ameri- can be used to characterize the clinical syndrome or cans.26,31,32 Alaskan natives exhibit a higher frequency to indicate serological homogeneity in clinical inves- of acute icteric disease than non-native counterparts,27 tigations. Anti-LKM1 antibodies should be routinely whereas Middle Eastern patients commonly have cho- investigated to avoid overlooking type 2 AIH. (Class lestatic features.28 Asian patients typically present with IIa, Level C) late onset, mild disease,20,262 whereas South American patients are commonly children with severe liver 5. Diagnostic Difficulties inflammation.21,22 Aboriginal North Americans have a 5.1. Mixed Clinical and Histological Features disproportionately high frequency of immune-medi- PSC and PBC can have clinical, laboratory, histo- ated disorders, cholestatic features, and advanced dis- logical, and genetic findings that resemble those of ease at presentation,33,34 and Somali patients are fre- AIH,95,206-212 and AIH can have features that resemble quently men with rapidly progressive disease.30 each of these cholestatic syndromes.36,81,82,213-217 These Socioeconomic status, healthcare access, and quality of nonspecific shared features can confound the codified care are additional factors that must be considered diagnostic scoring system.13,76,78 The prevalence of when assessing nonclassical disease manifestations AIH among patients with PSC was determined to be within racial groups.31,32,263,264 21%-54% using the original scoring system,218,219 but this prevalence decreased to 8% in PSC when the re- 5.4. Acute Severe Presentation vised original scoring system was applied.206,220,221 AIH can have an acute severe presentation that Application of the original scoring system in a retro- can be mistaken for a viral or toxic hepati- spective review of 141 patients with PBC showed that tis.10,11,58,64,65,67,68,265 Sometimes autoimmune hepati- 19% and 0% scored as probable and definite AIH, tis may present as acute liver failure. Corticosteroid respectively.222 Clinical judgment is required to deter- therapy can be effective in suppressing the inflamma- mine the predominant phenotype of the disease and to tory activity in 36%-100% of patients,11 whereas delay manage the process appropriately.95,223 in treatment can have a strong negative impact on out- come.265-267 In addition, unrecognized chronic disease 5.2. Serological Overlap can exhibit a spontaneous exacerbation and appear AIH patients may demonstrate serological features acute.92 If extrahepatic endocrine autoimmune features that suggest another diagnosis. AMA occur in about 5% are present in children with severe acute presentation of AIH patients in the absence of other biliary features the APECED syndrome must be excluded.268 (‘‘serological overlap’’),178,224-228 and their presence may confound the clinical diagnosis. AMA may disappear226 5.5. Concurrent Immune Diseases or persist as long as 27 years without an evolution into Concurrent immune disorders may mask the under- PBC.227 The revised original scoring system can render lying liver disease.16,17,38,43,44,182 Autoimmune thy- a diagnosis of ‘‘probable AIH’’ in these patients, if other roiditis, Graves’ disease, synovitis and ulcerative colitis features of AIH are sufficiently strong.229,230 are the most common immune-mediated disorders asso- Other acute and chronic liver diseases of diverse etiol- ciated with AIH in North American adults,43,44,180,270 ogies that can have serological features of AIH include whereas type I diabetes mellitus, vitiligo, and auto- alcoholic231 and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease,232,233 immune thyroiditis are the most common concurrent acute234 and chronic54,235-241 viral hepatitis, and drug- disorders in European anti-LKM1þ AIH patients.112 induced hepatitis.242,243 Drugs such as minocycline,244- In children with AIH, autoimmune sclerosing cholan- 246 diclofenac,247,248 infliximab,249 propylthiouracil,250 gitis can be present, with or without IBD.36 In adults atorvastatin,251 nitrofurantoin,252 methyl dopa,253 and with both AIH and IBD, contrast cholangiography isoniazid254 can cause a syndrome that resembles AIH showing biliary changes suggestive of PSC are present replete with autoantibodies that generally disappear after in 44% of patients.81 In adults with AIH but not discontinuation of the drug. Similarly, an AIH-like clini- IBD, magnetic resonance imaging indicating biliary
