Lattice Energy LLC
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Low Energy Nuclear Reactions (LENRs)
Ultra low momentum neutron (ULMN) capture on Carbon (C)
seed nuclei: W-L theory, model LENR nucleosynthetic
networks, and review of selected LENR experiments
Technical Overview
Lewis Larsen, President and CEO
“Facts do not cease to exist
because they are ignored.”
Aldous Huxley in
“Proper Studies” 1927
Studies”
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Commercializing a Next-Generation Source of Safe Nuclear Energy
Contents
Preview of nucleosynthetic pathways …………………………………… 3-4
Overview - I through V …………………………………………………………… 5-9
W-L theory and carbon-seed nucleosynthetic networks ……………… 10 - 18
Review and discussion of selected LENR experiments:
Metallic Palladium (substrate for nuclear-active sites) with Carbon:
1999: SRI replication of 1998 Case/D2 gas; McKubre et al……. 19 - 37
Primarily non-metallic Carbon substrates hosting nuclear-active sites:
1994: Texas A&M carbon-arc/H2O; Sundaresan and Bockris … 38 - 44
1994: BARC carbon-arc/H2O; Singh et al. ……………………..… 45 - 56
Are LENRs connected with hydrogenated fullerenes/graphene? ……….. 57 - 60
Final comments …………………………………………………………………… 61 - 64
Ending quotation: Erwin Schrödinger (1944) ……………………………….. 65
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Preview of Nucleosynthetic Pathways - I
Begin at Carbon (C)
Vector of LENR nucleosynthetic
pathway in red
End-up at Nickel (Ni)
End-
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Preview of Nucleosynthetic Pathways - II
Begin at
While they differ
Carbon (C) from stellar
The neutron-
neutron-
catalyzed “r-
process”
process”
‘Map’ of the Isotopic Nuclear Landscape environments in
many important
(see path on aspects, LENR
chart) that R-process pathway systems can
astrophysicists
Valley of stability produce large
believe occurs fluxes of a wide
mainly in stellar variety of
supernova extremely neutron-
neutron-
explosions is rich nuclei from
thought to produce low to very high
most of the nuclei values of A. Thus,
heavier than Iron they may someday
(Fe). It operates in be able to provide
the neutron-rich
neutron- nuclear physics
region of the Nickel with a new and
nuclear landscape Neutron ‘dripline’ ??? exciting, much
to the right of the lower-cost
lower-
valley of stability to In this presentation, we will apply W-L
W- experimental tool
beta- decay. theory and examine LENR experiments for exploring the
Extremely neutron-
neutron- in the yellow triangular region from the far reaches of the
rich isotopes have a valley of stability (small black squares) nuclear landscape
much wider variety and boundaries of
thru neutron-rich, beta- decay isotopic
neutron- beta- nuclear stability.
of available decay
channels in addition regions that lie to the ‘right’ of stability
right’ This possibility
to ‘simple’ β-.
simple’ Carbon between Carbon (C) and Nickel (Ni) deserves further
careful study.
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Overview - I
For more detailed explanation of information underlying this
presentation, please refer to 78-slide Lattice SlideShare Technical
Overview dated June 25, 2009.
Recapping - under nonequilibrium conditions in surface patches of
hydrogenous ions and heavy electrons that are ‘cooked’ with large
fluxes of ULM neutrons, over time large steady-state populations of
unstable, extremely neutron-rich ‘halo’ nuclei tend to build-up.
Neutron halos first discovered in Li in 1985; ‘hot’ R&D area today.
Herein - using Widom-Larsen theory, we will explore part of the vast
nuclear landscape of LENRs (see previous slide) via ULM neutron-
catalyzed LENR nucleosynthetic networks: starting with neutron
captures on Carbon seed nuclei; production of very neutron-rich,
unstable intermediate products; ending with an array of stable
transmutation products that extend ‘upward’ to Nickel.
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Overview - II
At this point in our understanding of nuclear physics, please note that
extremely neutron-rich ‘halo’ nuclei that comprise intermediate
products created in condensed matter LENR ULMN nucleosynthetic
networks are, in many respects, still little understood and poorly
characterized. For example: neutron capture cross-sections are
unknown for many; short half-lives can be very difficult to measure
accurately; true location of neutron ‘dripline’ unclear at higher A.
In condensed matter LENRs, neutron-rich halo isotopes continue to
absorb ULM neutrons as long as capture Q-values remain favorable
(prompt and delayed capture gammas are converted into infrared by
heavy electrons) and as long as they are unable to decay via a variety
of available channels that include emission of β- electrons (fermions)
and/or shedding low-energy neutrons (fermions) into unoccupied
states in local continuum. Compared to ions in hot stellar plasmas or
neutron-rich fragments made in radioactive-ion beam colliders, LENR
systems usually have much higher local densities of occupied states.
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Overview - III
Key consequences of this unique situation in LENR systems (very dense
occupation of local fermionic states) are that: (a) effective half-lives of very
neutron-rich intermediates can sometimes be significantly longer than
measured ‘textbook’ half-lives of comparatively isolated nuclei; and (b) %
branching ratios for alternative β--delayed decay channels that are normally
‘available’ to such isotopes may change markedly compared to those of
isolated nuclei – ratios may shift if certain decay channels are ‘blocked’ and
unavailable. Thus certain types of decays can be ‘frustrated’ in LENR
systems until unoccupied states ‘open-up’ for whatever reason.
From low (better understood) to high values of A, unstable neutron-rich
isotopes far from the valley of stability have a richer variety of decay
channel ‘choices’ than many types of nuclei. These are β- decays followed
by related beta-delayed emissions of gammas, neutrons (up to 3), alpha
particles, tritons (Tritium), and deuterons (Deuterium). Although their
production cross-sections are generally small, certain isotopes have very
substantial β-delayed branches, e.g. ~12% of N-18 decays also emit alphas.
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Overview - IV
“Excited states of nuclei formed in beta decay, for example, can
show other types of radioactive behavior. In such beta-delayed
radioactivity, the excited nuclear states can emit other particles ... If,
however, the excitation [of the ‘daughter’ nucleus] is high enough,
then it is possible that an alpha particle, a neutron or a proton are
emitted from this state… This radioactivity is beta-delayed because
the particles are only emitted after a time equal to the half-life of the
beta particle [emission].” W. Scharf, “Particle Accelerators and
Their Uses,” pp. 726 Taylor & Francis 1991.
Few observations of beta-delayed particles published prior to 1965
12 types of beta-delayed particle emissions have been observed
Over 100 beta-delayed particle radioactivities are known today
Theoretically, perhaps >1,000 isotopes could exhibit such decays
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Overview - V
We will first examine a model ULM neutron-catalyzed LENR
nucleosynthetic network that begins with neutron captures on stable
Carbon isotopes (A=12, mass; Z=6, # of protons; N=6, # of neutrons).
This region of LENR nucleosynthetic parameter space is very
interesting because, although the values of A are not large here,
certain Nitrogen (N) isotopes have β--delayed alpha (He-4)-decay
channels that have significant He-4 production cross-sections.
Role played by neutron-rich N isotopes is somewhat similar to that of
Be-8 in LENR cycle beginning with ULMN captures on Lithium that
was outlined in Equations 30 - 32 in our 2006 EPJC paper.
This implies LENR experiments involving ULMN captures on Carbon
seed ‘targets’ may produce significant quantities of He-4 without any
Lithium being present and importantly, without any need to invoke
questionable D-D “cold fusion” processes to explain such data.
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W-L theory and carbon-seed nucleosynthetic networks
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ULMN catalyzed LENR network starting from 6C12 - I
ULMN capture on carbon, neutron-rich isotope production, and related decays
Increasing values of A
[BR = 12.2 %]
2He-4 ‘Pool’
7.7 Branching ratios of beta-delayed
beta-
Stable 99.99% [BR = 0.0025 %]
‘Boson sink’ decays will be discussed further;
2.3
[BR = 0.001 %] data sources differ on some of them
3.3
5.0 8.2 1.2 4.3 0.8 4.2 0.6 2.9
6C-12 6C-13 6C-14 6C-15 6C-16 6C-17 6C-18 6C-19
Stable 98.7% Stable 1.3% HL=5.7x103 y HL= 2.5 sec HL=747 msec HL=193 msec HL=92 msec HL=46 msec
5.5 7.3 9.0 11.2
0.2 9.8 8.0 13.2 11.8 16.6 13.6
Legend:
Increasing values of Z
10.8 2.5 5.9 2.8 5.3 2.2
ULM neutron captures 7N-14 7N-15 7N-16 7N-17 7N-18 7N-19
Stable 99.6% Stable 0.4% HL=7.1 sec HL=4.2 sec HL=622 msec HL=271 msec
proceed from left to right; Q-
Q-
4.5 5.9 8.6
value of capture reaction in 10.4 8.7 13.9 12.5 10.4
MeV is on top of green Beta-delayed alpha
Beta-
7.5
horizontal arrow: decays are denoted 8O-16
4.1
8O-17
8.0
8O-18
4.0
8O-19
7.6
by orange arrows Stable 99.76% Stable 0.04% Stable 0.20% HL=26.5 sec
Beta decays proceed from top
to bottom; denoted w. blue with decay energy
4.8
vertical arrow with Q-value in
Q- in MeV:
7.5 Well-accepted reports documenting beta-delayed alpha
Well- beta-
MeV in blue to left: Beta-delayed
Beta- 9F-19
6.6
neutron-
decays in neutron-rich Nitrogen (N) isotopes were first
7.5 neutron emissions ~Stable 100%
published in major journals ca. 1992 - 1994
Totally stable isotopes are are denoted by pink
indicated by green boxes; dotted lines with
some with extremely long arrows; decay 7.5 A total of nine different ‘Carbon cycle’ pathways are possible in this region of
cycle’
half-lives are labeled
half- energy in MeV: the model LENR nucleosynthetic network; four of them are as follows:
follows:
“~stable”; natural
~stable” Gamma emissions (C-12 thru C-15) -> N-15 -> N-16 -> C-12 + He-4 ; total Qv = ~30 MeV/He-4 atom
(C- C- N- N- C- He- MeV/He-
abundances denoted in % are not shown here; (C-12 thru C-16) -> N-16 -> C-12 + He-4 ; total Qv = ~30.0 MeV/He-4 atom
(C- C- N- C- He- MeV/He-
Unstable isotopes are are automatically
converted directly (C-12 thru C-17) -> N-17 -> C-13 + He-4 ; total Qv = ~35.0 MeV/He-4 atom
(C- C- N- C- He- MeV/He-
indicated by purplish boxes;
when measured, half-lives are
half- to infrared by heavy (C-12 thru C-18) -> N-18 -> C-14 + He-4 ; total Qv = ~43.2 MeV/He-4 atom
(C- C- N- C- He- MeV/He-
shown as “HL = xx”
xx” SPP electrons
Network continues onward to higher A
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ULMN catalyzed LENR network starting from 6C12 - II
Neutron Please note this region of very high-
2.9
6C-20
0.0 -
energy beta decays of neutron-rich
Capture
13.6
HL= 14 msec
Ends on C Nitrogen isotopes (N-20 through N-23) Network can continue further
15.8 to even higher values of A if
2.2
7N-20
4.6
7N-21
1.3
7N-22
1.7
7N-23
0.0 Neutron ULM neutron fluxes are large
Capture
10.4
HL=100 msec HL= 85 msec HL= 24 msec HL=14.5 msec
Ends on N enough and of sufficient
13.4 15.9 21.0
18.0 17.2 22.8 23.8 duration. This is similar to
7.6
8O-20
3.8
8O-21
6.9
8O-22
2.7
8O-23
3.6
8O-24
0.0 Neutron
Capture
stars, but with key differences
HL= 13.5 sec HL= 3.4 sec HL= 2.3 sec HL= 82 msec HL= 61 msec
Ends on O
1.3 3.8 7.7
3.8 8.1 6.5 11.3 11.5
Neutron
6.6
9F-20
8.1
9F-21
5.3
9F-22
7.5
9F-23
3.8
9F-24
4.4
9F-25
1.1
9F-26
1.4
9F-27
0.0
Capture
HL= 11.0 sec HL= 4.2 sec HL= 4.2 sec HL= 2.2 sec HL= 0.3 sec HL= 59 msec HL=10.2 msec HL= 4.9 msec
Ends on F
0.5 3.3 4.6 9.2 12.3 16.4
7.0 5.7 10.8 8.5 13.5 13.4 17.8 17.9
6.8 10.4 5.2 8.9 4.2 5.5 1.4 3.9
10Ne-20 10Ne-21 10Ne-22 10Ne-23 10Ne-24 10Ne-25 10Ne-26 10Ne-27 Network
Stable 90.5% Stable 0.25% Stable 9.25% HL= 37.2 sec HL= 3.4 min HL= 602 msec HL= 197 msec HL= 32 msec continues
1.7 5.9
4.4 2.5 7.3 7.3 12.6
Note the large size of the Q-values for beta-
Q- 7.0 9.0 5.6 6.7 3.5
11Na-23 11Na-24 11Na-25 11Na-26 11Na-27 Network
decays of N-22 (22.8 MeV) and N-23 (23.8 MeV)
N- N- Stable 100% HL= 15 hrs HL= 1 min HL= 1.1 sec HL= 301 msec continues
2.6
5.5 3.8 9.4 9.1
For comparison, here are some representative Q-values of ‘prosaic’
Q- prosaic’
hot fusion processes with high Coulomb barriers: 7.3 11.1 6.4 8.5
12Mg-24 12Mg-25 12Mg-26 12Mg-27 Network
D + D -> He-4 + gamma (23.9 MeV) – minor D-D fusion branch ~10-5 %
He- D- Stable 79% Stable 10% Stable 11% HL= 9.5 min continues
D + T -> He-4 + 14.1 MeV neutron (17.6 MeV)
He- 2.6
This data illustrates how LENRs may have the potential to be a much
much
D + D -> Triton + proton (4.03 MeV) – BR ~50% 7.7
better power generation technology than hot fusion; they release just 13Al-27 Network
D + D -> He-3 + neutron (3.27 MeV) ) – BR ~50%
He- as much energy without any energetic neutrons or gamma radiation Stable 100% continues
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ULMN catalyzed LENR network starting from 6C12 - III
Here is how fusion-based carbon cycles are thought to operate in stars
Cycle 1: stellar CNO nucleosynthetic cycle Cycles 1 – 4: CNO + 3 nucleosynthetic cycles thru Ne-18 and Ne-19
Ne- Ne-
Starts at C-12
C-
Starts at C-12
C-
Produces one
He-4 per cycle
He-
Comments: in the stellar CNO cycle only C-12 is recycled; in LENR-based carbon cycles, C-12, C-13, and C-14
Comments: C- LENR- C- C- C-
are all potentially regenerated. In general, ULMN catalyzed nucleosynthetic networks involve production of
nucleosynthetic
substantially more neutron-rich isotopes 2007 stellar networks, e.g., C-14 C-20; N-14 N-23; O-19 O-24; F-
neutron - 445, January 4, than
Source of Graphic: Nature,
20; 23; 24;
19 F-27; and Ne-20 Ne-27. Alpha decays are far more common events in low-A stellar fusion processes
27; Ne- Ne- 27. low-
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ULMN catalyzed LENR network starting from 6C12 - IV
Discussion of ULM neutron captures starting with Carbon ‘seeds’
Large Q-values for beta decays of neutron-rich isotopes (up to 23.8 MeV in this region of the
nucleosynthetic network) created in LENR systems produce unstable ‘daughter’ nuclei in
highly excited states; this environment is favorable to beta-delayed decay processes wherein
nuclei have wider range of dynamic ‘choices’ for alternative decay channels
As shown in Carbon-seed nucleosynthetic network diagrams, ULM neutron capture on
