Rama Setu to Cochi: strategic security zone
National security imperative is that coastal zone between Rama Setu and Cochi should be
declared as Strategic Security Zone; under the direct control of India’s armed forces. The coastal
sands of this coast contains (1) 32% of the world’s thorium reserves vital for nuclear energy
program and (2) also titanium, a space age metal.
Setusamudram channel project has internationalized the historic waters (recognized under UN
Law of the Sea, 1958) in Gulf of Mannar and jeopardised rights commonly, historically enjoyed by
India and Srilanka with serious consequences to national sovereignty and integrity. (USA refuses
to recognize the ‘historic waters’ declaration of India and Srilanka and operationally asserted the
refusal by sending warships to Gulf of Mannar in 1994, 1996, 1999, 2000, 2002).
The recent reports of export of coastal sands containing strategic minerals have highlighted the
strategic security implications if the coastal zone between Rama Setu and Cochi is not
immediately protected by India’s Defence forces. This coastal zone contains in just three villages
(Manavalakurichi of Tamil Nadu and Aluva, Chavara of Kerala) 32% of the world’s thorium
reserves.
The urgent demand, in view of the present and imminent danger to India’s national security and
reported exports of sands containing strategic minerals, is that:
• An immediate notification be issued by the President of India, banning the private
leases of coastal sands and declaring these as national treasure to be protected and
used only indigenously to support the nation’s strategic nuclear and space programs.
• Considering the national security imperative, the entire coastal zone between Rama
Setu and Cochi with titanium-containing sands and the world’s largest reserves of
thorium containing sands (called ilmenite, monazite, rutile, garnet, zircon) should be
declared as Strategic Security zone and brought under the direct security control of
the Joint Command of the Indian Army, Navy and Airforce.
See court papers related to alleged export of the coastal sands from this coastal zone at
http://www.slideshare.net/kalyan97/courtpapers1/
There are four places on earth which are the target for exploitation of the richest mineral
resources on earth:
Manavalakurichi, Tamil Nadu
Chavara, Kerala
Chatrapur, Orissa
Pulmoddai, Sri Lanka
These four locations have coastal sands containing ilmenite and monazite among other minerals.
Ilmenite and Monazite sands yield Titanium and Thorium.
In his speech to the Parliament in March 2007, the President of India said that the current
electricity generation capacity in India is 120000 MW and is expected to increase to 400000 MW
by the year 2030. Bhaba Atomic Research Center (BARC) estimates that about 30 % of world's
thorium deposits, or about 225000 tons of thorium, are found on the beaches of Kerala. This will
support about 387 years of electricity generation at 2030 capacity levels!
http://www.ivarta.com/columns/OL_070508.htm
Ilmenite Sand export from Tuticorin port increased from 0.21 lakh tonnes in 2000-01 to 0.62 lakh
tonnes in 2001-02 registering an increase of 195.24%.
http://www.tamilnadunri.com/docs/tn/infrastructure/TuticorinPort.doc
1
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Similar exports of strategic mineral sands occur from Pulmoddai (near Trincomalee) in Srilanka
which is now under LTTE control. This leads to a possibility that the Setu channel as a mid-ocean
passage is likely to be used such export operatives, particularly after it gets recognized as
international waters under pressure from USA.
Annex 1 Protect Rama Setu, the historic and holy monument: Statement issued by Shri. V.R.Krishna Iyer
former Supreme Court Judge on 14 August 2007
Annex 2 Rama Setu in richest thorium coast of the world
Annex 3 Geological and Mineral map of Tamilnadu and Pondicherry, 1995 Scale 1: 500,000 (Published by
Director General, Geological Survey of India)
Annex 4 Needed: Mines and minerals regulatory authority of India
Annex 5 Why Thorium?