  • 9. HEPATOLOGY, Vol. 51, No. 6, 2010 MANNS ET AL. 9 Table 5. Indications for Immunosuppressive Treatment Absolute Relative None Serum AST ! 10 fold ULN Symptoms (fatigue, arthralgia, jaundice) Asymptomatic with normal or near normal serum AST and c globulin levels Serum AST ! 5 fold ULN and Serum AST and/or c globulin less than absolute criteria Inactive cirrhosis or mild portal inflammation c globulin level ! 2 fold ULN (portal hepatitis) Bridging necrosis or multiacinar Interface hepatitis Severe cytopenia (white blood cell counts necrosis on histological examination 2.5 Â 109/L or platelet counts 50 Â 109/L) or known complete deficiency of TPMT activity precludes treatment with azathioprine Incapacitating symptoms Osteopenia, emotional instability, hypertension, diabetes, Vertebral compression, psychosis, brittle diabetes, or cytopenia (white blood cell counts 2.5 Â 109/L uncontrolled hypertension, known intolerances or platelet counts 50 Â 109/L) to prednisone or azathioprine AST, serum aspartate aminotransferase level; ULN, upper limit of normal range. changes are observed in 8% of patients.82 Unless bile histological findings of disease severity at presentation duct changes are present, concurrent immune diseases are absolute indications for corticosteroid treatment typically do not affect the prognosis of AIH.81 Chol- (Tables 4 and 5).274,275 Incapacitating symptoms angiographic studies should be performed in patients associated with hepatic inflammation, such as fatigue with both AIH and IBD, as well as in children and and arthralgia, are also absolute indications for treat- adults refractory to 3 months of conventional cortico- ment regardless of other indices of disease severity steroid treatment. In a prospective pediatric study, (Table 5). 50% of patients with clinical, serological and histologi- cal characteristics of AIH type 1 had bile duct abnor- malities compatible with early sclerosing cholangitis on 6.2. Uncertain Indications for Treatment cholangiogram.36 The natural history of autoimmune hepatitis is uncertain in patients who have no or only mild Recommendations: symptoms and in those who have mild laboratory 6. The diagnosis of AIH should be considered in and histological findings. Prospective, randomized, all patients with acute or chronic hepatitis of unde- controlled treatment trials have not been performed termined cause, including patients with acute severe in these patients, and their indications for treatment hepatitis. (Class I, Level C) remain uncertain and highly individualized (Table 7. Cholangiographic studies should be considered 5).269,276 Asymptomatic individuals with inactive cir- to exclude PSC in adults if there has been no rhosis may have an excellent immediate survival with- response to corticosteroid therapy after 3 months. out corticosteroid treatment.8,9 Other asymptomatic (Class IIb, Level C) patients who do not have cirrhosis may have inactive 8. All children with AIH and all adults with both disease, and their natural 10-year survival may exceed AIH and IBD should undergo cholangiographic 80%.9 There are no guidelines that reliably identify studies to exclude PSC. (Class I, Level C) this ‘‘safe’’ population who require no therapy. Spon- taneous resolution is possible in some asymptomatic patients with mild disease, but these patients improve 6. Treatment Indications less commonly (12% versus 63%, P 0.006) and 6.1. Absolute Indications for Treatment more slowly than treated patients.269 Furthermore, Three randomized, controlled trials have demon- untreated asymptomatic patients with mild disease strated that patients with serum AST levels of at least have a lower 10-year survival than treated counter- 10-fold the upper limit of the normal range (ULN) or parts (67% versus 98%, P 0.01).269 The frequency more than five-fold ULN in conjunction with a serum of spontaneous improvement must be counterbal- c-globulin level more than two-fold ULN have a high anced against the frequency of serious drug-related mortality (60% at 6 month) if untreated. Furthermore, complications when making the treatment decision histological findings of bridging necrosis or multilobu- (12% versus l4%).269 Since the mild autoimmune lar necrosis at presentation progress to cirrhosis in hepatitis can progress and a rapid and complete 82% of untreated patients and are associated with a 5- response to a normal end point can be anticipated, year mortality of 45%.55,86,87 These laboratory and corticosteroid therapy is favored in asymptomatic