Carbon isotopes can produce Helium-4 via beta-delayed alpha decay channels, which under
normal circumstances would be unusual for typical nuclei at such values of A
As measured in neutron-rich fragments collected and analyzed in RNB particle collider
experiments, branching ratios for beta-delayed alpha decays of Nitrogen isotopes are
presently thought to be: N-16 (0.001 %); N-17 (0.0025 %); and N-18 (12.2 %)
There is reason to believe that such alpha branching ratios could be substantially different
for operating LENR systems in which dense local populations of heavy (energetic) SPP
electrons and very neutron-rich nuclei simultaneously coexist with large fluxes of ULM
neutrons. In such environments, high occupation of local fermionic states may hinder beta-
delayed emission of fermions (neutrons and electrons – i.e., beta particles) into the local
continuum. All other things being equal, it may be ‘easier’ for nuclei to emit bosons (He-4
particles and gamma photons) that can quickly ‘bleed-off’ excess energy to de-excite
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ULMN catalyzed LENR network starting from 6C12 - V
Discussion of ULM neutron captures starting with Carbon ‘seeds’
Depending on the Q-value of the related beta decay, beta-delayed neutrons have particle
energies that can range from as little as ~18 keV up to ~5+ MeV (e.g., N-22); however,
maximum measured neutron energies published in the literature are typically from <1 - 2 MeV
with peaks in their statistical distributions often falling between 0.25 - 0.50 MeV
While beta-delayed neutron decays and their related Q-values are shown in the network
diagrams, they do not appear to have substantial production cross-sections in LENR
systems. This conclusion is based on fact that in 20 years of episodically intense
measurement efforts, large fluxes of energetic neutrons have never been observed in any
LENR system. What is occasionally seen in experiments where neutrons are measured are
relatively small, ‘bursty’ fluxes of relatively low-energy neutrons that do not appear to
correlate strongly with the presence or absence of heat production. Indeed, one of the early
criticisms of “cold fusion” was that MeV-energy neutron production was many orders of
magnitude less than what would normally be expected from prosaic D-D fusion reactions
In some LENR systems, small amounts of beta-delayed neutron emissions may occur as a
given micron-scale, nuclear-active ‘patch’ site is in the process of ‘shutting down.’ That is,
when production of heavy electrons and ULM neutrons declines in such a site, unoccupied
fermionic states can then begin to open-up in the local continuum, allowing previously
‘frustrated’ beta decays to proceed that can in turn produce delayed neutron emissions
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ULMN catalyzed LENR network starting from 6C12 - VI
Nine different ‘carbon cycle’ pathways can occur within the network
Model nucleosynthetic network herein has a total of Please see the Wikipedia article about the
CNO ‘carbon cycle’ in stars at:
cycle’
nine possible pathways that function as ‘leaky’ carbon http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNO_cycle
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNO_cycle
cycles, regenerating C-12, or C-13, or C-14 and In stars hotter and more massive than our
producing one He-4 atom (alpha particle) per cycle sun, CNO-I cycle produces 26.77 MeV/He-4
CNO- MeV/He-
Adjusted net Qvs (assume D used to make
Total ‘raw’ Q-values for the model’s 9 different carbon ULM neutrons; ‘gross’ Qv is adjusted to
gross’
cycles range from ~30.0 MeV/He-4 to ~43.2 MeV/He-4; reflect an input energy ‘cost’ of 0.39
cost’
MeV/neutron) for the model’s nine different
model’
when you adjust for the energetic ‘cost’ of making ULM carbon cycle pathways are calculated as
neutrons, net Qvs range from ~28.4 to ~40.9 MeV/He-4 follows (in MeV): 40.86, 40.86, 33.05, 40.76,
32.95, 28.44, 40.76, 32.95, and 28.44/He-4
28.44/He-
These LENR carbon cycles are ‘leaky’ in that they are an Note: some pathways have identical net Qv
Note:
incidental byproduct of a ULM neutron-driven Based on branching values measured in
nucleosynthetic network that is constantly ‘trying’ to isolated RNB fragments (12.2% for N-18) the
N-
four ~40 MeV paths might appear to be most
produce stable nuclei at higher and higher values of A probable. However, as we discussed, it
appears very likely that these branching
He-4 is a boson; has no ‘Fermi pressure’ issues with ratios could have very different values in
occupied local states like neutrons and electrons. Can operating LENR systems; for discussion
purposes, let’s assume that is true. Note that
let’
serve as a ‘bosonic sink’ in LENR systems; also can model’s Qvs fall into two groups: four high-
model’ high-
readily leave nuclear-active sites in the form of a gas energy paths (avg. net Qv = 40.81) and five
lower-energy paths (avg. net Qv = 31.17
lower-
LENR carbon cycles will continue to operate as long as MeV/He-4). A simple average of the two
MeV/He-
Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007 group average Qvs is 35.99 MeV/He-4. Also
MeV/He-
ULM neutrons are available to ‘drive’ reaction network note: all values larger than CNO-I in stars
note: CNO-
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ULMN catalyzed LENR network starting from 6C12 - VII
ULM neutron fluxes and traversing the Fluorine ‘valley of death’
LENR nucleosynthetic networks operating in condensed Please see the redirected Wikipedia article on the
chemistry of Fluorine at:
matter have issues with produced Fluorine that are not http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flourine
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flourine
present with ions in fusion-based stellar environments Also see a short article by: T. Furuya and T. Ritter,
“Carbon-Fluorine Reductive Elimination from a
Carbon-
High-Valent Palladium Fluoride,” J. Am. Chem. Soc.
High- Fluoride,”
LENR-active micron-scale ‘patch’ sites in condensed 130, pp. 10060 - 10061, 2008 at:
matter systems must maintain coherent oscillations of http://www.chem.harvard.edu/groups/ritter/publicati
ons/page12/files/2008-10060j.pdf
ons/page12/files/2008-
protons or deuterons on surfaces for weak interaction
In carbon-capture LENR systems, all other things being
carbon-
ULMN production to continue locally without interruption equal, the greater the input energy (e.g., in the form of
electrical current) per unit of time, the higher the
potential rate of ULM neutron production. The higher
Free Fluorine atoms or F2 molecules produced by LENR the neutron flux, the more effectively and quickly an
network in nuclear-active ‘patches’ will react violently with LENR system will be able to traverse Fluorine’s ‘valley
Fluorine’
of death.’ Systems producing much smaller neutron
death.’
any nearby hydrogen atoms (producing HF, DF, or TF), fluxes in comparison to well-performing aqueous
well-
electrolytic cells (e.g., using pressure and heat-driven
heat-
carbon atoms (making fluorinated carbons with ultra- H/D ion permeation-diffusion a la Iwamura et al.’s
permeation- al.’
strong C-F bonds), or metal atoms, e.g., PdF6. Such experiments) will likely have difficulty going beyond
Oxygen, let alone Fluorine. Rates of chemical reactions
energetic chemical reactions can disrupt coherence in can vary from 10-10 sec to > 1 second. In particular, for
reactions F + H2 HF + H and F + D2 DF + D the
‘patches,’ thus creating a potential ‘valley of death’ that measured rate constants at 195-294o K are 1.54 x 10-10
195-
LENR networks must necessarily traverse in order to be and 0.82 x 10-10 cm3/sec. Therefore, the higher a ULM
neutron production rate is above the key value of 1010
able to create heavier elements at higher values of A cm2/sec, the easier it will be for a Carbon-seed LENR
Carbon-
network to produce higher-A isotopes beyond Fluorine
higher-
Best strategy to traverse ‘valley of death’ is to combine See: Igoshin et al., “Determination of the rate
constant of the chemical reaction F + H2(D2)
very high rates of ULM neutron production with largest- HF(DF) + H(D) from the stimulated emission of HF
molecules,” Soviet Journal of Quantum Electronics
molecules,”
possible physical dimensions of2007
Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4,
LENR-active ‘patches’ 3 pp. 306-311 1974
306-
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ULMN catalyzed LENR network starting from 6C12 - VIII
β decays of neutron-rich isotopes can release large amounts of energy
The good news about Uranium and Plutonium fission reactions Please see:
see:
is that they have Qvs of ~190+ MeV, releasing most of their France et al., “Absolute branching ratio of
beta-delayed gamma-ray emission of 18N”
beta- gamma-
energy on a time scale of ~10-19 seconds in the form of prompt http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/astro-
http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/astro-
neutron and gamma radiation as well as fast moving, neutron- ph/pdf/0307/0307129v2.pdf (2003)
rich, asymmetric fission fragments comprising unstable Controversy about measurements:
measurements:
products that undergo further decays; bad news is production Buchmann et al., “Some remarks about β-
delayed α-decay of 16N” at:
of large quantities of prompt ‘hard’ radiation and hazardous http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/arxiv/pdf/0907/090
long-lived radioactive isotopes; massive shielding is mandatory 7.5340v1.pdf (2009)
Other measurements:
measurements:
Good news about ‘cleaner’ D-T fusion reactions in commercial
C. S. Sumithrarachchi, PhD thesis, Michigan
Sumithrarachchi,
power reactors is Qv of ~17.6 MeV; bad news is that much of the State University, “The study of beta-delayed
beta-
energy released is in the form of hard to manage 14.1 MeV neutron decay near the neutron drip line” at:
line”
neutrons along with gammas and neutron-induced radioactivity http://www.nscl.msu.edu/ourlab/publications
/download/Sumithrarachchi2007_231.pdf
in apparatus; high temps create huge engineering problems (2007)
Raabe et al., “Beta-delayed deuteron
Beta-
Good news about LENR-based nucleosynthetic networks is that emission from 11Li: decay of the halo” ” at:
halo”
they do not produce biologically significant quantities of hard http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/arxiv/pdf/0810/081
gamma/neutron radiation or hazardous long-lived radioactive 0.0779v1.pdf (2008)
Comment: please recall that fission and fusion
Comment:
isotopes; in contrast to fission/fusion, no bad news for LENRs reactions mainly involve the strong interaction,
whereas key nuclear processes in LENRs
Many scientists mistakenly believe that weak interactions are involve weak interaction, i.e., ULM neutron
production via e+p or e+d and beta decays
weak energetically;Nature, 445, incorrect. In network herein, N-17
Source of Graphic:
that is January 4, 2007
and N-18 beta - decays release 22.8 and 23.8 MeV, respectively
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Commercializing a Next-Generation Source of Safe Nuclear Energy
Review and discussion of LENR experiments - I
Metallic Palladium (substrate for nuclear-active sites) with Carbon
1999 SRI replication of 1998 Case/D2 gas; McKubre et al.
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1999: SRI replication of Case/D2 gas by McKubre et al. - I
SRI replicates 1998 Case experiment – measurements of He-4 and heat
Details of these experiments at SRI are fully Please see:
described in two papers cited to the right McKubre et al., “The emergence of a coherent
explanation for anomalies observed in D/Pd and H/Pd
Goals of Case replication experiments at SRI system: Evidence for 4He and 3He production” ICCF-8
production” ICCF-
were to measure the following parameters conference, Lerici, Italy (2000)
Lerici,
over the duration of a given experiment: (a.) Free document available online at:
at:
excess heat with calorimetry; and (b.) http://www.lenr-
http://www.lenr-
production of Helium (He-4) with mass canr.org/acrobat/McKubreMCHtheemergen.pdf
spectrometry – by design, no other types of Another detailed description and extensive discussion of
this experimental work can be found in a document
nuclear transmutation products were prepared for the DOE technical review of “cold fusion” that
fusion”
measured or assayed during the experiments occurred in November 2004:
Commercial preparations of ‘activated’ C --- Hagelstein et al., “New physical effects in metal
deuterides” (see Section 3. “Helium and excess heat”
deuterides” heat”
carbon powder (ordinary charcoal, containing on pp. 7 – 10, especially Fig. 6 on pp. 8 showing helium
0.4 - 0.5% of finely-divided, nano/micron-sized increase vs. estimated energy, as well as the long
particles of Pd) were placed in steel vessels, discussion found in Appendix B. “Results for the Case
experiment at SRI” from pp. 18 - 21)
SRI”
after which they were filled with D2 or H2 gas
can be found at: http://www.lenr-
http://www.lenr-
under 1- 3 atm. of pressure and sealed tightly. canr.org/acrobat/Hagelsteinnewphysica.pdf
They were then heated up to 170 – 250o C and In January 2005, copies of written comments submitted by
left to ‘cook’ for up to 45+ days. Heat evolution the outside scientists on the 2004 DOE “cold fusion” review
fusion”
was measured continuously; Helium-isotopes panel were leaked to the public; it is a truly fascinating 45-
45-
page document that can be found at:
were measured either by taking 2007
Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, samples at
intervals or at the end of a given experiment http://www.lenr-canr.org/acrobat/DOEusdepartme.pdf
http://www.lenr-
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1999: SRI replication of Case/D2 gas by McKubre et al. - II
SRI replication of 1998 Case experiment in light of W-L theory of LENRs
In the light of the Widom-Larsen theory of
LENRs, it is apparent that Case replication
experiments at SRI were, in some ways,
conceptually similar to Mitsubishi/Iwamura
experiments (see Lattice Technical Overview
dated June 25, 2009, Slides # 44 - 45)
Case experiment is similar to Iwamura’s in
that the external input energy required to
produce ULM neutrons comes from just a
combination of pressure/temperature-driven
loading of D+ or H+ ion fluxes into Pd (no
external electric currents are applied)
According to W-L theory, this means that ULM “Figure 11. Configuration of the Case experiment at SRI.”