Annex 6 Notice sent to Secy., DAE, Govt. of India and Hon’ble PM of India
Annex 7 First Information Report and related court papers (19 pages) may be downloaded from:
http://www.slideshare.net/kalyan97/courtpapers1/
Annex 8 Failure to protect thorium and Ramsetu (intertwined earth science phenomena)
Annex 9 Former President Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam: thorium for energy independence
Annex 10 1st thorium unit in India soon
Annex 11 India's importance in global nuclear renaissance up: Chidambaram
Annex 12 RSS for use of thorium deposits
Annex 13 A strategy for growth of electrical energy in India
Annex 14 Foreign firms interested in India’s thorium deposits
Annex 15 Fast-breeder reactors more important for India
Annex 16 Design and development of the AHWR—the Indian thorium fuelled innovative nuclear reactor
Annex 17 Thorium: UIC Briefing Paper # 67
Annex 18 Sensitivity analysis for AHWR fuel cluster parameters using different WIMS
Annex 19 Role of small and medium-sized reactors
Annex 20 India's nuclear power programme moves ahead
Annex 21 Nuclear power using thorium
Annex 22 SLN ship under siege off Pulmoddai coast
Annex 23 An overview of world thorium resources, incentives for further exploration and forecast for thorium
requirements in the near future (KMV Jayaram)
S. Kalyanaraman, Ph.D. Former Sr. Exec., Asian Development Bank,
Director, Sarasvati Research Centre, 3 Temple Avenue, Chennai 600015 kalyan97@gmail.com
4 September 2007
2
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Annex 1
Protect Rama Setu, the historic and holy monument: Statement issued by Shri.
V.R.Krishna Iyer former Supreme Court Judge on 14 August 2007
According to Mr.Cardoze, famous U.S legal luminary, ''Means un lawful in their
inception do not become lawful by relation when suspicion turns in to discovery.''
These words come to me when I talk of the Sethusamudaram Canel Project. The
callousness with which such a big project is conceptualized and implemented is an
unpardonable act.
First of all I would like to state that neither I nor any patriotic citizen could support
this project. It is a serious fault that neither scientists, technocrats nor Indian Navy
had been consulted and sought their opinions before this project was conceptualized.
More over the project is an open challenge to age old Hindu beliefs.
At least the opinion that the implementation of this project as envisaged now may
lead to oceanic eruptions like Tsunami should be considered and studied.
According Shri Kalyanaraman, the reputed researcher, this project would invite
disasters like Tsunami to our southern coast and pose as a threat to the valuable
mineral sand deposits along this coast.
Unlike in the case of Suez Canal, this canal penetrates deep in to the seabed. All this
testifies that the construction of the canal is unwarranted.
I suspect that the haste with which the project is proposed to be completed, ignoring
the welfare and progress of he people of India may be to further the interests of
countries like America. About this I had send an emergency message to our Hon.
Prime Minister.
What ever it maybe, it is the duty of every Indian to see that this historic and holy
monument is protected. With out succumbing to the pressures from foreign forces all
should strongly oppose this project.
I call upon each Indian to come forward and fight for such an important cause with
out compromise.
Malayalam original; Sd. VR Krishna Iyer
Letter of Hon'ble V.R . Krishna Iyer (Former Judge, Supreme Court) to Hon'ble Prime
Minister of India.