  • 10. 10 MANNS ET AL. HEPATOLOGY, June 2010 mild disease, especially in young individuals who are Recommendations: likely to tolerate the medication satisfactorily.269 9. Immunosuppressive treatment should be insti- Patients likely to have a poor outcome are those at tuted in patients with serum AST or ALT levels increased risk for drug intolerance, and they include greater than 10-fold ULN, at least five-fold ULN in individuals with advanced inactive cirrhosis, post- conjunction with a serum c-globulin level at least 2- menopausal osteopenia or vertebral compression, fold ULN, and/or histological features of bridging emotional instability or psychosis, poorly controlled necrosis or multilobular necrosis (Table 5). (Class I, hypertension, low thiopurine methyltransferase activ- Level A) ity, and brittle diabetes (Table 5).277 10. Immunosuppressive treatment may be consid- ered in adult patients without symptoms and mild 6.3. No Indications for Treatment laboratory and histological changes, but the decision Corticosteroid therapy is effective only in patients must be individualized and balanced against the who have clinical, laboratory or histological features of possible risks of therapy. Consider referral to a hepa- active liver inflammation. Patients with inactive or tologist prior to starting therapy (Table 5). (Class ‘‘burned out cirrhosis’’ cannot benefit from therapy,9 IIa, Level C) and they have an increased risk of drug-induced side 11. Immunosuppressive treatment should not be effects because their associated hypoalbuminemia, instituted in patients with minimal or no disease ac- hyperbilirubinemia, and portosystemic shunting can tivity or inactive cirrhosis, but these patients must affect protein-binding and disposition of free predniso- continue to be followed closely, i.e., 3-6 months (Ta- lone.278 Patients with brittle diabetes, vertebral com- ble 5). (Class IIa, Level C) pression, psychosis, or severe osteoporosis must be crit- 12. Immunosuppressive treatment should not be ically assessed for a treatment benefit before instituted in patients with serious pre-existent administering corticosteroids, and azathioprine should comorbid conditions (vertebral compression, psycho- be avoided in patients with severe pretreatment cytope- sis, brittle diabetes, uncontrolled hypertension), or nia (white blood cell counts below 2.5 Â 109/L or previous known intolerances to prednisone unless the platelet counts below 50 Â 109/L) or known complete disease is severe and progressive and adequate con- deficiency of thiopurine methyltransferase activity trol measures for the comorbid conditions can be (Table 5).277 instituted (Table 5). (Class III, Level C) 13. Azathioprine treatment should not be started in patients with a severe pretreatment cytopenia 6.4. Treatment Indications in Children (white blood cell counts below 2.5 Â 109/L or plate- The indications for treatment in children are similar let counts below 50 Â 109/L) or known complete to those in adults (Table 5).35 The disease process in deficiency of thiopurine methyltransferase activity children appears to be more severe at presentation (Table 5). (Class III, Level C) than commonly seen in adults, perhaps because of 14. Immunosuppressive treatment should be insti- delays in diagnosis or other concurrent immune dis- tuted in children at the time of diagnosis regardless eases, such as autoimmune sclerosing cholangi- of symptom status. (Class I, Level C) tis.35,36,279-281 More than 50% of children have cirrho- sis at accession, and the milder forms of the disease described in adults are not typically seen in chil- dren.35,36,279-281 The perceived aggressive course in 7. Treatment Regimens most children and reports that delays in diagnosis and 7.1. Treatment Regimens in Adults treatment adversely affect the long-term outcome have Two treatment regimens are equally effective in justified drug therapy at the time of diagnosis.35,36,279-281 severe AIH (Table 6).273,282-287 Prednisone alone (60 mg Only those children with advanced cirrhosis without evi- daily) or a lower dose of prednisone (30 mg daily) dence of inflammatory activity are unlikely to benefit. in conjunction with azathioprine (50 mg is usually Therefore, all children in which the diagnosis of AIH has used in the United States or 1-2 mg/kg body weight, been established should be treated. which is widely used daily in Europe) (Table 6). Pred- If the diagnosis of autoimmune hepatitis or the nisone may be tapered down to an individual level suf- indications for the treatment are in doubt in children ficient to maintain a remission from 20 mg daily or adults, the patient should be referred to a hepatolo- onward, reduction should be done by 5 mg every gist before starting corticosteroid therapy. week until 10 mg/day are achieved and even further