neutron fluxes produced in such cells would Source: Hagelstein et al., “New physical effects in metal
likely be substantially less than ULM neutron deuterides” - this Figure found in Appendix B. “Results for
deuterides”
fluxes observed in well-performing Pons- the Case experiment at SRI” on pp. 19 of 2004 paper
SRI”
Fleischmann-type electrolytic experiments Note: one flask contains D2 gas under pressure and the
Note:
second flask contains H2 gas at the same pressure
ULMNs would be produced on outer surfaces
Evolved gases are acquired for measurement in a mass
of Pd particles in intimate contact w. Carbon; spectrometer by bleeding-off small samples through the
bleeding-
nuclear products Nature, 445, January 4, 2007 be on top
Source of Graphic: (e.g., He-4) would valves in extraction tubes shown at top of diagram
of such surfaces or released directly into gas
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1999: SRI replication of Case/D2 gas by McKubre et al. - III
Central results of SRI’s replication of Case experiments - I
Note: Figure 1 was present in the original conference report Note: present in 2000 and in paper specially prepared for DOE in 2004
prepared by McKubre et al. for presentation at ICCF-8 in 2000
Figure 1 and its related text were
not present in paper prepared in
2004 for DOE review panel
Discrepancy between D-D ‘cold”
fusion hypothesis and
experimental observations
This Figure (but not the caption)
present on pp. 6 in earlier paper
Note: green dashed line predicted by D-D fusion; blue solid line was observed presented at ICCF-8 in 2000
“It is clear from the slopes of these two lines that the observed 4He constitutes only 76 “Figure 6. Excess energy determined by gradient (boxes) and differential (diamonds)
± 30% of the 4He predicted by equation [1]. A more significant problem in Figure 1 is calorimetric methods plotted against the increase in 4He concentration in a metal-sealed
that three further 4He samples, taken at times of non-zero excess power (open helium leak-tight vessel. The experiment was performed by heating palladium on carbon
diamonds), exhibited helium concentrations only at the level of the analytical hydrogenation catalyst materials to ∼190o C in ∼3 atmospheres of D2 gas pressure (see
uncertainty, as did numerous samples taken in the apparent absence of excess power Appendix B).”
production. Clearly if 4He is produced in association with excess power, it is not
released to the gas phase immediately, or completely.” Source of Figure and caption: Hagelstein et al., “New physical
caption:
effects in metal deuterides” - this Figure is found on pp. 8 of 2004
deuterides”
paper specially prepared for the DOE “cold fusion” review panel
fusion”
Source of Figure and caption: McKubre et al., “The emergence of
caption:
a coherent explanation for anomalies observed in D/Pd and H/Pd Note measured results: 31 to 32 MeV/He-4, plus or minus an est.
results: MeV/He-
Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007
system: Evidence for 4He and 3He production” pp. 3
production” error of plus or minus 13 MeV (range of heat/He-4 is ~18 - 45 MeV)
heat/He-
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Lattice Energy LLC
1999: SRI replication of Case/D2 gas by McKubre et al. - IV
Central results of SRI’s replication of Case experiments - II
Figure is present in 2000 and in paper prepared for DOE in 2004 Figure is present in 2000 and in paper prepared for DOE in 2004
See
discussion of
anomalous
declining He
ppm in this
region in
Slide #37
“Figure 12. Results of 4He measurements from the case experiment at SRI.” “Figure 13. Excess energy and helium production as a function of time
from the Case experiment at SRI.”
Quoting caption in 2000 paper: “Figure 2 [labeled as Figure 12 in 2004 paper]
summarizes 6 of 16 results obtained in paired cells…Using direct, on-line, high- Quoting caption in 2000 paper: “The energy estimated in excess of that provided by
resolution mass spectrometric measurement of [4He] we observed the following the heater for these two calorimetric methods is plotted in Figure 3 [labeled as Figure
behaviors: (i) cells that show no increase of 4He over long periods of time (including 12 in 2004 paper], together with the measured helium concentration during the time
all cells operated with H2 instead of D2); (ii) cells that exhibit a slow, approximately of greatest derivative, ∂ [4He]/ ∂t in experiment SC2. It is clear that the appearance of
exponential increase in [4He] with time; (iii) cells that display no measurable increase excess heat and the apparent increase in [4He] are temporally correlated … [now
in [4He] for a period of several days, followed by a rapid, approximately linear rise in from 2004] …There is reasonable confidence that the 4He source of the rising trends
[4He] to levels sometimes exceeding that of the ambient background.” in Figures 12 and 13 is not a release of stored 4He from the catalyst …” ”
Source of Figure and caption: Hagelstein et al., “New physical
caption: Source of Figure and caption: Hagelstein et al., “New physical
effects in Source deuterides” - this Figure is found on pp. 20 of
metal deuterides”
of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007 effects in metal deuterides” - this Figure is found on pp. 21 of
deuterides”
2004 paper prepared for the DOE “cold fusion” review panel
fusion” 2004 paper prepared for the DOE “cold fusion” review panel
fusion”
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Lattice Energy LLC
1999: SRI replication of Case/D2 gas by McKubre et al. - V
Initial discussion of SRI’s replication of Case experiments
Results shown in Figs. 1, 6, 12, and 13 show strong As to McKubre et al.’s attempted
al.’
positive correlation between the production of He-4 explanation for the observed discrepancy,
and production of excess heat in Pd/C/D LENR system please see their ICCF-8 paper (2000) cited
ICCF-
on Slide #20; quoting directly from it:
Depending on the calorimetric estimation method, pp. 3 “… if 4He is produced in association with
quantitative results shown in Figs. 1, 6, and 13 indicate excess power, it is not released to the gas phase
immediately, or completely.”
completely.”
a value of excess heat produced per observed He-4 pp. 6 [paragraph beneath Fig. 4] “Clarification of a
atom of ~31 to 32 MeV along with an estimated possible origin for the apparent 4He deficit in
experimental error of plus or minus ~13 MeV; this error experiments “1” and “2” can be obtained from the
results of experiment “3”. Approximately 82 kJ of
results in likely range of values from ~18-45 MeV excess heat was measured in the electrolysis of a
100 mm x 1mm Pd wire cathode in D2O. This
Authors implicitly assumed that only one heat- experiment was performed in a rigorously metal
sealed and helium leak-tested cell and apparatus
leak-
producing nuclear process could possibly take place provided with the facility to sample the gas in the
in their system: D-D “cold fusion” reaction wherein headspace. When initially analyzed following a
period of excess power production, the gas phase
D+ + D+ He-4 + [heat] with a Qv = 23.846 MeV (BNL) contained only 62% of the 4He expected if reaction
[1] were the source of the excess heat. A second
Issue with SRI’s results: authors’ D-D “cold fusion” sample showed an increase in [4He] despite the fact
that the helium content of the vessel had been
hypothesis predicted a Qv of ~23.8 MeV/He-4, but diluted with D2 containing low levels of 4He, in order
values of 31 – 32 MeV/He-4 were actually measured to make up the initial gas volume after the first gas
sample. Taking these increases as evidence of
sequestered 4He, the cathode was subjected to an
Question: how can one explain discrepancy between extended period (~200 hours) of compositional and
measured quantities of excess heat vs. amount of He-4 temperature cycling by varying the current density in
both anodic and cathodic directions.”
directions.”
detected with mass spectroscopy of gas samples?
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1999: SRI replication of Case/D2 gas by McKubre et al. - VI
MeV/He-4 discrepancy in SRI’s replication of Case experiments - I
There are several aspects to the discrepancy between Continuing to quote directly from McKubre et
theory (hypothesized D-D “cold fusion” reaction) and al.’s ICCF-8 paper (2000): pp. 6 – 7 “A mass
al.’ ICCF-
balance of 4He was calculated based on two
experiment in McKubre et al.’s published results: further gas samples: one to determine the helium
content of the D2 gas used initially to fill and refill
1. Shortfall in amount of observed He-4 relative to what the sealed metal cell (0.34 ± 0.007 ppmV); the
is theoretically predicted by the “cold” D-D fusion other to measure the final helium concentration in
the gas phase after exercising the cathode to
reaction. Assuming that McKubre et al.’s calorimetry release trapped gases (2.08 ± 0.01 ppmV).
was accurate (heat measured correctly) and that all Taking into account the amounts lost by sampling,
their mass spectrometry data on He-4 was correct, and introduced with make-up D2, a calculated
make-
where did all the Helium-4 produced by the “cold” D-D mass balance for 4He in the gas phase after
compositional and thermal cycling of the cathode
reaction go? If He-4 did not leak-out, and since it will results in a number that is 104 ± 10% of the
not react chemically with any materials inside number of atoms quantitatively correlated with the
apparatus (which could produce molecular ions that observed heat via reaction [1].”
[1].”
may ‘confuse’ a mass spectrometer), then what? Reiterating the magnitude of the issue with
the anomalously ‘lost’ He-4, they state: pp. 6
lost’ He-
2. Odd anomaly of declining Helium concentrations “When initially analyzed following a period of
observed in sealed vessels that occurred beyond day excess power production, the gas phase
contained only 62% of the 4He expected if
#20 in experiments SC2 and SC4.2 as shown in Figure reaction [1] were the source of the excess heat”
heat”
12 on left-hand side of Slide #23 – was that the result
Finally they conclude that: pp. 8 “Evidence for
of: (a) leakage from the vessels; (b) ad- or ab- sorption near-surface retention of 4He in the lattice can be
near-
of helium onto/into materials (Pd, C, or Fe) found used to accommodate the discrepancy between
within theGraphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007 else?
Source of vessels; or (c) something
measured and expected yields of 4He.”
He.”
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Lattice Energy LLC
1999: SRI replication of Case/D2 gas by McKubre et al. - VII
MeV/He-4 discrepancy in SRI’s replication of Case experiments - II
Leakage from experimental vessels was rapidly (and al.’
As to Hagelstein et al.’s discussion of the
observed discrepancy four years later,
correctly) ruled-out as an explanation for discrepancy please see their paper for the DOE “cold
fusion” review panel (2004) cited on Slide
fusion”
Elimination of leakage left three remaining possibilities: #20; quoting directly from it:
1. During experiments, Helium was being absorbed and/or pp. 7 “If helium were created in the cathode
interior, then one might expect to see helium
adsorbed by one or more materials found inside the dissolved in the metal. If helium were
sealed vessels (including vessel walls); in order of produced near the surface, then perhaps it
physical abundance and exposed surface area, these gas.”
would show up in the surrounding gas.”
materials included: Carbon (C – charcoal), Palladium pp. 8 [following a paragraph discussing He-4
He-
(Pd), and 316-series stainless steel (Fe, Cr, Ni, Mo, Mn) measurements of Miles & Bush, McKubre,
and Gozzi] “Several important conclusions
Gozzi]
2. If it were truly present above levels attributable to can be drawn from the studies cited above …
external contamination, He-4 is undeniably a product of amount of helium observed in the gas stream
is generally within a factor of about 2 less than
nuclear processes. That being the case, perhaps other would be expected for a reaction mechanism
heat- and/or He-4-producing nuclear reactions besides consistent with D + D -> 4He … Helium is
D-D fusion took place in their Case Pd/C/D experimental partly retained, and dissolved helium is
released only slowly to the gas phase for
systems (not considered by McKubre et al.; no other analysis.”
analysis.”
‘nuclear ash’ besides He was assayed)
pp. 9 [in Section 3.2 “Reaction Q Value”] “One
Value”
3. He-4 was actually being consumed as a reactant by can measure energy production, and assay
for 4He in the gas stream or the solid, with
other non-fusion nuclear reactions that transmuted it to uncertainties introduced in the reaction energy
some other element besides Helium (not considered by Q because all of the helium produced may
McKubre/Hagelstein et al.; only considered Item 1.)
Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007 not be accounted for in the measurement.