http://hinduthought.googlepages.com/krishnaiyer13april2007.jpg/krishnaiyer13april
2007-full.jpg
Paper attached to Hon'ble VR Krishna Iyer's letter
http://rapidshare.com/files/26060268/pilsupremecourtramsethu1.doc.html
3
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Annex 2
Rama Setu in richest thorium coast of the world
http://kalyan97.files.wordpress.com/2007/08/monazitemap1.jpg
http://kalyan97.wordpress.com/2007/08/29/581/
Resources map:
Geology and minerals,
Geological Survey of
India (Based upon
Survey of India
toposheet No. 58H
First Edition 1969)
Explanatory note:
Mineral resources
(heavy minerals –
beach placers)
Heavy mineral
concentrations
(including ilmenite,
rutile, garnet and
monazite) occur in
beach sands as
localized pockets
along the east coast
and between Kolachel
and Kanniyakumari on
the west coast over a
distance of nearly 75
km. Significant
concentration occurs
between Vattakottai
and Lipuram and the
famous
Manavalakurichi
deposit, which
extends over a length
of 5 to 6 km. With a
width of 3 to 5 m from
the mouth of Valliyur
River. The beach
placers on an average contain 45 to 55% ilmenite, 7 to 14% garnet, 4 to 5% zircon,
3 to 4% monazite. 2 to 3% sillimanite, 2 to 3% rutile, 0.5 to 1% leucoxene and 10
to 25% others, including silica. (Database 1984)
4
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Annex 3
Geological and Mineral map of Tamilnadu and Pondicherry, 1995 Scale 1: 500,000
(Published by Director General, Geological Survey of India)
5
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Annex 4
Needed: Mines and minerals regulatory authority of India
With the privatisation of mines in 2002, there is an urgency to create a Mines and
Minerals Regulatory Authority of India, particularly for strategic minerals.
Strategic minerals are monazite, ilmenite and rutile sands which contain thorium and
titanium. Titanium is a space age mineral; thorium is the mainstay of the nation’s
nuclear program with the potential to make the nation energy independent.
Minerals policy is coming up for discussion in the Parliament in the current session
(from August 2007). This issue of national security and sovereignty and the
imperative of attaining a developed nation status will necessitate the conservation of
the mineral wealth of the nation and NOT allow it to be looted for temporary gains.
For example, instead of merely producing titanium oxide in the Tata plants at
Sattankulam (Tamilnadu) or Chattarpur (Orissa) using the mineral placer deposit
sands, there should be plants to produce thorium and titanium metals and reserve
them for the nation’s strategic development imperatives.
Some notes follow which will have an impact on development of SEZs ensuring
sustainable development for an essentially agrarian nation living in over 6 lakh
villages.
Thorium has been extracted chiefly from monazite through a multi-stage process. In
the first stage, the monazite sand is dissolved in an inorganic acid such as sulfuric
acid (H2SO4). In the second, the Thorium is extracted into an organic phase
containing an amine. Next it is separated or \"stripped\" using an anion such as
nitrate, chloride, hydroxide, or carbonate, returning the thorium to an aqueous
phase. Finally, the thorium is precipitated and collected. Source: Crouse, David;
Brown, Keith (December 1959). \"The Amex Process for Extracting Thorium Ores with
Alkyl Amines\".Industrial & Engineering Chemistry 51 (12): 1461. Retrieved on 2007-
03-09
K.M.V. Jayaram. An Overview of World Thorium Resources, Incentives for Further
Exploration and Forecast for Thorium Requirements in the Near Future
Mirror: http://www.slideshare.net/kalyan97/thoriumdeposits/
Under the prevailing estimate, Australia and India have particularly large reserves of
thorium. Thorium reserves:
Australia 300,000
India 290,000
Norway 170,000
United States 160,000
Canada 100,000
South Africa 35,000
Brazil 16,000
Malaysia 4,500
Other Countries 95,000
1,200,000
World Total
6
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Source: US Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries (1997-2006); ^
U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries - Thorium. Information
and Issue Briefs - Thorium. World Nuclear Association. Retrieved on 2006-11-01.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium
Vanishing thorium and nuke deal; are they interlinked?
Of course, according to scientists, the accumulation of placer deposits is substantially
contributed by Rama Setu acting as a sieve and the unique pattern of ocean currents
in Hindumahaasaagar. Who will take care of the nation's wealth so essential to the
nation's nuke programme?
7
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Annex 5
Why Thorium?