  • 11. HEPATOLOGY, Vol. 51, No. 6, 2010 MANNS ET AL. 11 Table 6. Immunosuppressive Treatment Regimens for Adults in Autoimmune Hepatitis Combination Therapy Monotherapy Azathioprine Prednisone only* (mg/day) Prednisone* (mg/day) USA (mg/day) EU (mg/kg/day) Week 1 60 30 50 12 Week 2 40 20 50 12 Week 3 30 15 50 12 Week 4 30 15 50 12 Maintenance until endpoint 20 and below 10 50 12 Reasons for Preference Cytopenia Postmenopausal state Thiopurine methyltransferase deficiency Osteoporosis Brittle diabetes Obesity Pregnancy Acne Malignancy Emotional lability Short course ( 6 months) Hypertension *Prednisolone can be used in place of prednisone in equivalent doses. reduction by 2.5 mg/week have been considered up to they should be introduced as appropriate to the indi- 5 mg daily. The maintenance regimen is then contin- vidual’s perceived risk.277,282-284 Such therapies should ued until resolution of the disease, treatment failure, include a regular weight baring exercise program, vita- or drug-intolerance.282-285 The combination regimen min D and calcium supplementation. The administra- of prednisone and azathioprine is associated with a tion of bone active agents such as bisphosphonates lower occurrence of corticosteroid-related side effects may be appropriate for individual patients.277,282,302 than the higher dose prednisone regimen (10% versus Patients on long-term corticosteroid treatment should 44%), and it is the preferred treatment.273 Advanced be monitored for bone disease by baseline and annual cirrhosis can significantly impair the conversion of bone mineral densitometry of the lumbar spine and prednisone to prednisolone, but this impairment is hip.277,282,300,303 insufficient to alter treatment response or mandate the Like other patients suffering from chronic liver dis- administration of prednisolone.272 In Europe, prednis- ease patients with AIH should be protected against olone is preferred over prednisone,272 Prednisone is hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis A virus (HAV). appropriate as the sole medication in individuals with Vaccination should be done as early as possible even severe cytopenia,288-292 those undergoing a short treat- before immunosuppression is started because of lower ment trial (duration of therapy, 6 months),273,278 response rates. individuals who are pregnant or contemplating preg- nancy,293-295 patients with some active malignan- 7.2. Treatment Regimes in Children cies,296,297 and individuals with known complete thio- Treatment regimens have been less rigorously estab- purine methyltransferase deficiency (Table 6).291,292,298 lished in children than in adults and to some extent, The combination regimen is appropriate in patients they reflect the preferences of individual cen- who will be treated continuously for at least 6 months ters.35,36,120,279-281,283,305-309 There have been no or who are at increased risk for drug-related complica- randomized, controlled, treatment trials in children with tions, including postmenopausal women and individu- autoimmune hepatitis, but several reports of 17 or more als with emotional instability, osteoporosis, brittle children have documented the efficacy of regimens simi- diabetes, labile hypertension, or obesity (Table lar to those used in adults (Table 7).35,36,279-281 Despite 6).43,44,277,282-287,299,300 Patients receiving prednisone the severe disease at presentation, the response to treat- should undergo eye examinations for cataracts and ment with corticosteroids with or without azathioprine glaucoma periodically during treatment, and those is generally excellent in children. Normalization of liver receiving azathioprine in any dose should be moni- tests is noted after 6-9 months of therapy in 75%-90%. tored at 6 month intervals for leukopenia and throm- Prednisone is the mainstay in virtually all reported bocytopenia.277,282-284,301 regimens for children, and it is usually administered Adjunctive therapies should be based on an aware- initially in a dose of 1-2 mg/kg daily (up to 60 mg ness of possible complications of the medication, and daily) (Table 7).35,36,279-281 Tapering schedules vary