August 10, 2009
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1999: SRI replication of Case/D2 gas by McKubre et al. - VIII
MeV/He-4 discrepancy in SRI’s replication of Case experiments - III
With regard to the 1999 Pd/C/D Case replication Continuing to quote from Hagelstein et
experiments reviewed herein, please note it is al.’
al.’s discussion of the discrepancy in their
paper for DOE panel (2004) cited on Slide
Lattice’s considered opinion that McKubre et al.’s : #20; at this point, they are discussing an
Reported calorimetric measurements of excess aqueous electrolytic experiment in LiOD
that purportedly ‘proves’ that 4He is ad- or
proves’ ad-
heat production were probably accurate; ab-sorbed on/in Pd and can be ‘liberated’
ab - liberated’
Initially reported mass spectrometric assays of exercising’
into gas stream by ‘exercising’ the LENR
cathode with imposed deuterium fluxes:
observed He-4 atoms were probably accurate;
pp. 9 - 10 “After making these measurements,
Conclusion that leakage and/or external an attempt was made to dislodge near surface
contamination were not significant issues in the 4He either thermally or by D atom motion by
experimental results was probably correct; subjecting the cathode to a period of
compositional cycling, while still sealed in
Belief that “cold” D-D fusion was the only nuclear the calorimeter. Square and sine wave
reaction that could possibly take place in their modulations of varying period and amplitude
were imposed on the DC (negative) potential at
experiments was incorrect; and that their, the Pd electrode in an attempt to flux
Explanation for the discrepancy was incorrect. deuterium atoms through the interface and
near-
thus act to dislodge near-surface ad- or
ad-
An erroneous “cold fusion” conceptual paradigm absorbed 4He atoms. At the end of this period,
the potential was reversed to withdraw all
clearly influenced their experimental approach (e.g., deuterium atoms from the Pd bulk. No excess
did not bother to look for any other ‘nuclear ash’ heat was observed during the periods of
besides Helium isotopes) and hampered their ability oscillation although calorimetric uncertainties
were large due to the strong departures from
to properly interpret numerous anomalies present the steady state that accompanied the pulsing.”
pulsing.
Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007
in their reported experimental results
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Lattice Energy LLC
1999: SRI replication of Case/D2 gas by McKubre et al. - IX
MeV/He-4 discrepancy in SRI’s replication of Case experiments - IV
Continuing to quote from Hagelstein et al.’s
al.’
Please see excerpts of McKubre/Hagelstein et al.’s discussion of the discrepancy in their paper
explanation for the observed discrepancy in the right- for DOE panel (2004) cited on Slide #20:
hand columns on Slides # 24 – 28 (this slide) pp. 10 “Gas samples were taken before this
procedure, again after purging the cell and refilling
Underlying logic behind their explanation is that: with D2 from the gas bottle with 0.34 ppmV 4He,
and once more after cycling. The latter sample
After Helium was produced in gas-phase Case Pd/C/D exhibited the highest concentration of 4He
reaction cell, rather than virtually all of it being released measured in this cell, specifically 2.077±0.01
2.077±
almost immediately into the nearby gas, some ppmV/V. By making a proper mass balance of the
significant portion of produced He-4 was sequestered helium lost through sampling and purging, and
in activated Carbon material (powder form with 0.4 - that gained through make-up from the gas bottle,
make-
it is possible to assess with defined uncertainty
0.5% Pd); it was ad- or ab-sorbed into Pd and/or Carbon the results of deuterium fluxing in freeing lightly
(charcoal) and did not enter gas trapped 4He. The final integral mass balance
He.
If significant % of produced He-4 is ‘locked-up’ in yielded a value of 104± 10% of the expected
104±
value if the excess power in Figure 5 is due to a
materials inside reaction vessels, smaller numbers of reaction of the sort D+D → 4He + ∼ 23.8 MeV
He-4 atoms will be detected in samples analyzed in a (heat) … This value remains the most accurately
mass spectrometer; effectively increases amount of determined in this field (in the sense that
calorimetrically measured heat (MeV) per detected He-4 contributions from both the gas stream and the
atom, thus MeV/He-4 values ‘artificially’ high metal are included), but it suffers from the
included),
criticisms that the numbers of samples were few,
To support their argument, SRI conducted yet and the largest value of 4He measured was less
than 50% of that in air … Q value of 31 ± 13 and
another experiment that they claim ‘proved’ He-4 was 32 ± 13 MeV per 4He atom measured is also
sequestered in Pd metal; that one involved very consistent with the reaction D+D → 4He + ∼ 23.8
different-type of aqueousJanuary 4, 2007 electrolytic cell
Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, Pd/LiOD MeV (heat). Because of the importance of this
result, it is discussed further in Appendix B.”
B.
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Lattice Energy LLC
1999: SRI replication of Case/D2 gas by McKubre et al. - X
MeV/He-4 discrepancy in SRI’s replication of Case experiments - V
Continuing to quote from Hagelstein et al.’s paper for
al.’
Separate experiment designed to supposedly DOE panel (2004); this excerpt is from Section 2.6 titled
“Deuterium Flux and Triggering Issues”:
Issues”
demonstrate release of bound Helium from Pd was
conducted at SRI and involved a, “Johnson Matthey pp. 6 “The excess heat effect is often observed to be
stimulated by changes in the experimental conditions …
Pd wire cathode 10 cm long and 1 mm diameter in 1.0 Bockris described a regimen in which the current periodically
M LiOD containing 200 ppm Al.” (from caption below changed direction ... Quantitative evidence indicating that
Fig. 5 on pp. 6 of 2004 DOE Review paper) - very deuterium flux plays an important role in determining the
excess heat in a Fleischmann-Pons cell was found at SRI …
Fleischmann-
different from gas-phase Case Pd/C But experiments seem to show that deuterium flux makes a
difference, independent of whether it is incoming, outgoing,
Bound Helium was to be released from the Pd wire axial, or traversing.”
traversing.”
by, “… subjecting the cathode to a period of By their own words quoted above, they admit that in
compositional cycling, while still sealed in the LENRs, enhanced Deuterium flux is very important to
calorimeter. Square and sine wave modulations of triggering production of excess heat and He-4. That
He-
varying period and amplitude were imposed on the DC being the case, couldn’t more new He-4 be produced by
couldn ’ He-
precisely the procedure they are describing to the left
(negative) potential at the Pd electrode in an attempt that is supposedly designed to dislodge ‘old’ bound
old’
to flux deuterium atoms through the interface and thus Helium atoms? If excess heat were produced during that
act to dislodge near-surface ad- or absorbed 4He procedure, any detected He-4 could not be
He-
atoms. At the end of this period, the potential was unequivocally attributed solely to the release of bound
‘old’ He-4 because it could just as easily have been
old’ He-
reversed to withdraw all deuterium atoms from the Pd.” atoms of newly produced He-4. Conveniently they say:
He-
(pp. 9 of 2004 DOE Review paper – see Slide #27) –
pp. 10 “No excess heat was observed during the periods of
main goal of this procedure was to significantly oscillation although calorimetric uncertainties were large due
accelerate D+ ion flux thru the Pd surface region
Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007 to the strong departures from the steady state that
accompanied the pulsing.” [caveat re calorimetry errors]
pulsing.”
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Lattice Energy LLC
1999: SRI replication of Case/D2 gas by McKubre et al. - XI
MeV/He-4 discrepancy in SRI’s replication of Case experiments - VI
“Effects of Radiation on Materials: 15th
Validity of SRI experiment claimed to demonstrate International Symposium,” Stoller, Kumar, and
Symposium,” Stoller,
Gelles, eds., ASTM International (1992):
Gelles,
release of bound He-4 from Pd wire cathode is very
pp. 875 “The extremely low solubility of helium in
dubious; it doesn’t prove anything. Since they were metals is responsible for its strong tendency to
unable to unequivocally state that excess heat was precipitate into bubbles which leads to degradation of
not produced during D+ ‘fluxing’ procedure, there is the mechanical properties of materials.”
materials.”
simply no way to determine whether He-4 detected at As to LENRs being mostly a surface effect, W-L
W-
theory is supported by a large body of excellent
that point was newly produced or ‘old’ (bound) experimental evidence, e.g., in D2 permeation
experiments similar to Case set-up, TOF-SIMS depth
set- TOF-
Other aspects of McKubre/Hagelstein et al.’s claim profile studies by Iwamura et al. in R&D at Mitsubishi
that large amounts of produced He-4 were somehow Heavy Industries, Japan, clearly showed that all
transmutation products were found in a zone limited
sequestered in Pd metal/Carbon in the Case Pd/C/D to within ~500 Angstroms of the surface (~ 200
experiments are also questionable. For example, it is atomic layers) - see:
well known and accepted in published literature that “Low energy nuclear transmutation in condensed
the solubility of Helium in metals is extremely low matter induced by D2 gas permeation through Pd
complexes: correlation between deuterium flux
According to W-L theory of LENRs, He-4 atoms and nuclear products,” Iwamura et al., pp. 435-
products,” 435-
446 in Condensed Matter Nuclear Science –
should be produced on or very near the surface of Proceedings of 10th International Conference on
Pd. If that were true, given He-4 solubility is very low, Cold Fusion, P. Hagelstein and S. Chubb, eds.,
Fusion,
World Scientific Publishing 2006
why would He-4 go deeply into Pd metal when it is
See Fig. 9 on pp. 7 in free online version at:
much easier Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007 enter D2 gas?
Source of
for He atoms to simply http://www.lenr-
http://www.lenr-
canr.org/acrobat/IwamuraYlowenergyn.pdf
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Lattice Energy LLC
1999: SRI replication of Case/D2 gas by McKubre et al. - XII
MeV/He-4 discrepancy in SRI’s replication of Case experiments - VII
Solubility of He-4 in activated Carbon material Quoting directly from the http//www.praxair.com
http//www.praxair.com
(charcoal) is also known to be very low; this is website under the heading “Helium: Production”:
Production”
evidenced by the fact that Praxair uses it “Cryogenic system - Here, crude helium is compressed
commercially for purification of helium gas and cooled before nitrogen is condensed and removed.
The helium gas then passes through activated charcoal
streams. Why should He sequester in Carbon for final purification.”
purification.
in McKubre et al.’s Case Pd/C/D experiments?
He-4 (alpha) penetration depth versus particle energy:
He-
One remaining possibility is that He-4 atoms (α
particles) could have had sufficient kinetic Gold Carbon Beryllium
energy such that those emitted ‘downward’ into
the bulk substrate were implanted in the
material; if such alphas were extremely
energetic, implantation could be significant.
However, the particular experiment in which
McKubre et al. claimed demonstration of
sequestered He-4 release was a LiOD Pd wire
electrolytic system. According to W-L theory of 1 MeV
LENRs, He-4 production in such systems likely
arises primarily from decay of Be-8. Q-value for
that α-decay is 91.84 keV (~46 keV/He-4).
According Graphic: Nature,He-January 4, 2007
Source of to graph, 445, 4 penetration depth at ~46keV
such low energies would be limited in Pd or C
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Lattice Energy LLC
1999: SRI replication of Case/D2 gas by McKubre et al. - XIII
MeV/He-4 discrepancy in SRI’s replication of Case experiments - VIII
In ion implantation study to right, ~100% of the He-3 ‘beam’ ions will
He- beam’ Source: Plasma-
Source: Book of Abstracts -12th International Workshop on Plasma-
impact ~normal to the surface, insuring maximum penetration depth
depth Facing Materials and Components for Fusion Applications, Jülich,
lich,
in the material. In an LENR experiment, at most ~50% of He-4 (α)
He- (α 11-
Germany, 11-14 May 2009, P 75
particles would be emitted ‘downward’ into substrate; most of such
downward’
emitted particles would traverse the material at angles << 90o “Retention and Surface Pore Formation in Helium-Implanted
Retention Helium-
Nano-Grain Tungsten for Fusion Reactor First-Wall Materials
Nano- First-
As noted in Slide #30, He-4 has “extremely low” solubility in metals,
He- low” and Divertor Plates
diffuses mostly along grain boundaries, and tends to aggressively
aggressively S.J. Zenobiaa and G.L. Kulcinskia
form bubbles or voids, which reduces materials’ mechanical
materials’ The divertor area for plates in Magnetic Fusion Energy reactors and the
strength and promotes breakup under thermomechanical stress first-wall armor for chambers in Inertial Confinement Fusion reactors must
withstand high temperatures and significant radiation damage from D-T
Please see “Lattice Energy LLC Technical Overview” dated June 25,
Overview” plasmas. Nano-grain W combines the high melting point and low sputtering
2009: esp. text and SEM images in Slides # 59, 69, and 72 coefficient of W with a nano-scale grain structure, making it an attractive
material for these applications. Helium retention and surface morphology
Thermomechanical ablation, ‘reworking’ of surface structures, and
reworking’ change were studied as a function of dose and at high temperature, to
simulate most accurately the environment of a fusion reactor.
removal of material in or near ~4000–6000o K nuclear-active LENR
~4000– nuclear-
‘hot spots’ is substantial; unlike He-3 implant study at right, LENR
spots’ He- Nano-grain W samples were implanted with 30 keV 3He ions to fluences of
surfaces are very dynamic, rapidly changing nanoenvironments 1013, 1014 and 1015 He/m2, at temperatures ranging from approximately
1000 to 1150º C. One specimen was implanted with 30 keV 4He ions at
In LENRs, intense near-surface thermomechanical activity would
near- 1000°C to 1016 He/m2. Specimens implanted with 3He+ were analyzed
using 3He(d,p)4He nuclear reaction analysis (NRA) to determine helium
tend to open-up voids in material and attack grain boundaries, thus
open- retention characteristics. Surface and subsurface pore formation was
rapidly releasing any nearby implanted He; residence-time for any
residence- observed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and focused ion beam
implanted He would probably be measured in minutes or hours – (FIB) milling. Physical mass losses from samples were determined using a
microbalance to estimate surface erosion.
perhaps a day – certainly not days or weeks. This is very likely why
Gozzi was unable to detect any occluded He-4 at the detection limit
He- The onset of surface pore formation occurred between approximately 1013
when entire Pd cathode was melted and analyzed post-experiment
post- to 1014 He+/m2, indicating an enhanced threshold for pore formation from
that of standard polycrystalline W. [1,2] SEM analysis showed increasing
pore formation with higher implant fluences, eventually resulting in a coral-
like surface structure (Figure 1a.). FIB analysis revealed the subsurface
penetration depth of the pores also increased with increasing implant dose.