-India has 1/3 of the world's reserves of Thorium
Thorium produces 10 to 10,000 times less long-lived radioactive waste than uranium
or plutonium reactors. Thorium comes out of the ground as a 100% pure, usable
isotope, which does not require enrichment, whereas natural uranium contains only
0.7% fissionable U235.
http://www.indembassyathens.gr/India-
nuclear%20energy/India_nuclear%20energy_thorium.htm
http://www.abc.net.au/quantum/scripts98/9820/thoriumscpt.htm
A breeder reactor is a nuclear reactor that consumes fissile and fertile material at the
same time as it creates new fissile material. Production of fissile material in a reactor
occurs by neutron irradiation of fertile material, particularly Uranium-238 and
Thorium-232. In a breeder reactor, these materials are deliberately provided, either
in the fuel or in a breeder blanket surrounding the core, or most commonly in both.
Production of fissile material takes place to some extent in the fuel of all current
commercial nuclear power reactors. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breeder_reactor
The present status of various fuel-resources in India is given in the table 1. The
domestic mineable coal (about 38 BT) and the estimated hydrocarbon reserves
(about 12 BT) together may provide about 1200 EJ of energy.
The electricity potential from thorium-metal in breeders is shown as 155,502 GWe-
yr. This metal alone has the potential to ensure energy independence for India.
Thus, the conservation and safeguarding of the thorium reserves becomes a
strategic responsibility.
Table 1: Primary energy & electricity resources
Electricity
Amount
Thermal energy potential
EJ TWh GWYr GWe-Yr
Fossil
Coal 38 -BT 667 185,279 21,151 7,614
Hydrocarbon 12 -BT 511 141,946 16,204 5,833
Non-Fossil
Nuclear
Uranium-Metal 61,000 -T
In PHWRs 28.9 7,992 913 328
In Fast breeders 3,699 1,027,616 117,308 42,231
Thorium-Metal 2,25,000 -T
In Breeders 13,622 3,783,886 431,950 155,502
Renewable
Hydro 150 -GWe 6.0 1,679 192 69
Non-conventional
renewable 100 -GWe 2.9 803 92 33
Assumptions for Potential Calculations
8
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Fossil
1. Complete Source is used for calculating electricity potential with a thermal
efficiency of 0.36.
2. Calorific Values: Coal: 4,200 kcal/kg, Hydrocarbon: 10,200 kcal/kg.
3. Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas [7]has set strategic goals for the next two
decades (2001-2020) of ‘doubling reserve accretion’ to 12 BT (Oil + Oil equivalent
gas) and “improving recovery factor’ to the order of 40%. Considering the fact that
exploration is a dynamic process and India is one of the les explored countries,
reference [3] assumes that cumulative availability of hydrocarbons up to 2052 will be
12 BT.
Non-Fossil
Thermal energy is the equivalent fossil energy required to produce electricity with a
thermal efficiency of 0.36.
Nuclear
1. PHWR burn-up = 6,700 MWd/T of U-oxide, thermal efficiency 0.29
2. It has been assumed that complete fission of 1kg. of fissile material gives 1000
MWd of thermal energy. Fast reactor thermal efficiency is assumed to be 42%. Fast
breeders can use 60% of the Uranium. This is an indicative number. Actual value will
be determined as one proceeds with the programme and gets some experience. Even
if it is half of this value the scenario presented does not change.
3. Breeders can use 60% Thorium with thermal efficiency 42%. At this stage, type of
reactors wherein thorium will be used are yet to be decided. The numbers are only
indicative.
Hydro
1. Name plate capacity is 150 GWe.
2. Estimated hydro- potential of 600 billion kWh and name plate capacity of 150,000
MWe gives a capacity factor of 0.46.