  • 12. 12 MANNS ET AL. HEPATOLOGY, June 2010 Table 7. Immunosuppressive Treatment Regimens for Children in Autoimmune Hepatitis Initial Regimen Maintenance Regimen Endpoint Prednisone, 1 2 mg/kg daily (up to 60 mg/day), Prednisone taper over 6 8 weeks to Normal liver tests for 1 2 years during treatment for two weeks either alone or in combination 0.1 0.2 mg/kg daily or 5 mg daily with azathioprine, 1 2 mg/kg daily Azathioprine at constant dose if added initially No flare during entire interval Continue daily prednisone dose with or Liver biopsy examination discloses no inflammation without azathioprine or switch to alternate day prednisone dose adjusted to response with or without azathioprine widely. In some centers, a rapid switch to alternate day 18. Adjunctive therapies for bone disease include regimens has been advocated, whereas in other centers, a regular weight baring exercise program, vitamin maintenance of a low dose daily schedule is considered D, calcium and where appropriate bone active essential. Because of the significant deleterious effects agents such as bisphosphonates. (Class IIa, Level C) of long-term intermediate or high dose corticosteroid 19. Pretreatment vaccination against HAV and therapy on linear growth, bone development, and HBV should be performed if there has been no pre- physical appearance, early use of azathioprine (1-2 mg/ vious vaccination or susceptibility to these viruses kg daily) or 6-mercaptopurine (1.5 mg/kg daily) for has been shown. (Class IIa, Level C) all children without contraindications is usually recom- mended.35,36,279-281,305 Experience with azathioprine 8. Treatment-Related Side Effects alone as maintenance therapy has been limited in chil- The nature and frequency of the side effects associ- dren, but the drug appears to hold some promise for ated with each treatment regimen must be explained those who do not tolerate complete cessation of treat- to the patient prior to the institution of therapy ment.305 Regimens incorporating cyclosporin A as ini- (Table 8).284 tial treatment for children with autoimmune hepatitis do not appear to confer a significant advantage over 8.1. Corticosteroid-Related Side Effects more traditional therapies, and they should be consid- Cosmetic changes, including facial rounding, dorsal ered investigational.306-309 Pretreatment evidence of hump formation, striae, weight gain, acne, alopecia susceptibility to HAV or HBV would justify vaccina- and facial hirsutism, occur in 80% of patients after 2 tion against these viruses in children.304 years of corticosteroid treatment regardless of the regi- Recommendations: men (Table 8).273,277,278 Severe side effects include osteopenia with vertebral compression, brittle diabetes, 15. Treatment should be instituted with predni- psychosis, pancreatitis, opportunistic infection, labile sone (starting with 30 mg daily and tapering down hypertension, and malignancy.273,277,282,299,300,310 Severe to 10 mg daily within 4 weeks) in combination with complications are uncommon, but if they occur, it is azathioprine (50 mg daily or 1-2 mg/kg body weight usually after protracted therapy (more than 18 months) as widely used in Europe) or a higher dose of predni- with prednisone alone (20 mg daily).273,277,278 sone alone (starting with 40-60 mg daily and tapering Corticosteroid-related side effects are the most com- down to 20 mg daily within 4 weeks) in adults with mon causes for premature drug withdrawal in autoim- AIH. The combination regimen is preferred, and pred- mune hepatitis.277,311 Treatment is discontinued in nisolone in equivalent dose can be used instead of 13% of patients because of complications, and 47% of prednisone (Table 6). (Class I, Level A) these have intolerable cosmetic changes or obe- 16. Treatment should be instituted with predni- sity.277,311 Twenty-seven percent have osteoporosis with sone (1-2 mg/kg daily; maximum dose 60 mg daily) vertebral compression, and 20% have brittle diabetes.277,311 in children in combination with azathioprine (1-2 8.2. Azathioprine-Related Side Effects mg/kg daily) or 6-mercaptopurine (1.5 mg/kg daily) Complications of azathioprine therapy in autoim- (Table 7). (Class I, Level B) mune hepatitis include cholestatic hepatitis,312 pancre- 17. Patients on long-term corticosteroid treatment atitis,313,314 nausea,277 emesis,277 rash,277 opportunistic should be monitored for bone disease at baseline infection,310 bone marrow suppression and malignancy and then annually. (Class IIa, Level C) (Table 8).288-292 Five percent of patients treated with