Pores were observed up to approximately 730 nm below the surface of the
Maximum penetration depth for implanted 30 keV He+ nano-grain W (Figure 1b.). NRA yielded a retained helium fluence ranging
ions in W is 730 nm (.73 μm) – note that average depth of from 4.0x1012 to 4.5x1013 He/m2 for samples implanted with 3He. Each
LENR ‘craters’ in Pd/Ag surface is much larger than that
craters’ specimen sustained mass loss [via surface ablation] after implantation,
which was also observed to increase with increased He+ dose.
He is found
in voids [1] S.J. Zenobia and G.L. Kulcinski, Tech. Fusion Energy submitted for
Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007
Post-LENR experiment: SEM image of Pd/Ag Figure 1: (a) coral structure and (b) subsurface pore penetration in nano-grain
publication Sept. 2008
surface structures (Zhang-Dash) tungsten implanted to 1016 He+/m2 at 1000°C [2] R.F. Radel and G.L. Kulcinski, J. Nucl. Mater 367-370 (1), 434 (2007)”
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Lattice Energy LLC
1999: SRI replication of Case/D2 gas by McKubre et al. - XIV
MeV/He-4 discrepancy in SRI’s replication of Case experiments - VIII
It thus appears unlikely that substantial He-4 was See: A. Widom and L. Larsen, “Ultra low momentum
See:
neutron catalyzed nuclear reactions on metallic
somehow bound/sequestered in Pd and C in SRI’s hydride surfaces,” European Physical Journal C –
surfaces,”
Case Pd/C/D replication experiments. That being Particles and Fields 46 pp. 107-111 (2006)
107-
the case, perhaps there is another possibility Note ULMN-catalyzed LENR Lithium network cycle – from
ULMN-
worth considering: to wit, that McKubre et al.’s Eqs. 30-32 in W-L 2006 EPJC paper as follows:
Eqs. 30- W-
original measurements of MeV/He-4 were in fact
Begin 6 Li + n → 7 Li
reasonably accurate and correctly measured. 3 3
ULM
neutron
In particular, what if nuclear processes other than 7 Li + n → 8 Li
captures on
Lithium
“cold” D-D fusion reactions produced the excess 3 3
heat and Helium-4 observed and measured in 8
Li β-decay is largest single energy release in Li cycle
McKubre et al.’s Case Pd/C/D experiments? β−
8 Li ⎯⎯⎯ 8 Be + e- + υ
→ e
3 Qv~16 MeV 4
If so, exactly what were the ‘other reactions’ and α
8 Be ⎯⎯ 4 He + 4 He Low
Return cycle
how well do their predicted products and Q-value → energy
4 Qv~92 keV 2 2 α-decay
energetics (heat) match-up with parameters that
4 He + n → 5 He He is a
were actually measured during the experiments? 2 2 reactant in
this region;
Let us now turn to the Widom-Larsen theory of 5 He + n → 6 He captures
LENRs to see whether it can help shed some light 2 2 neutrons
on these unresolved issues and anomalies
β−
6 He ⎯⎯⎯ 6 Li + e- + υ
Note EPJC of Graphic:and LENR Lithium cycle to right →
Source paper Nature, 445, January 4, 2007 2 3 e
End
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Lattice Energy LLC
1999: SRI replication of Case/D2 gas by McKubre et al. - XV
Widom-Larsen theory explains MeV/He-4 discrepancy in SRI’s experiments - I
We will now utilize W-L to help understand ‘anomalies’ in MeV/He-4 measurements:
Assumptions:
Assumptions:
1.McKubre et al.’s calorimetric measurements of excess heat and mass spectroscopy of gas samples’ He-4 are correct
1.McKubre al.’ samples’ He-
2.Branching ratios for beta-delayed alpha delays can be significantly different in LENR condensed matter systems in
2.Branching beta- condensed
comparison to measurements on fragments in RNB colliders (see discussion of this issue in Slides # 6, 7, 8, and 14)
discussion
3.ULM neutron-catalyzed Carbon cycles can occur in Case Pd/C/D2 LENR systems (see Slides # 11, 12, 14, 16, and 18)
3.ULM neutron-
Experiments: Case Pd/C/D2 System
Type: D2 gas-phase permeation (no current)
gas-
Purpose: measure excess heat and He-4
and He-
Measured value(s): 31 and 32 MeV/He-4 both +/-13 MeV (avg. 31.5)
value(s): MeV/He- +/-
Internal reference: Slides #22, 24, 25 - Item 1
D-D “cold’ fusion predicts: 23.8 MeV/He-4 (per McKubre et al.)
cold’ MeV/He-
Difference (obs. vs. pred.):
(obs. pred.): 7.7 MeV/He-4 (+ 24.4% vs. 31.5)
MeV/He-
W-L theory predicts: ~31.2 MeV/He-4
MeV/He-
Internal reference: Slides #11 and 16 (lower-energy LENR Carbon cycles)
(lower-
Difference (obs. vs. pred.)
(obs. pred.) 0.3 MeV/He-4 (+ 1.0% vs. 31.5)
MeV/He-
Source of Graphic: Nature,W-L’s prediction
Comment: W- January 4, 2007
Comment: 445, has a closer match between theory and experiment
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Lattice Energy LLC
1999: SRI replication of Case/D2 gas by McKubre et al. - XVI
Widom-Larsen theory explains MeV/He-4 discrepancy in SRI’s experiments - II
Refer to Slides #11-12: LENR nucleosynthetic Science journalist Steven Krivit’s e-zine, “New Energy
Krivit’ zine,
network beginning with ULMN capture on stable Times” (NET) has published a number of
Times”
investigative articles about what Krivit calls the “24
Carbon ‘seeds’ – based on applying W-L theory MeV belief” that is still prevalent among many
belief”
members of the “cold fusion” community
fusion”
Assuming W-L theory ULMN captures on Carbon,
In NET Issue #30, October 14, 2008, please see
McKubre at al.’s experimental data suggests that: Sections #16 (“Discussing the 24 MeV Belief with
(“
Peter Hagelstein”) through #22 (“Discussing the 24
Hagelstein” (“
ULM neutron fluxes in Case Pd/C/D2 gas-phase MeV Belief with Melvin Miles”) – pp. 41-51 in both html
Miles” 41-
(no current) system were apparently not high and downloadable pdf versions at:
enough to get beyond C-18; network seems to http://www.newenergytimes.com/v2/news/2008/NE
have spent most of its ‘time’ in the parameter T30-jgk39gh12f.shtml
T30-
space of five possible lower-Qv carbon cycles http://www.newenergytimes.com/v2/news/2008/NE
which together have an average Q-value (heat) T30-jgk39gh12f.pdf
T30-
per He-4 of ~31.2 MeV/He-4 (Slide #16 sidebar) A direct quote from Krivit (SK) is as follows:
(while interviewing Prof. Hagelstein) :
ULMN fluxes apparently were not high enough
for network to produce significant quantities of SK: “Many people in this field have been under the
SK:
impression that the Q from the Fleischmann-Pons
Fleischmann-
nuclear transmutation products on higher-A Pd/D experiment is 24 MeV, unconditionally. But this
side of the Fluorine ‘valley of death’ (Slide #17) is not fact; as you said, it is belief. The fact is that half
a dozen experiments have shown a Q within a factor
It is not necessary to invoke D-D “cold fusion” of two of 24 MeV. Many people within the field, even
and dubious assumptions about He-4 being the leaders of the most recent conference, have stated
publicly that the Q is 24 MeV, unconditionally.”
unconditionally.”
sequestered in Pd or C to explain this data
Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007
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1999: SRI replication of Case/D2 gas by McKubre et al. - XVII
Widom-Larsen theory explains MeV/He-4 discrepancy in SRI’s experiments - III
Continuing selected quotes from NET Issue #30,
Only small fraction of limited number of LENR October 14, 2008 (see source URLs on Slide #35)
experiments that actually measured MeV/He-4 Quoting further from SK’s Hagelstein interview:
SK’
had observed values that were with +/- 20% of
SK: “Peter [Hagelstein], you wrote to me that, "at one of
SK:
“cold” D-D fusion’s prediction of 23.8 MeV; for the early ICCF conferences, ... Gozzi proposed that only
example, see (source: New Energy Times #30): a part of the He-4 was making it to the gas stream.” You
He- stream.”
said, ‘The idea was that the excess heat was produced
SRI International: 31, 38.34, 34.45, 22.85 near the surface but at different distances from the
surface in different bursts, so that more or less of the He-
He-
U.S. Navy - China Lake: 39, 25, 44, 88, 83, 52, 62 4 would make it to the surface’."
surface ’
ENEA - Frascati, Italy: 103, 88, 124, 103, 103 SK: “I have been aware that McKubre has been
SK:
proposing … that only a part of the He-4 is making it to
He-
ENEA – reported at ICCF-12: 27.2, 31.7, 38.1 the gas stream and that the remaining He-4 is being
He-
retained in the bulk, but I had not been aware that Gozzi
He-4 sequestration hypothesis was promoted by was proposing this, also.”
also.”
McKubre/Hagelstein et al. to explain the large SK: “I responded to your comment by contacting
SK:
range and variance in MeV/He-4 measurements Danielle Gozzi. He said your ‘statement is wrong.’ ‘Since
Gozzi. wrong.’
He-4 was found only in the gas phase,’ Gozzi wrote, ‘we
He - phase,’
Question: if He-4 sequestration in Pd and/or C is are obliged to state that it was generated on the surface
or, maybe, in the layers just below the surface’.”
surface’
erroneous, then what can explain wide variance?
SK: “Gozzi also provided his Journal of Electroanalytical
SK:
Answer: these results are consistent with a wide Chemistry paper and said that …In his paper, Gozzi also
states that he melted the [Pd] cathode and found no He-
He-
variety of nuclear reactions that may occur in 4 in the material at the detection limit.”
limit.”
parallel in complex, time-varying nucleosynthetic
Thus, Gozzi does not concur with Hagelstein and
networks; some paths 445, January 4,42007 some do not
Source of Graphic: Nature,
produce He, McKubre’s theorized sequestration of He-4 in Pd
McKubre’ He-
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Lattice Energy LLC
1999: SRI replication of Case/D2 gas by McKubre et al. - XVIII
Widom-Larsen theory explains MeV/He-4 discrepancy in SRI’s experiments - IV
Let us revisit the unexplained anomaly of declines in He-4 LENR Lithium Cycle
concentrations in analyzed gas samples that were clearly 6 Li + n → 7 Li ULM
observed in experiments SC2 and SC4.2 (please see Fig. 12 3 3 neutron
captures on
in Slide #23 and Item 2 in Slide #25) 7 Li + n → 8 Li Lithium
3 3 ‘Escape’ could
McKubre/Hagelstein et al. correctly ruled-out some sort of
vessel leakage as the source of this particular anomaly β − occur right here
8 Li ⎯⎯⎯ 8 Be + e- + υ
→
3 4 e
McKubre/Hagelstein et al. then proposed that ad- or ab-
α
8 Be ⎯⎯ 4 He + 4 He Low α-
sorption in Pd and/or C was responsible for decline; we →
Return cycle
energy
have shown how that explanation appears to be incorrect 4 2 2 decay
(see Slides # 28–32; 34-35); so, what caused He-4 decline? 4 He + n → 5 He He is a
2 2 reactant in
this region;
Answer: see McKubre et al.’s Fig. 12 - anomalous declines 5 He + n → 6 He captures
only began after He-4 concentration in D2 gas had exceeded 2 2 neutrons
9 ppm beyond Day 15 of experiments. Based on W-L theory
of LENRs, one could speculate that He-4 concentration in β−
6 He ⎯⎯⎯ 6 Li + e- + υ
vessel gas could have finally gotten high enough so that → e
2 3
He-4 atoms were more frequently ‘hitting’ LENR-active
sites, capturing ULM neutrons, and being transmuted into There are different LENR nucleosynthetic
pathways that could serve as potential ‘escape
Lithium via reaction paths to right. Like LENR carbon routes’ from Li cycle – here is but one of them:
routes’
cycles, Li cycle is also ‘leaky’- i.e., nuclei can ‘escape’ from β−
8 Li + n → 9 Li ⎯⎯⎯ 9 Be (stable)
→
it into Source of Graphic: Nature,-445,isotopes
regions of higher A January 4, 2007 3 3 4
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Commercializing a Next-Generation Source of Safe Nuclear Energy
Review and discussion of LENR experiments - II
Primarily non-metallic Carbon substrates hosting nuclear-active sites
1994: Texas A&M carbon-arc/H2O; Bockris and Sundaresan
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Lattice Energy LLC
1994: Texas A&M experiments with carbon-arcs in H2O - I
Sundaresan & Bockris decide to repeat Oshawa’s 1965 experiments
Employing somewhat strange scientific logic, in “George Oshawa’s Transmutation Experiments,”
Oshawa’ Experiments,”
mid-1960s a little-known Japanese scientist by the East-West Institute Magazine (March 1965)
East-
name of George Oshawa conducted a series of Citing Oshawa, Sundaresan and Bockris ultimately
Oshawa,
experiments with electric arcs between pure published their experimental results in a refereed
carbon rods immersed in ordinary water in which publication of the American Nuclear Society (ANS) –
please see:
he claimed to have transmuted Carbon (C) into
“Anomalous reactions during arcing between
Iron (Fe). Unable to explain the seemingly bizarre carbon rods in water,” R. Sundaresan and J. O’M.