Non-conventional renewable
1. Includes: Wind 45 GWe, Small Hydro 15 GWe, Biomass Power/ Co-generation
19.5 GWe and Waste to Energy 1.7 GWe etc.
2. Capacity factor of 0.33 has been assumed for potential calculations.
http://www.dae.gov.in/iaea/ak-paris0305.doc
9
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Annex 6
Notice sent to Secy., DAE, Govt. of India and Hon’ble PM of India
http://kalyan97.wordpress.com/2007/08/31/
Chennai, 31 August 2007
To:
Secretary, DAE, Govt. of India, New Delhi Dr. Anil Kakodkar Fax. 02222048476
Cc: Prime Minister of India, Hon’ble Dr. Manmohan Singh 01123019545 Fax.
01123016857
cc: Principal Scientific Adviser, 01123022113
Re: Alleged export of sands containing thorium from the richest nuclear material
coastline of the world
The coastline between Rama Setu (Rameshwaram) and Cochin constitutes the
richest nuclear material coastline of the world yielding thorium (nuclear mineral) and
titanium (space age mineral). Both these are strategic for the nation’s development
and to achieve India Vision 2020 with energy independence (avoidance of
dependence upon imported uranium by developing thorium-based breeder reactors)
and autonomous space development programmes. In India, both Kakrapar-1 and -
2 units are loaded with 500 kg of thorium fuel in order to improve their operation
when newly-started. Thorium occurs in several minerals, the most common being
the rare earth-thorium-phosphate mineral, monazite, which contains up to about
12% thorium oxide, but average 6-7%...There are also reports of loss of thorium
from Indian Rare Earths Limited stocks. Destruction of Rama Setu will severely
impact the accumulation of such placer deposits of rare earths and next tsunami
through the mid-ocean channel will devastate the placer deposits and move them,
almost irretrievably, into the depths of the ocean. I am bringing this to the notice of
Govt. of India under Section 26 of the Atomic Energy Act 1962 and other sections
detailed below, a cognizable offence related to stockpiling/trading in nuclear minerals
containing monazite and ilmenite/rutile/garnet placer deposits along Tamilnadu and
Kerala coast (Manavalakurichi, Aluva, Chavara and other places such as Sattankulam
where titanium dioxide plant is sought to be set up using sands which also contain
thorium 233/urainin 233).
Uranium-233 is a fissile artificial isotope of uranium, which is proposed as a nuclear
fuel. It has a half-life of 160,000 years. Uranium-233 is produced by the neutron
irradiation of thorium-232. When thorium-232 absorbs a neutron, it becomes
thorium-233, which has a half-life of only 22 minutes. Thorium-233 decays into
protactinium-233 through beta decay. Protactinium-233 has a half life of 27 days
and beta decays into uranium-233. Hence, thorium in monazite, ilmenite and other
coastal placer deposits is a mineral as defined in the Atomic Energy Act, 1962. Since
thorium is vital for the nation’s atomic energy program and for achieving energy
independence, Govt. of India should advice on the steps proposed to be taken to
conserve and protect these stockpiles of nuclear deposits.
Yours sincerely,
S. Kalyanaraman, Ph.D., Former Sr. Exec., Asian Development Bank,
Director, Sarasvati Research Centre,
Chennai 600015 kalyan97@gmail.com 31 August 2007
10
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

http://justsamachar.com/local/7/vaikundarajan-gets-preventive-bail/
Brief summary in English of Tamil news report: Vaikundarajan, owner of VV Minerals
gets and his two brothers Jegadeesan and Chandresan, were granted anticipatory
bail by Madurai Bench of Madras HC (Justice Rajasuria). He is exporting, without
Govrnment permission, nuclear deposits in coastal sands of Tuticorin, Kanyakkumari
coasts.
},
”z }  ி ¶t” «} ீ }!!
ˆy 28,
2007 http://thatstamil.oneindia.in/Pictures/images_02/vaikundarajasn.jpg
¢ : œ ி ி} u”  ”z } „ ிy 3  ீ¢
t y{} ~y t ƒ «} ீ}
u ~ yž„ ¢.
£{¢t”œ y , t }y v | ி. ி. ƒ }
¾  ”z }.  ƒ , £{¢t”œ, } ி ”¾
yt ‚ ிƒ § ிƒ ƒ „ ி ¯|¢
t t ¢ ~ ி¾{¢ ி ž ¶t” ‚² €¢
| .
