From Tube to Chip Presentation by Mindy McAdams Thursday, Week 13

In 1895, French scientist Jean B. Perrin discovered that “ cathode rays ” were negatively charged particles. Between 1895 and 1897, British physicist Joseph J. Thompson conducted further experiments and sought to measure the properties of these particles. The negatively charged particles were later named electrons .

The Vacuum Tube John Ambrose Fleming , an Englishman, was one of Thomas Edison’s assistants Later he worked on designing a radio transmitter the Marconi company 1904: Fleming sees that the diode can convert alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC) Incorporates the diode into his radio wave detector

John Ambrose Fleming , an Englishman, was one of Thomas Edison’s assistants

Later he worked on designing a radio transmitter the Marconi company

1904: Fleming sees that the diode can convert alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC)

Incorporates the diode into his radio wave detector

Vacuum Tube 1904 Fleming calls his diode a thermionic valve (it used heat to control the flow of electricity) In the United States, the thermionic valve was known as a vacuum tube Source

Fleming calls his diode a thermionic valve (it used heat to control the flow of electricity)

In the United States, the thermionic valve was known as a vacuum tube

1906: Lee De Forest’s Audion (the one above c. 1912) is also called a triode Diode Triode

1906: Lee De Forest’s Audion (the one above c. 1912) is also called a triode

The Computer Connection The ENIAC contained more than 18,000 triode vacuum tubes Programs had to be physically wired into the computer (plugs into sockets) The ENIAC was designed to integrate ballistic equations and calculate trajectories of naval shells Completed in 1946, ENIAC was too late to help the war effort It remained in use until 1955

The ENIAC contained more than 18,000 triode vacuum tubes

Programs had to be physically wired into the computer (plugs into sockets)

The ENIAC was designed to integrate ballistic equations and calculate trajectories of naval shells

Completed in 1946, ENIAC was too late to help the war effort

It remained in use until 1955

The ENIAC computer, University of Pennsylvania, 1945

Size: over 100 feet long, filling a 30 ft. x 50 ft. room. Height: 10 feet. Depth: about 3 feet. Weight: about 30 tons. Cost: about $486,000 ENIAC

Television also used vacuum tubes 1923: Vladimir Zworykin (b. 1889) applies for a patent on his electronic television system and later demonstrates it to engineers at Westinghouse Zworykin is often credited with having invented the cathode ray tube (CRT), the basis for video display monitors and television screens 1926: Philo T. Farnsworth (b. 1906) produces the first all-electronic television image

1923: Vladimir Zworykin (b. 1889) applies for a patent on his electronic television system and later demonstrates it to engineers at Westinghouse

Zworykin is often credited with having invented the cathode ray tube (CRT), the basis for video display monitors and television screens

1926: Philo T. Farnsworth (b. 1906) produces the first all-electronic television image

You could build (and repair) your own TV set

Early Computers The ENIAC was funded by the U.S. government Built at the University of Pennsylvania Completed in 1946 It was later used by the Los Alamos National Laboratory for calculations to develop a hydrogen bomb (the first atom bomb had been built at Los Alamos in 1945)

The ENIAC was funded by the U.S. government

Built at the University of Pennsylvania

Completed in 1946

It was later used by the Los Alamos National Laboratory for calculations to develop a hydrogen bomb (the first atom bomb had been built at Los Alamos in 1945)

Early Computers (2) Before, during and after ENIAC, others were also building big computers Private companies, including IBM and RCA Other universities, such as MIT and the University of Manchester (England) By the end of 1947 , at least nine such projects were under way in the U.S. and Britain Government funding played a large role

Before, during and after ENIAC, others were also building big computers

Private companies, including IBM and RCA

Other universities, such as MIT and the University of Manchester (England)

By the end of 1947 , at least nine such projects were under way in the U.S. and Britain

Government funding played a large role

Whirlwind Developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT); team led by Jay Forrester This was the first computer that: Operated “in real time” Used video displays for output Was not just an electronic copy of older mechanical systems Led directly to U.S. Air Force Semiautomatic Ground Environment (SAGE) system Led indirectly to almost all business computers and minicomputers that followed in the 1960s

Developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT); team led by Jay Forrester

This was the first computer that:

Operated “in real time”

Used video displays for output

Was not just an electronic copy of older mechanical systems

Led directly to U.S. Air Force Semiautomatic Ground Environment (SAGE) system

Led indirectly to almost all business computers and minicomputers that followed in the 1960s

Whirlwind used approximately 5,000 vacuum tubes. It took 3 years to build and first went online in 1951. Budget: $1 million per year.

Open Access Enormous costs = public benefits Because the U.S. government had funded much of the research, it became “open source,” in a sense No private company controlled it (Remember the patent wars in radio?) Grad students who worked on projects later went on to work for private companies, building on these technologies

Enormous costs = public benefits

Because the U.S. government had funded much of the research, it became “open source,” in a sense

No private company controlled it

(Remember the patent wars in radio?)