water,” O’
experimental results, he could not get his paper Bockris, Fusion Technology 26 pp. 261 – 265 1994
accepted by any refereed journal and was forced Note: this journal has since changed its name to
Note:
to publish it indirectly in a rather obscure venue “Fusion Science and Technology”
Technology”
Around that time, Bockris became embroiled in the
Oshawa’s work was essentially forgotten until huge, still ongoing controversy surrounding “cold
ca. 1992-1993, when John Bockris, a well-known fusion” and work in the area that he was pursuing at
fusion”
electrochemist and Professor of Chemistry at Texas A&M. He relates the tangled tale of that saga in
a general science article:
Texas A&M University, and R. Sundaresan, then a
visiting scientist at Texas A&M from the Bhabha J. O’M. Bockris,“Accountability and academic
O’ Bockris,“
freedom – the battle concerning research on cold
Atomic Research Center (BARC) in India, became fusion at Texas A&M University,” Accountability
University,”
aware of it. They decided to collaborate and repeat in Research 8 pp. 103-117 2000
103-
the carbon-arc transmutation experiments It can be found online at: http://www.lenr-
http://www.lenr-
canr.org/acrobat/BockrisJaccountabi.pdf
Reference to Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007is to right
Source of Oshawa’s 1965 paper
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Lattice Energy LLC
1994: Texas A&M experiments with carbon-arcs in H2O - II
Texas A&M repeated Oshawa’s work – measured Fe transmutation product
Details of Sundaresan & Bockris’ 14 experiments were published in
Fusion Technology paper cited on previous slide
Took extraordinary care to assay, control, and understand initial
composition of materials inside the experimental apparatus,
particularly with respect to presence of any Fe impurities or other
contaminants: e.g., used 6.14 mm diameter 30 cm long Johnson-
Matthey AGKSP grade, ultra F purity Carbon rods (Fe impurities
verified as 2.03 ppm); started-out with distilled tap water with Fe
content of 20 ppb, then purified it even further by passing it thru
Millipore-Q ion-exchange columns until resistivity was 13 MΩ – then
purified it even further; vessel containing water and C rods was
Pyrex glass (see composition to right) trough vessel, etc. Texas A&M Experimental Apparatus
Source: 1994 Fusion Technology paper
Experimental set-up was straightforward: apparatus consisted of two
J-M Carbon (graphite) rods immersed in ordinary water (H2O). Next, a Composition of Pyrex Glass
DC electric current (depending on the experiment, ranging from 12 – Source: NIST http://physics.nist.gov
http://physics.nist.gov
25 A at 10 V) was turned-on and periodically arced between cathode Atomic number Fraction by weight
and the anode for 1 – 10 hours. During course of each experiment rod 5- Boron-B 0.040064
positions were periodically adjusted; arcing was occasionally 8- Oxygen-O 0.539562
stopped for a time to allow water to cool-down. At end of an 11-Sodium-Na 0.028191
experiment, power was turned-off. Carbon debris lying on the bottom 13-Aluminum-Al 0.011644
of Pyrex trough was then collected, dried, and analyzed for the 14-Silicon-Si 0.377220
presence of FeGraphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007method
Source of
by a spectrophotometric 19-Potassium-K 0.003321
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Lattice Energy LLC
1994: Texas A&M experiments with carbon-arcs in H2O - III
Table IV - extracted from 1994 Fusion Technology Paper
Note: apologies for tilting of the image
Note:
Source : Anomalous reactions during arcing between carbon rods in water,”
water,
R. Sundaresan and J. O’M. Bockris, Fusion Technology 26 1994 pp. 264
O’
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Lattice Energy LLC
1994: Texas A&M experiments with carbon-arcs in H2O - IV
Discussion and comments on results of Texas A&M experiments - I
No Fe in Pyrex vessel walls. Only possible sources of Fe contamination were
from ultrapure C rods, ultrapure H2O, and/or laboratory air (very unlikely): from a
material science standpoint, experiments were very well characterized.
Possibility of any rogue Fe contamination was minimized as much as possible
Sundaresan & Bockris estimated that the total initial pre-experiment quantity of
Fe contained in each ultrapure Carbon rod ranged from 20 - 40 μg
Of the total of 14 experiments conducted, some of their reported results were
much more conclusive than others
In particular, please see Table IV from their paper (shown in previous slide):
Electrode 2 – quantity of Iron found in Carbon detritus after 3 hrs measured 22.8
μg; Electrode 3 – quantity of Iron found after 10 hrs measured 39.9 μg
Majority of both carbon rods remained fully intact at the conclusion of every
experiment. For the quantity of Fe observed in C detritus at those times in these
two particular experiments to be result of Fe migration from rods rather than
being a nuclear transmutation product would require that most if not all of the
pre-experiment Iron contained in one or both rods must have somehow diffused
and migrated out thru rod tips to end-up in detritus found at the bottom of the
Pyrex vessel; by any reasonable standard, such an event would appear unlikely
Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007
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Lattice Energy LLC
1994: Texas A&M experiments with carbon-arcs in H2O - V
Discussion and comments on results of Texas A&M’s experiments - II
Hoping to explain the Fe transmutation anomaly that had been observed in
their experiments, Sundaresan & Bockris speculated that some type of
nuclear fusion reaction had occurred, to wit: 2 6C12 + 2 8O18 26Fe56 + 2He4
Under the experimental conditions found in high-current carbon arcs, fusion
reactions between Carbon and Oxygen nuclei as shown in above equation
are highly improbable; such heavy ions have even higher Coulomb barriers
than D-D or D-T fusion reactions. Their explanation for the observed nuclear
process was, in the context of W-L theory, incorrect
In Section IV. “Discussion” on pages 264-265, S&B discussed possibility that
they had probably observed nuclear heat production in the form of an
‘excessive’ increase in measured temperature of water in Pyrex reaction
vessel during experiments. Unfortunately, their quantitative measurements
of input energy and related ongoing heat production during experiments
were relatively crude and incomplete. That being the case, Sundaresan &
Bockris’ discussion of energetics was highly speculative and not at all
quantitatively definitive with regard to elucidating potential reaction
mechanisms and nucleosynthetic pathways. Nonetheless, if their observed
Fe was truly a transmutation product, there is little doubt that significant
amounts of excess heat were produced during the carbon-arc experiments
Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007
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Lattice Energy LLC
1994: Texas A&M experiments with carbon-arcs in H2O - VI
Final comments on results of Texas A&M’s experiments - III
Conclusion: it appears likely that Fe was produced as a nuclear transmutation product
arising from Carbon ‘seed nuclei’ that were present at the beginning of Sundaresan &
Bockris’ carbon-arc experiments with well-characterized materials
Tip-off that W-L theoretical mechanism was involved: following Oshawa, S&B verified that
anomalous Fe production did not occur when liquid H2O was replaced with Nitrogen gas.
Believing that the nuclear process in carbon-arcs was C-O fusion, they thought absence
of Oxygen had prevented fusion reactions; Sundaresan & Bockris did not realize what
was really needed were the protons found in water (e + p n + υ)
Difference: unlike previously discussed Case Pd/C/D replications conducted at SRI by
McKubre et al., neither Palladium (Pd) nor any other noble metal was present in
significant quantities in S&B’s experimental system; appreciable amounts of Deuterium
(D) were also absent from the Texas A&M carbon-arc H2O experiments
Key questions: was a higher-A extension of the carbon-seed LENR ULMN-catalyzed
nucleosynthetic network shown in Slides #11–12 also operating in S&B’s carbon-arc
experimental system? Can the Widom-Larsen theory of LENRs explain anomalous Fe
production that occurs in carbon-arc light water experiments --- if so, exactly how?
Answer: yes to all - in the next section we will discuss very similar experiments that were
conducted at BARC (India) at around the same time (importantly, they obtained the same
results as S&B) and illustrate one of a large number of possible LENR ULMN-driven
nucleosynthetic pathways that can explain the observed Fe and other transmutation
products comfortably 445, January 4, 2007
Source of Graphic: Nature, within the overall framework of W-L theory
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Lattice Energy LLC
Commercializing a Next-Generation Source of Safe Nuclear Energy
Review and discussion of LENR experiments - III
Primarily non-metallic Carbon substrates hosting nuclear-active sites
1994: BARC carbon-arc/H2O; Singh et al.
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Lattice Energy LLC
1994: BARC experiments with carbon-arcs in H2O - I
BARC (India) conducts experiments very similar to those at Texas A&M
References: “Verification of the George Oshawa
References:
Details of Singh et al.’s experiments were published experiment for anomalous production of iron from
in 1994 Fusion Technology paper cited to right Carbon arc in water,” M. Singh, M. Saksena, V.
water,” Saksena,
Dixit, and V. Kartha, Fusion Technology 26 pp. 266
Dixit, Kartha,
Like S&B, also took great care to assay, control, and – 270 1994
try to understand the initial composition of materials Note: this refereed ANS journal has since changed its
Note:
inside their experimental apparatus, especially with name to “Fusion Science and Technology”
Technology”
respect to presence of any Fe impurities or other
BARC is an acronym for the famous Bhabha Atomic
contaminants: e.g., used 6.0 mm dia., 30 cm long Research Center in Bombay, India; it is a government
Ultra Carbon Corporation ultra-high-purity Carbon nuclear laboratory akin to a cross between Los Alamos
rods (Fe impurities certified at < 2 ppm); also used and Sandia in the US. For more information, please see
Wikipedia article:
ultrapure deionized water (H2O) in experiments
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhabha_Atomic_Resear
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhabha_Atomic_Resear
DC electric current (depending on experiment, ch_Centre
ranged from 10 A up to 28 A at 30 - 35 V) was turned- From 1989 through ca.1995 when all Indian R&D in
on and periodically arced between cathode and the LENRs was deliberately stopped, BARC scientists had
reported many interesting results. Much of the early
anode for total arcing times of 1- 20 hours. During BARC work thru late 1989 can be found in:
each experiment rod positions were adjusted; arcing
“BARC Studies in Cold Fusion,” P.K. Iyengar and
Fusion,”
was occasionally stopped for a time to allow water M. Srinivsan, eds., Gov’t of India, Atomic Energy
Srinivsan, Gov’
bath cool-down. At the end of an experiment, power Commission, December 1989 (153 pages – 30 MB)
was turned-off. Carbon debris lying on the bottom of Which can be downloaded online from NET at:
Pyrex trough was collected, dried, and analyzed for http://www.newenergytimes.com/v2/archives/1989B
presence of of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007
Source
Fe by a spectrographic method ARC1500Report/1500.shtml
September 3, 2009
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1994: BARC experiments with carbon-arcs in H2O - II
Abstract and Fig. 1 from paper by Singh et al. in Fusion Technology 26 (1994)
Source: Fusion Technology 26 pp. 267 (1994)
Source:
Please note similarity with carbon-arc
carbon-
apparatus used by Sundaresan and
Bockris as shown in Slide #40
Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007
Source: Fusion Technology 26 pp. 266 (1994)
Source:
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Lattice Energy LLC
1994: BARC experiments with carbon-arcs in H2O - III
Table I from paper by Singh et al. in Fusion Technology 26 (1994)
Note: apologies for tilting of the image
Note:
Source: Fusion Technology 26 pp. 268 (1994)
Source:
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Lattice Energy LLC
1994: BARC experiments with carbon-arcs in H2O - IV
Table III from paper by Singh et al. in Fusion Technology 26 (1994)
Note: apologies for tilting of the image
Note:
Source: Fusion Technology 26 pp. 270 (1994)
Source:
Composition of Pyrex Glass
Source: NIST http://physics.nist.gov
http://physics.nist.gov Please note: Experiments #1 – 3 used demineralized rather
note:
Atomic number Fraction by weight
than deionized H2O (see previous Slide). Reaction vessel is
composed of Pyrex glass, which does contain Boron,
5- Boron-B 0.040064
8- Oxygen-O 0.539562
Oxygen, Sodium, Aluminum, Silicon, and Potassium.
11-Sodium-Na 0.028191 However, Pyrex does not contain Nickel or Chromium, nor
13-Aluminum-Al 0.011644 are those elements present in appreciable quantities in the
14-Silicon-Si 0.377220 carbon rods, demineralized or deionized water, or air prior to
Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007
19-Potassium-K 0.003321 the beginning of the carbon-arc experiments of Singh et al.
carbon-
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1994: BARC experiments with carbon-arcs in H2O - V
Discussion of Singh et al.’s carbon-arc experiments at BARC - I
In their experimental procedures, Singh et al. also took “No phenomenon is a real phenomenon until it is an
observed phenomenon.”
phenomenon.”
extraordinary precautions to try to eliminate and/or control
potential sources of elemental contamination that could “If you haven't found something strange during the
day, it hasn't been much of a day.
create ‘false positives’ in their assays for presence of
John Wheeler, coined term “black hole” in 1967
hole”
potential LENR transmutation products
"These are very deep waters."