  • 13. HEPATOLOGY, Vol. 51, No. 6, 2010 MANNS ET AL. 13 Table 8. Frequency and Nature of Side Effects Associated with Treatment in Adults with Autoimmune Hepatitis Prednisone-Related Side Effects Azathioprine-Related Side Effects Type Frequency Type Frequency Cosmetic (usually mild) 80% (after 2 years) Hematologic (mild) 46% (especially with cirrhosis) Facial rounding Cytopenia Weight gain Dorsal hump striae Hirsutism Alopecia Somatic (usually mild) Emotional instability Glucose intolerance Cataracts Somatic (severe) 13% (treatment ending) Hematologic (severe) 6% (treatment ending) Osteopenia Leucopenia Vertebral compression Thrombocytopenia Diabetes (brittle) Psychosis Hypertension (labile) Inflammatory/neoplastic Rare Somatic (usually mild) 5% Pancreatitis Nausea Opportunistic infection Emesis Malignancy Rash Fever Arthralgias Neoplastic 3% (after 10 years) Nonhepatic cell types Hematologic/enteric Rare (treatment ending) Bone marrow failure Villous atrophy Malabsorption Teratogenic during pregnancy Rare (theoretical) Adapted from Czaja AJ. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2008;7:319 333. azathioprine develop early adverse reactions (nausea, thiopurine methyltransferase activity,320-322 and the vomiting, arthralgias, fever, skin rash or pancreatitis), most common cause of cytopenia in these patients is which warrants its discontinuation.315 The overall fre- hypersplenism associated with underlying cirrho- quency of azathioprine-related side effects in patients sis.320,322 Patients undergoing azathioprine therapy with autoimmune hepatitis is 10%,273 and the side should have blood leukocyte and platelet counts effects typically improve after the dose of azathioprine assessed at 6-month intervals. is reduced or the therapy is discontinued.277,282 An Chronic immune suppression in autoimmune hepa- important but rare complication of azathioprine treat- titis has been associated with an increased risk of ment is a diarrheal syndrome associated with malab- malignancy (Table 8).296,297,326,327 The incidence of sorption and small intestinal villus atrophy that extrahepatic neoplasm in treated autoimmune hepatitis improves after azathioprine withdrawal.316 The sinu- is 1 per 194 patient-years, and the probability of tu- soidal obstruction syndrome (‘‘veno-occlusive disease’’) mor occurrence is 3% after 10 years.297 Tumors do described after renal transplantation has not been not have a predominant cell type, and they are not reported in azathioprine-treated autoimmune hepati- related to age, sex, treatment regimen or cumulative tis,317,318 nor has the nodular regenerative hyperplasia duration of treatment.297,327 The low but increased described in azathioprine-treated patients with inflam- risk of malignancy associated with chronic low dose matory bowel disease.319 azathioprine therapy (1.4-fold greater than normal) The principal side effect of azathioprine is cytope- must be counterbalanced against the beneficial actions nia, and the most dire consequence is bone marrow of the drug as a corticosteroid-sparing agent.297 failure (Table 8).277,289,292 The frequency of cytopenia in azathioprine-treated patients with autoimmune hep- 8.3. Special Populations at Risk for Drug Toxicity atitis is 46%, and the occurrence of severe hematologi- 8.3.1. Patients with Cirrhosis. Individuals with cir- cal abnormalities is 6%.320 These toxicities are not rhosis at presentation have a higher frequency of drug- predictable by either genotyping or phenotyping for related complications than those without cirrhosis
  • 14. 14 MANNS ET AL. HEPATOLOGY, June 2010 (25% versus 8%),273,278,328 They also have a high fre- erbation after delivery has been variously reported quency of cytopenia that may compromise their toler- between 12%-86%.324,332,335 Its occurrence must be ance for azathioprine.320,322 Patients with cirrhosis anticipated, and conventional therapy must be must be closely monitored during therapy, and those resumed pre-emptively 2 weeks before anticipated individuals with cytopenia should be assessed for thio- delivery and maintained throughout the postpartum purine methyltransferase activity prior to the adminis- period. Contraception should be advised in women tration of azathioprine.277,301,320 with advanced liver disease and features of portal 8.3.2. Pregnant Patients. Most experiences indicate hypertension because they are at risk for variceal hem- that pregnancy and the medication are well tolerated orrhage during pregnancy.330 by the mother and the neonate.294,323-325,327-333 The 8.3.4. Patients with Low Thiopurine Methyltrans- major risk is prematurity, and infant mortality relates ferase Activity. Patients with near-zero erythrocyte directly to the degree of prematurity. Fetal loss is