Grad students who worked on projects later went on to work for private companies, building on these technologies

Next Step: The Transistor Invented at Bell Labs in 1947 Replaced the glass vacuum tube Smaller than a vacuum tube Did not have to “warm up” before it would work Uses less power; more reliable Made it possible to construct smaller devices, e.g. the “transistor radio”

Invented at Bell Labs in 1947

Replaced the glass vacuum tube

Smaller than a vacuum tube

Did not have to “warm up” before it would work

Uses less power; more reliable

Made it possible to construct smaller devices, e.g. the “transistor radio”

[1954]

Edwin Howard Armstrong and the first portable radio, 1923

Transistor Functions as a switch (on / off) Made of semiconductor material such as germanium or silicon

Functions as a switch (on / off)

Made of semiconductor material such as germanium or silicon

Bell Labs Founded in 1925 (AT&T and Western Electric) 1947: Invents the transistor 1954: Builds first functional solar cell 1958: Pioneers the concept of the laser 1962: Builds and launches the first orbiting communications satellite (Telstar I) 1969–1972: Creates the Unix operating system and the C programming language

Founded in 1925 (AT&T and Western Electric)

1947: Invents the transistor

1954: Builds first functional solar cell

1958: Pioneers the concept of the laser

1962: Builds and launches the first orbiting communications satellite (Telstar I)

1969–1972: Creates the Unix operating system and the C programming language

Integrated Circuits 1958: First integrated circuit (IC) invented by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments, a manufacturer of transistors Until then, each component occupied a separate germanium wafer in a stack of wafers (discrete components); these were connected via wires running up the sides of the stack Kilby realized: If one piece of germanium were engineered properly, it could hold all of these components

1958: First integrated circuit (IC) invented by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments, a manufacturer of transistors

Until then, each component occupied a separate germanium wafer in a stack of wafers (discrete components); these were connected via wires running up the sides of the stack

Kilby realized: If one piece of germanium were engineered properly, it could hold all of these components

Integrated Circuits (2) The old way: One separate piece of germanium for each component (e.g., transistors, resistors, capacitors) Kilby built a prototype: One thin piece of germanium (about half an inch long) containing five separate components linked together by tiny wires

The old way: One separate piece of germanium for each component (e.g., transistors, resistors, capacitors)

Kilby built a prototype: One thin piece of germanium (about half an inch long) containing five separate components linked together by tiny wires

1961: The U.S. Patent Office awards the first patent on an integrated circuit to Robert Noyce , co-founder of Fairchild Semiconductor Kilby’s patent application was still under consideration Today, both men are credited with having independently invented the integrated circuit The first integrated circuit developed at Fairchild Semiconductor by Robert Noyce

1961: The U.S. Patent Office awards the first patent on an integrated circuit to Robert Noyce , co-founder of Fairchild Semiconductor

Kilby’s patent application was still under consideration

Today, both men are credited with having independently invented the integrated circuit

And then came … 1968: Robert Noyce and two other top engineers resigned from Fairchild Semiconductor They founded their own company -- Intel (short for Int egrated El ectronics) Intel soon developed a reputation for expertise in making high transistor-count chips (ICs)

1968: Robert Noyce and two other top engineers resigned from Fairchild Semiconductor

They founded their own company -- Intel (short for Int egrated El ectronics)

Intel soon developed a reputation for expertise in making high transistor-count chips (ICs)

The Microprocessor Busicom, a Japanese company, had designed 12 chips for its next-generation programmable calculators Busicom asked Intel to produce them Marcian (Ted) Hoff Jr., an Intel engineer, realized that the Busicom 12-chip scheme was too much for a mere calculator He suggested a new single-chip general-purpose central processor unit (CPU) that could be programmed to perform most of the calculator functions

Busicom, a Japanese company, had designed 12 chips for its next-generation programmable calculators

Busicom asked Intel to produce them

Marcian (Ted) Hoff Jr., an Intel engineer, realized that the Busicom 12-chip scheme was too much for a mere calculator

He suggested a new single-chip general-purpose central processor unit (CPU) that could be programmed to perform most of the calculator functions

Texas Instruments handheld calculator (c. 1975) Busicom handheld calculator (1972)

The Microprocessor (2) 1969: Busicom chose Hoff’s solution over its own 12-chip design Intel granted Busicom exclusive rights to buy the new chipset (consisting of CPU, ROM, RAM and I/O) 1971: Intel and Busicom agreed that in exchange for cheaper chip prices for Busicom, Intel would gain full rights to sell the chips to anyone

1969: Busicom chose Hoff’s solution over its own 12-chip design

Intel granted Busicom exclusive rights to buy the new chipset (consisting of CPU, ROM, RAM and I/O)

1971: Intel and Busicom agreed that in exchange for cheaper chip prices for Busicom, Intel would gain full rights to sell the chips to anyone

The Microprocessor (3) Top: Intel’s 4004 integrated CPU – “a microcomputer on a chip” (1971) Intel’s first 16-bit processor was the 8086 (1978) Bottom: Intel’s 80286 (1982) contained 134,000 transistors

Top: Intel’s 4004 integrated CPU – “a microcomputer on a chip” (1971)

Intel’s first 16-bit processor was the 8086 (1978)

Bottom: Intel’s 80286 (1982) contained 134,000 transistors

Digital Equipment Corp. (DEC) challenged IBM’s dominance of the computer industry of with smaller “minicomputers” and different purchase options in the 1980s

Digital Equipment Corp. (DEC) challenged IBM’s dominance of the computer industry of with smaller “minicomputers” and different purchase options in the 1980s

1975: The MITS Altair 8800 Based on the Intel 8080 CPU World’s first “personal” computer

Two guys in Boston sent a letter to the Altair's inventor, asking if he would be interested in selling their BASIC programming language for the machine …

Apple-1: Demonstrated in April 1976 at the Homebrew Computer Club in Palo Alto, Calif. Went on sale in July 1976 at a price of $666.66

Apple-1: Demonstrated in April 1976 at the Homebrew Computer Club in Palo Alto, Calif.

Went on sale in July 1976 at a price of $666.66

IBM was actually quite late to the market: 1981 Price: $1,995

IBM was actually quite late to the market: 1981

Price: $1,995

From Tube to Chip Presentation by Mindy McAdams University of Florida