Please see Table III shown on the previous slide. Note that Sherlock Holmes, “The Adventure of the
under the stated experimental conditions, from a chemical Speckled Band” (1892)
Band”
reactivity perspective it is unlikely that significant amounts
"It is a capital mistake to theorize before one has
of Boron, Oxygen, Sodium, Silicon, Aluminum, and/or data. Insensibly one begins to twist facts to suit
Potassium ‘leached-out’ of the Pyrex glass into the water and theories, instead of theories to suit facts."
were then subsequently ad/absorbed into the Carbon Sherlock Holmes, “A Scandal in Bohemia” (1891)
Bohemia”
detritus that collected at bottom of the reaction vessel. For
the moment, let us simply put those elements aside in “There is nothing as deceptive as an obvious fact.”
fact.”
deference to the most die-hard skeptics of LENRs. However, Sherlock Holmes, “The Boscombe Valley
Mystery,” (1891)
Mystery,”
what remains are Nickel and Chromium - in significant
quantities no less “Facts do not cease to exist because they are
ignored.”
ignored.”
At the beginning of their experiments, there was no Aldous Huxley, “Proper Studies” (1927)
Studies”
appreciable Ni and/or Cr present in the Carbon rods, water,
“ … when you have eliminated the impossible,
Pyrex vessel, or in the laboratory air. Unless their whatever remains, however improbable, must be the
spectrographic analyses were erroneous, only remaining truth.”
truth.”
possibility isof Graphic: and Cr were transmutation products
Source
that Ni Nature, 445, January 4, 2007 Sherlock Holmes, “The Sign of the Four,” (1890)
Four,”
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1994: BARC experiments with carbon-arcs in H2O - VI
Discussion of Singh et al.’s carbon-arc experiments at BARC - II
While production of Ni and Cr appear to constitute harder-to-argue-with scientific
evidence for the occurrence of nuclear transmutations, Fe mass balances observed and
measured in Singh et al.’s BARC experiments also support the conclusion
Please see data in Table I on Slide #48. Their analysis of experimental data (pp. 269) was
as follows: each ultrapure Carbon rod had a measured mass in grams at the start of a
given experiment. Column 5 in Table I, “Amount of Carbon Consumed (g)” is a C rod’s
initial mass minus its carefully measured mass at the end of an experiment. The mass of
carbonaceous material collected as particulate debris found at the bottom of the Pyrex
reaction vessel at end of an experiment is shown in column 6, “Carbon Residue Collected
(mg).” In column 7, “Carbon collected (%)”, the mass of carbon residue divided by the
mass of carbon consumed is expressed as a %. Results of the spectrographic analysis of
the collected residue with respect to Fe concentration expressed in parts per million
(ppm) are shown in column 8, “Iron Concentration in Residue (ppm).” The total mass of
Fe impurities estimated to be present in the entire volume of water in the vessel (see
footnotes d and e in Table III) and the total mass of Fe estimated to be present as an
impurity in the entire portion of a carbon rod that was consumed during an experiment
(column 5) are shown in column 9, “Iron Content in Blank (μg) Water/Carbon.”
Subtracting the total mass of Fe impurities estimated in column 9 from the total mass of
Fe measured spectrographically in the residue (column 8) allowed them to calculate the
total mass of anomalous Iron produced in an experiment in column 10, “Excess Iron
Content in Residue (μg).” Lastly, column 10 shows the, “Excess iron in Residue per Gram
of Carbon Consumed (ppm)”
Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007
August 10, 2009
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1994: BARC experiments with carbon-arcs in H2O - VII
Discussion of Singh et al.’s carbon-arc experiments at BARC - III
Ultrapure carbon rods:
rods:
Estimates of excess iron content found in carbonaceous debris that Carbon/graphite rods virtually
were produced during BARC experiments would appear to be identical to those used in these
relatively conservative (column 10 in Table I on pp. 268 of Singh et experiments are still readily
al.’s Fusion Technology paper). That being the case, unless there available for interested LENR
experimentalists
were incredibly large systematic errors in measurements of masses,
Ted Pella, Inc. of Redding, CA
it is hard to imagine anything other than nuclear transmutations that has them available for sale on
could possibly have produced the observed experimental data its company website at:
http://www.tedpella.com/carb
In the case of BARC experiments # 1 – 3, production of anomalous on_html/carbon1.htm
“excess iron” occurred in parallel with production of significant
Their physical characteristics
amounts of anomalous Ni and Cr, neither of which were present in are as follows:
any materials within the apparatus at the beginning of experiments.
Density: 2.2 gm cm-3
By any reasonable standard, simultaneous production of all three Melting Point: around 3550°C
3550°
anomalous elemental products within less than six hours of arcing in Evaporation Temp.: 2400°C
2400°
apparatus containing compositionally well-characterized materials "Spec-pure”:
"Spec- pure”
appears to be strong experimental evidence for operation of LENR (spectroscopically pure) grade is
nucleosynthetic transmutation pathways, to wit: C Cr Fe Ni available for carbon (graphite)
rods with impurities equal or
Since some experiments were not covered, could atmospheric dust less than 2ppm (single element
1 ppm or less)
have somehow contaminated the water in the Pyrex vessel and thus
produced all of these anomalous results? Maybe, but that idea Prod. # 61 – 15: Carbon Rods,
Grade 1 Spec-Pure, 1/4" x 12"
Spec-
stretches reason even further than 2007 possibility of transmutations
Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, the
(6.2 x 304 mm) pkg/12 $54.30
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1994: BARC experiments with carbon-arcs in H2O - VIII
Discussion of Singh et al.’s carbon-arc experiments at BARC - IV
Experimental error: Singh et al. estimated the experimental error in their spectrographic
measurements of ppm concentrations of detected elements (e.g., Fe) for which they had standards
and calibration curves as +/- 15% to 20%. In the case of experiments #1 - #4 (Table I - Fe
concentration in carbon debris residue in ppm: 2000, 1000, 2000, and 450, respectively) ppm
concentrations of Fe were large enough so that even a worst-case 20% measurement error would
not alter the conclusion that anomalous Fe had been observed
Mass spectroscopy analysis of anomalous iron: In Table II on pp. 269 Singh et al. show results of
mass spectroscopic analysis of Fe isotopes in the anomalous iron found in carbonaceous
particulate debris at the bottom of the Pyrex reaction vessel. Observed Fe isotope ratios shown in
Table II were unremarkable in that they did not differ significantly from natural terrestrial
abundances. In context of ULM neutron-catalyzed LENRs a la W-L theory, this result is not
surprising. Fe’s natural abundance values are end-result of a composite of several episodes of
neutron-catalyzed r-/s-process nucleosynthesis occurring over billions of years; they reflect
Nature’s ‘optimization’ of element nucleosynthesis. A priori, why should LENRs be different?
Irrefutable fact: prosaic chemical processes cannot produce nuclear transmutations in any type of
closed experimental system; elements previously absent do not just suddenly appear
Conclusion: again, as the fictional Sherlock Holmes said, “When you have eliminated the
impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth.” Based on our reanalysis of
their data in the context of the W-L theory of LENRs, the most reasonable explanation is that both
Sundaresan & Bockris and Singh et al. probably observed LENR nuclear transmutations in their ca.
1994 carbon-arc experimentsJanuary 4, 2007
Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, at Texas A&M and BARC
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1994: BARC experiments with carbon-arcs in H2O - IX
BARC/Texas A&M transmutation results in light of W-L theory of LENRs
We will now apply W-L theory to help shed some light on the experimental transmutation
results of Bockris & Sundaresan and Singh et al.
First, we will sketch-out a W-L LENR ULM neutron-catalyzed nucleosynthetic network
pathway that could produce the observed transmutation products from C-seed nuclei
Please note that this W-L-based theoretical path illustrates only one of a multitude of
energetically viable potential pathways that could produce the observed carbon-arc
transmutation product results; uncovering all the fine details of everything that may have
really happened in the experiments would require exhaustive assays and isotopic
analyses of all detectable nuclear products as well as computerized network codes that
can mimic reaction dynamics of an LENR network as it evolves over time. Unfortunately,
neither the detailed data nor the computer codes are presently available to assist us
Nonetheless, it is hoped that this illustrative model network pathway will demonstrate the
plausibility of producing the observed transmutation products in the amount of reaction
time available under experimental conditions that occur in H2O carbon-arcs
Last, we will propose a new hypothesis to answer a question posed on Slide #44: in the
absence of hydride-forming metals such as Pd or Ti inside the carbon-arc apparatus, can
the Widom-LarsenNature, 445, January 4, 2007 still explain the observed experimental results?
Source of Graphic: theory of LENRs
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1994: BARC experiments with carbon-arcs in H2O - X
LENR nucleosynthetic pathway from Carbon to Iron begins with C-20
Note: this illustrative model path begins at C-20 in carbon-seed LENR network shown on Slide #12
15.8 18.0 3.8 3.7 22.3 4.4 48.7 26
6C-20 7N-20 8O-20 9F-20 10Ne-20 10Ne-23 11Na-23 11Na-37
HL= 16 msec β- HL=130 msec β- HL= 13.5 sec β- HL= 11.2 sec β- Stable 90.5% +3n HL= 37.2 sec β- Stable 100% +14n HL= 1 msec β-
26 19.3 16.5 12.4 7.9 4.9 44.9 12.4 3.1
12Mg-37 13Al-37 14Si-37 15P-37 16S-37 17Cl-37 17Cl-44 18Ar-44
β- HL=40 msec β- HL=20 msec β- HL=90 msec β- HL= 2.3 sec β- HL=5.1 min β- Stable 24.2% +7n HL=560 msec HL=11.9 min β-
β-
3.1 5.7 69.1 11.8 13.7 7.1 9.2 1.6 3.7
19K-44 20Ca-44 20Ca-56 21Sc-56 22Ti-56 23V-56 24Cr-56 25Mn-56
β- HL=22.1 min β- Stable 2.1% +12n HL=10 msec β- HL= 80 msec β- HL=164 msec β- HL=216 msec β- HL=5.9 min β- HL=2.6 hrs β-
3.7 46.8 2.5 5.3
26Fe-56 26Fe-62 27Co-62 28Ni-62 Network can Note large size of Q-values for β- decays of: N-20 (18 MeV),
Q- N-
Stable 91.8% +6n HL=1.1 min β- HL=1.5 min β- Stable 3.6% continue Na-37 (26 MeV), Mg-37 (19.3 MeV), and Al-37 (16.5 MeV)
Na- Mg- Al-
β-
Total ‘gross’ Qv from C-20 thru Fe-56= 385.7 MeV
gross’ C- Fe-
Legend:
Sum of HLs from C-20 thru Fe-56 = ~3.4 hrs
C- Fe-
Q-
All reactions proceed from left to right; Q-value for a given reaction or for a group of neutron Comments:
Comments:
captures is in MeV and is located on top of the blue or green horizontal arrows
horizontal
Stable nuclei produced by this particular reaction pathway
Beta decays are denoted with a dark blue horizontal arrow; ULM neutron captures are denoted
neutron typically have high natural abundances, e.g., Ne, Na, Fe
Ne,
with dark green horizontal arrow – if more than one ULM neutron is captured, the total number of
neutrons being captured by the isotope is indicated below the green arrow
green half- C- Fe-
Sum of half-lives from C-20 to Fe-56 is a little more than
half-
three hours; isotope with the longest half-life is just before
Stable isotopes (incl. % abundance) indicated by green colored boxes; unstable isotopes
boxes; Fe-56: Mn-56, which is the key ‘gateway isotope’ in this
Fe- Mn- isotope’
half-
indicated by purplish colored boxes; when measured, half-lives are shown as “HL = xx”
xx” nucleosynthetic path. Practically, this means that: (a)
Fe-
some Fe-56 will be synthesized within an hour or so after
W-
Gamma emissions not shown; per W-L theory, they are automatically converted directly into ULM neutron production begins; and (b) within 5 – 6 hours
begins;
infrared by heavy SPP electrons; β-delayed decays also not shown (neutron emissions into local after ULMN production ends (for whatever reason), many
continuum tend to be suppressed because of density of occupied fermionic states)
fermionic reaction products will have decayed into stable isotopes
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1994: BARC experiments with carbon-arcs in H2O - XI
LENR nucleosynthetic pathway from Carbon to Iron
Comments:
Unlike SRI Case replications, ULM neutron fluxes in high-current carbon-arc experiments
were high enough to pass through Fluorine ‘valley of death’ (i.e., >1010 ULMNs cm2/sec)
Please recognize that this model example represents but one of many possible LENR
nucleosynthetic pathways from Carbon to Iron; final product results observed in a given
experiment al run reflect a sum total across many parallel alternate reaction paths
ULM neutron production occurs near the carbon rod tips and on nanoparticles floating in the
water in regions of high currents and electric fields that form between the two C rods; once a
particular piece of matter leaves such a region, neutron production stops quickly. Detritus
lying on the bottom of a reaction vessel is simply undergoing radioactive decays
If the data of Sundaresan & Bockris and Singh et al. are correct, the only way that Iron can be
produced from Carbon that quickly (becoming analytically detectable within an hour or two)
is via nucleosynthetic paths that involve extremely neutron-rich isotopes
Model pathway on the previous slide clearly illustrates how LENRs can release a great deal of
energy in the form of heat without producing deadly gammas or long-lived radioactive
isotopes. In that example, the nucleosynthetic path releases ~386 MeV - almost twice the
energy of a fission reaction (~190 MeV) slowly over a period of hours
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Commercializing a Next-Generation Source of Safe Nuclear Energy
Are LENRs connected with
hydrogenated fullerenes and graphene?
Where nuclear science meets chemistry?
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Are LENRS connected with hydrogenated fullerenes? - I
How might W-L theory operate in the absence of hydride-forming metals?