concentrations of thiopurine methyltransferase activity higher than in normal mothers, but no greater than in are at risk for myelosuppression during azathioprine mothers with other chronic illnesses.294,323-325,330-333 treatment.291,292 Only 0.3%-0.5% of the population Fetal mortality has been reported as high as 19% has a severe enzyme deficiency,336-340 and not all with deliveries usually before the 20th week.325 Perina- patients with a deficiency of this degree experience tal mortality is 4%;325 maternal mortality is 3%;325 bone marrow failure.341 Individuals with abnormally the frequency of serious maternal complications is decreased but not extreme reductions in thiopurine 9%;332 and the occurrence of an adverse outcome of methyltransferase activity (heterozygous state) tolerate any type is 26%.332 Outcomes in autoimmune hepati- azathioprine satisfactorily at the low dose of 50 mg320 tis are similar to those in the general population where and the level of enzyme activity may actually increase the frequencies of fetal loss, caesarian section, and still with continued administration of the drug.320,342,343 births are 21%, 17%, and 5%, respectively.324 Further- The rarity of severe azathioprine-induced myelosup- more, mothers with autoimmune hepatitis have better pression, the low dose of azathioprine used in conven- outcomes than women with diabetes in whom the fre- tional treatment (50 mg-150 mg daily), and the inabil- quency of fetal loss ranges from 24%-29%.324 ity to reliably predict risk by phenotypic and Preconceptional counseling is advised and termina- genotypic assessments have not supported routine tion of immunosuppressive therapy should be screening for thiopurine methyltransferase activity in attempted where possible. Azathioprine has a category AIH. Pretreatment cytopenia, cytopenia developing D pregnancy rating by the FDA. It has been associated during therapy, or the administration of higher than with congenital malformations in pregnant mice,293 and conventional doses of azathioprine (150 mg daily) low levels of the 6-thioguanine nucleotides are detecta- justifies determination of enzyme activity.277 ble in the newborns of mothers treated for Crohn’s dis- Recommendations: ease (Table 8).295 Teratogenicity associated with azathio- 20. The possible side effects of therapy with corti- prine therapy therefore is a theoretical consideration,293 costeroids must be reviewed with the patient prior but increased birth defects have not been reported in mothers receiving this treatment,323-325,330-333 nor have to treatment (Table 8). (Class Ia, Level C) there been apparent adverse consequences of breast 21. Patients must be counseled regarding the feeding by treated mothers.333 Nevertheless, these uncertain risk of azathioprine in pregnancy, and human experiences have been anecdotal, and there has azathioprine should be discontinued, if possible, in not been a comprehensive human study establishing patients during pregnancy. (Class III, Level C) the safety of azathioprine in pregnant women. These 22. Azathioprine has a category D pregnancy rating findings, however, do justify caution when using aza- by the FDA, and it should be discontinued, if possible, thioprine during pregnancy.323-325 in patients during pregnancy. (Class III, Level C) Autoimmune hepatitis can improve during preg- 23. Postpartum exacerbation of AIH must be nancy, and this improvement may allow reductions in anticipated by resuming standard therapy 2 weeks immunosuppressive therapy during pregnancy.334,335 prior to anticipated delivery and by closely monitor- Intuitively, little or no treatment during pregnancy is ing serum AST or ALT levels at 3-week intervals for a desirable protective measure for the mother and at least 3 months after delivery. (Class IIa, Level C) fetus. 24. Blood thiopurine methyltransferase activity Exacerbations of disease commonly follow delivery should be assessed in patients with cytopenia before as blood estrogen levels fall.334 The frequency of exac- or during azathioprine therapy. (Class IIa, Level C)