Let us recall how W-L theory ‘works’ on surfaces of hydride-forming metals, e.g.,
Pd, Ni, Ti. Specifically, triggering LENRs requires (for details please see our 2006
EPJC paper):
Many-body ‘films’ consisting of collections of collectively oscillating electrons – they
consist of surface plasmon polariton electrons (SPPs) on metallic surfaces
Many-body collections (‘patches’) of collectively oscillating light hydrogenous atoms –
comprise protons, deuterons, or tritons found within many-body ‘patches’ located on
surfaces of highly hydrogen-loaded metallic hydrides, e.g., Pd, Ni, Ti
Breakdown of Born-Oppenheimer approximation – this enables mutual coupling and
energy transfers between quantum mechanically ‘entangled’ patches of collectively
oscillating hydrogenous atoms and nearby ‘entangled’ SPP electrons
Energy inputs to produce fluxes of ‘catalytic’ ULM neutrons – types of energy inputs that
can couple effectively with many-body, collectively-coherently oscillating condensed
matter hydrogen-electron systems include: ion fluxes, electric currents, laser photons,
and magnetic fields, among others
Answering the question reduces to whether carbon-arc systems contain or readily
synthesize carbon-based structures that have: collective surface electron
oscillations that are analogous to SPPs; surfaces that can support collectively
oscillating patches of 445, January 4, 2007 atoms; and breakdown of Born-Oppenheimer
Source of Graphic: Nature,
hydrogenous
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Are LENRS connected with hydrogenated fullerenes? - II
Can hydrogenated fullerene/graphene structures replace metals in LENRs?
Bushmaker et al., “Direct observation of Born-
Born-
Hypothesis: π electrons that are found on surfaces of planar Oppenheimer approximation breakdown in carbon
graphene or curvilinear fullerene carbon structures oscillate nanotubes” in Nano Letters 9 (2) pp. 607-611 Feb.
nanotubes” 607-
11, 2009
collectively, just like SPP electrons on metals; hydrogen atoms
In ref. [9] this fullerene thermochemical synthesis paper
(protons) sticking ‘above’ surfaces of hydrogenated graphene actually cites S&B’s 1994 Fusion Technology article
S&B’
and/or fullerenes also oscillate collectively, thus forming many- that has been discussed herein:
body ‘patches’ analogous to those that form on the surfaces of Lange et al., “Nanocarbon production by arc
hydrogen-loaded metals; and, Born-Oppenheimer approximation discharge in water,” Carbon 41 pp. 1617-1623 2003
water,” 1617-
breaks down on graphene and fullerene surfaces Hydrogenation of various carbon structures could
potentially occur in the environment of carbon-arcs in
carbon-
Present evidence for the above hypothesis: is as follows H2O. In that regard, synthesis of hydrogenated
graphene (graphane) was first reported this year:
(graphane)
If the above hypothesis were true, it would readily explain Elias et al., “Control of graphene’s properties by
graphene’
experimental results of ca. 1994 carbon-arc in H2O experiments
carbon- reversible hydrogenation: evidence for graphane,”
graphane,
Science 323 pp. 610-613 2009
610-
Born-Oppenheimer is now known to break down on surfaces of
Born-
In 2008, Tadahiko Mizuno, a well known Japanese
fullerene structures (directly observed in 2009 paper at right)
LENR researcher, for the first time published direct
experimental evidence that LENRs can occur on
Fullerenes/nanotubes are synthesized in carbon-arcs; S & B and
Fullerenes/nanotubes carbon- carbon structures. If his surprising results can be
Singh et al. were unaware of this fact (2003 paper cited at right)
right) confirmed by other researchers, it would appear to
imply that LENRs can potentially occur on other types
Carbon isotope anomalies, excess heat, and low-level gamma
low- of carbon structures such as phenanthrene - polycyclic
emissions reported during phenanthrene hydrogenation (right) aromatic hydrocarbon with three fused benzene rings
Mizuno, “Anomalous heat generation during the
Need for future experimentation: clearly, a large number of new hydrogenation of phenanthrene,” results
phenanthrene,”
experiments would be required to fully investigate and validate presented at ICCF-14 conference, Washington, DC,
ICCF-
this newSource of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4,-2007
conjecture regarding carbon based LENR systems in August 2008 See: http://www.lenr-
http://www.lenr-
canr.org/acrobat/MizunoTanomaloushb.pdf
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Are LENRS connected with hydrogenated fullerenes? - III
Hydrogenated fullerenes/graphene: where nuclear science meets chemistry?
Tip-off: Lange et al. (2003 - cited on
Tip- The following related papers are also interesting:
previous slide) published some
fascinating data, including what may be a Subrahmanyam et al., “Simple method of preparing
large thermal anomaly in their carbon-arc
carbon- graphene flakes by an arc-discharge method,”
arc- method,”
experiments. Quoting: Journal pf Physical Chemistry 113 pp. 4257-4259
4257-
2009
“… the presence of atomic hydrogen … appears to be a
new feature … Meanwhile, the discharge was Alternative methods for hydrogenation of graphene to
accompanied by very strong and wide continuum
radiation covering the visible and UV range.”
range.” synthesize graphane are discussed in:
“The average plasma temperature in the water was Luo et al., “Thickness-dependent reversible
Thickness-
quite high, ca. 4000 – 6500 K. The obtained hydrogenation of graphene layers,” ACSNano 3 pp.
layers,”
temperatures for doped electrodes were within the same 1781-1788 2009
1781-
range. For the same of comparison, a reference test
was carried out in He [gas] under atmospheric pressure
and the same discharge conditions (40A and 21 V) News story about the first synthesis of graphane:
graphane:
[around 800W]. The obtained temperatures were ca.
800W].
1500 K lower than for discharge in water. Even at higher “Scientists discover ground-breaking material:
ground-
arc power input (>2 kW) in He the temperatures are still Graphane,” Physorg.com January 30, 2009
Graphane,
a few hundred degrees lower. It is apparent that the
higher plasma temperature in water results from “The Manchester researchers produced high-quality
high-
bubbles, which are small in number and volume, leading crystals of graphane by exposing pristine graphene to
to high energy density.”
density.” “Versatile graphene: When a
atomic hydrogen.”
hydrogen.” highly conductive graphene sheet
“Meanwhile, reactions among carbon, hydrogen, and is exposed to hydrogen atoms
hydrogen are highly exothermic. Under atmospheric From: http://www.physorg.com/news152545648.html
(white), they attach to the carbon
pressure, the degree of dissociation of water into atomic
atoms (black), transforming the
oxygen and hydrogen is higher than 99% at ca. 5000K.”
5000K.” Here is an earlier theoretical reference in which they “… material into graphane, an
graphane,
predict the stability of an extended two-dimensional
two- insulator. This is the first evidence
Interesting parallel and perhaps not just a hydrocarbon on the basis of first-principles total-energy
first- total- that graphene’s properties can be
graphene’
coincidence: 4000 – 6500 K is about the
coincidence: calculations.”:
calculations.” manipulated chemically. Credit: P.
same temperature range as LENR nuclear-
nuclear- Huey/Science 323 2009”2009”
active ‘hot spots.’ See Lattice Technical
spots.’ Sofo et al., “Graphane: A two-dimensional
Graphane: two-
From:
Overview dated June 25, 2009, Slides # hydrocarbon,” Physical Review B 75 pp. 153401 2007
hydrocarbon,”
http://www.technologyreview.co
68, 70, 75, 76 of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007
Source m/computing/22038/?a=f
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Commercializing a Next-Generation Source of Safe Nuclear Energy
Final comments
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Many ‘minor’ anomalies may also be clarified
β-delayed decays of neutron-rich isotopes could explain ‘loose ends’ in LENRs
An interesting paper on small neutron bursts is by:
Since 1989, there have been varied ‘loose ends’ of Shyam et al., “Multiplicity distribution of neutron
carefully collected LENR experimental data that, while emission in cold fusion experiments”
experiments”
providing additional evidence that anomalous nuclear Which appears on pp. 37–50 in the pdf version of:
37–
processes were somehow at work, either did not occur in “BARC Studies in Cold Fusion,” P.K. Iyengar and
Fusion,”
large fluxes, or occurred only sporadically, even in a M. Srinivsan, eds., Gov’t of India, Atomic Energy
Srinivsan, Gov’
Commission, December 1989 (153 pages – 30 MB)
series of otherwise more-or-less identical experiments which can be downloaded online from:
http://www.newenergytimes.com/v2/archives/1989
This body of data did not show any significant correlation BARC1500Report/1500.shtml
with either production of excess heat or He-4, which most A truly fascinating paper on energetic alpha and
proton emissions in LENRs is as follows:
researchers regarded as the key ‘main events’ in LENRs
Lipson et al., “Phenomenon of an energetic
charged particle emission from hydrogen/
These less frequent LENR anomalies included: small deuterium loaded metals,” ICCF-10 held in
metals,” ICCF-
bursts of detectable neutrons; MeV-energy protons and Cambridge, MA 2003
deuterons; and energetic alpha particles (up to a very Can be found in the Proceedings published by World
Scientific and obtained online at: http://www.lenr-
http://www.lenr-
anomalous ~16-17 MeV reported by Lipson at APS 2002) canr.org/acrobat/LipsonAGphenomenon.pdf
Quoting: “…new phenomenon of energetic alpha (up to
Quoting:
Per W-L and discussion in Overview Slides #6 - 8, very 16.0 MeV) and proton (~1.7 MeV) emissions has been
neutron-rich, unstable isotopes are produced in LENR discovered from a metal … loaded/excited by electrolysis,
glow discharge or powerful laser. These … experiments …
systems by large fluxes of ULM neutrons. Such nuclei can show a remarkable feature ... all exhibit a similar specific
energy yield of long-range alphas (1 alpha particle per 10-
long- 10-
decay via a variety of β-delayed channels that are in fact 15 eV input energy/Pd(Ti) target atom) independent of the
energy/Pd(Ti)
consistent with these varied types of experimental results
Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007 excitation power of delivering method (electrolysis, glow
discharge or laser irradiation).”
irradiation).”
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LENRs – what is needed to forge ahead in the future?
LENRs could potentially become an important new energy technology as
well as an exciting new area of physical science that may ultimately
extend into many different realms. Unfortunately, LENRs also involve:
Intensely multidisciplinary scientific skills to solve important technical issues
Very complex, collective, multi-step, many-body nonlinear physical phenomena
(not just one or two simple physical effects that linearly ‘play-off’ on each other)
Complicated multivariate experiments (many variables are very hard to isolate)
Extremely dynamic physical systems (ULMN nuclear reaction networks can
evolve very rapidly over time and have a multitude of possible pathways)
Micron-scale and smaller nanoscale phenomena and effects in condensed matter
systems (work at extremely small length scales can be very expensive)
Given all of the above, to fully develop the field of LENRs needs: vastly
more scientists from many different disciplines working in it; multiple
universities that can train graduate students in the subject; and much
greater worldwide 445, January 4, 2007
Source of Graphic: Nature, funding from governments and the private sector
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Publications on the Widom-Larsen theory of LENRs
Since 2005, seven papers have been published or released on the arXiv
“Ultra Low Momentum Neutron Catalyzed Nuclear Reactions on
Metallic Hydride Surfaces”, Eur. Phys. J. C 46, 107 (2006 – arXiv
Surfaces” Eur.
in May 2005) Widom and Larsen
“Absorption of Nuclear Gamma Radiation by Heavy Electrons on
Metallic Hydride Surfaces” arXiv:cond-mat/0509269 (Sept 2005)
Surfaces” arXiv:cond-
Widom and Larsen
“Nuclear Abundances in Metallic Hydride Electrodes of
Electrolytic Chemical Cells” arXiv:cond-mat/0602472 (Feb 2006)
Cells” arXiv:cond-
Widom and Larsen
“Theoretical Standard Model Rates of Proton to Neutron
Conversions Near Metallic Hydride Surfaces” arXiv:nucl-
Surfaces” arXiv:nucl-
th/0608059v2 (Sep 2007) Widom and Larsen
“Energetic Electrons and Nuclear Transmutations in Exploding
Wires” arXiv:nucl-th/0709.1222 (Sept 2007) Widom, Srivastava,
Wires” arXiv:nucl-
and Larsen
“High Energy Particles in the Solar Corona” arXiv:nucl-
Corona” arXiv:nucl-
th/0804.2647 (April 2008) Widom, Srivastava, and Larsen
“A Primer for Electro-Weak Induced Low Energy Nuclear
Electro-
Reactions” arXiv:gen-ph/0810.0159v1 (Oct 2008) Srivastava,
Reactions” arXiv:gen-
Widom, and Larsen (ACS LENR Sourcebook 2009 – in press)
Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007
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LENRs are multidisciplinary and need vastly more study
“A scientist is supposed to have a complete and thorough knowledge, at first hand, of some
subjects and, therefore, is usually expected not to write on any topic of which he is not a life
master. This is regarded as a matter of noblesse oblige. For the present purpose I beg to
renounce the noblesse, if any, and to be the freed of the ensuing obligation.”
“My excuse is as follows: We have inherited from our forefathers the keen longing for unified,
all-embracing knowledge. The very name given to the highest institutions of learning reminds
us, that from antiquity to and throughout many centuries the universal aspect has been the
only one to be given full credit.”
“But the spread, both in and width and depth, of the multifarious branches of knowledge
during the last hundred odd years has confronted us with a queer dilemma. We feel clearly that
we are only now beginning to acquire reliable material for welding together the sum total of all
that is known into a whole; but, on the other hand, it has become next to impossible for a
single mind fully to command more than a small specialized portion of it.”
“I can see no other escape from this dilemma (lest our true aim be lost forever) than that some
of us should venture to embark on a synthesis of facts and theories, albeit with second-hand
and incomplete knowledge of some of them - and at the risk of making fools of ourselves.”
Erwin Schrödinger, 1944
Schrö
Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007
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