  • 15. HEPATOLOGY, Vol. 51, No. 6, 2010 MANNS ET AL. 15 Table 9. Endpoints of Initial Immunosuppressive Treatment and Courses of Action in Autoimmune Hepatitis Treatment Endpoint Criteria Courses of Action Remission Disappearance of symptoms, normal serum aminotransferases, Gradual withdrawal of prednisone over 6 week period bilirubin and c globulin levels, normal hepatic Serum AST or ALT, total bilirubin, and c globulin levels tissue or inactive cirrhosis determined at 3 week intervals during and for 3 months after drug withdrawal Repeat laboratory assessments thereafter every 6 months for at least 1 year and then every year life long Treatment failure Worsening clinical, laboratory, and histological features Prednisone, 60 mg daily, or prednisone, 30 mg daily, despite compliance with therapy and azathioprine, 150 mg daily, for at least 1 month Development of jaundice, ascites or hepatic encephalopathy Dose reduction of prednisone by 10mg and azathioprine by 50 mg for each month of improvement until standard treatment doses are achieved Incomplete response Some or no improvement in clinical, laboratory, and histological Reduction in doses of prednisone by 2.5 mg/month until features despite compliance with therapy after 2 3 years lowest level possible ( 10 mg daily) to prevent worsening of serum AST or ALT abnormalities No worsening of condition Indefinite azathioprine therapy (2 mg/kg daily) as an alternative treatment if corticosteroid intolerance Drug toxicity Development of intolerable cosmetic changes, symptomatic Reduction in dose or discontinuation of offending drug osteopenia, emotional instability, poorly controlled hypertension, Maintenance on tolerated drug in adjusted dose brittle diabetes or progressive cytopenia 9. Treatment Endpoints and Courses of patients who achieve long-term remission have normal Action laboratory indices prior to the termination of ther- apy.345 Therefore, the biochemical endpoint in previous Conventional therapy in adults is continued until studies of 2 times the upper limit of normal should remission, treatment failure, incomplete response, or not be accepted in future studies as endpoint or goal of drug toxicity (Table 9).283,284 There is no prescribed treatment because relapse after termination of therapy minimum or maximum duration of treatment. The in those patients is universal. However, the normaliza- length of therapy can be based on a fixed minimum tion of tests and tissue does not protect against relapse, duration that is usually associated with a complete and 60% of patients who relapse do so despite disap- response344 or on a variable duration that is individu- pearance of inflammatory features.345 The frequency alized to the desired result and tolerance.345 that corticosteroid treatment can achieve full resolution of the laboratory tests and liver tissue abnormalities is 9.1. Remission unclear, and whereas pursuit of an ideal treatment end- All adult patients should be given the opportunity point is desirable, it must be tempered by the realization to enter a sustained remission that is free of medica- that not all patients can achieve this result or tolerate tion (Table 9).282-285,345-347 Ninety percent of adults the required treatment.345 Daily maintenance doses of have improvements in the serum AST, bilirubin, and medication should remain fixed in adults until the goal c-globulin levels within 2 weeks.266 Adults rarely of therapy is achieved. Titrations in dose are associated achieve resolution of their laboratory and liver tissue with delayed or incomplete histological improvement, abnormalities in less than 12 months, and the proba- and it can prolong the durations of therapy.273 Alternate bility of remission during therapy diminishes after 2 day schedules of prednisone can induce symptomatic years.346-348 Histological improvement lags behind and laboratory improvement, but not histological clinical and laboratory improvement by 3-8 months.49,349 resolution.273 Resolution of the laboratory indices (normal serum Liver biopsy assessment prior to termination of AST or ALT, c-globulin, and IgG levels) and tissue treatment is the only method by which to ensure full manifestations of active liver inflammation (normal resolution of the disease and an optimal endpoint of liver tissue examination) is the ideal treatment endpoint therapy. Interface hepatitis is found in 55% of patients and the goal of initial therapy (Table 9).345,350-353 with normal serum AST and c-globulin levels during The average duration of treatment is 18-24 therapy,349 and these individuals typically relapse after months.283-285,345 Normal laboratory indices before ter- cessation of treatment.311,347 Their recognition by liver mination of treatment reduces the relative risk of relapse biopsy examination prior to drug withdrawal can jus- after drug withdrawal by 3-fold to 11-fold compared to tify an extension of treatment. Therefore, a liver bi- patients who do not achieve these results, and 87% of opsy is recommended before termination of