ƒ  tƒ y ƒ« „ ி ´
t . | « y ிƒ ƒ t ž | €¢
| ”z §t”, « y |º} ž
‚ y ¢.
 ீ ¢, ƒ , £{¢t”œ, } ி ”¾ yt ‚ ிƒ
} § ிƒ ƒ ¢ ž{¢ ி¾{¢ ி‚
ி {¢ ¢ t”  ” ¾ y { ”‚ ~ ி¾º
ீ ƒ©  ž{ .
} ¾ƒ t y{} ”z }, ¢
„ ீ} ‚² | }  ீ¢ t”~ º
€ ~ y ¢.
¢ ² u ிƒ { ¢ }, ிœ{¢
ி ¾t º «œº € ¢.
ž{¢ ¢2 ி¶}  ”z .
«} ீ} ¾ „ ¢ ீ }t ிƒ § tƒ
€ .
11
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

| § ி ¾{ ீ }t ீ ™ ,3
¯t” «} ீ} ி{¢ { ிy .
´ } ீ¢ ~y t „¶ œ € zž }²
”z } ‚ § tƒ € ¯| . | § ­
ி ¾{ ீ ™ }” u ¶t”{ „ ி {¢
,
{ ிy .
http://justsamachar.com/local/7/vaikundarajan-gets-preventive-bail/
News report in the New Indian Express of August 11, 2007
Vaikundarajan directed to surrender in court
Friday August 10 2007 09:18 IST
MADURAI: Vaikundarajan, owner of V V Minerals and a shareholder of Jaya TV, was
on Thursday, directed by the Madurai Bench of the High Court to surrender at Eraniel
court. The bench also allowed the police to question him for two days.
Vaikundarajan had filed 20 petitions seeking anticipatory bail. The petitions came up
for hearing before Justice G Rajasuria.
The judge observed that the police had doubts as to where the sand was sent as it
contained nuclear deposits.
Vaikundarajan has claimed that he was not aware of the fact that the sand he mined
contained nuclear particles. The judge said that the case was significant because of
the nuclear content in the sand.
http://tinyurl.com/33nc8t
Vaikundarajan’s office premises raided
Staff Reporter (The Hindu, August 20, 2007)
He is facing the charge of having quarried thorium-rich sand
— Photo: A. Shaikmohideen
http://www.thehindu.com/2007/08/20/images/2007082057461001.jpg
C. Sridar, Superintendent of Police, Tirunelveli (left) and Additional
Superintendent Muthusamy conducting a raid in the office of V.V. Minerals
at Keeraikkaranthattu in Tirunelveli district on Sunday.
TIRUNELVELI: The police raided the factory and office premises of Subbiah
Vaikundarajan at Keeraikaaranthattu near Thisaiyanvilai on Sunday in a case of
alleged export of sand rich in thorium, a radioactive material, to foreign countries.
12
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Revenue Department officials of Kanyakumari district seized six sand-laden lorries at
Meignanapuram. After analyzing the sample, they found that the sand contained
“considerable quantity” of thorium, which cannot be exported by individuals to
foreign countries.
As export of thorium in any form is punishable under the Atomic Energy Commission
Act, Deputy Director (Mines) Manimaran registered a case against Mr.
Vaikundarajan, a leading garnet exporter.
When the officials filed case against Mr. Vaikundarajan for allegedly quarrying the
thorium-rich sand, he challenged it in the Madurai Bench of the Madras High Court,
contending that the Tamil Nadu police could not register a case relating to supposed
violation of the Atomic Energy Commission Act.
Dismissing his plea on August 9, the court told Mr. Vaikundarajan to surrender
before a court and that the police would be free to take him into custody for
interrogation. However, there was no progress in the case, as the garnet exporter
failed to surrender before any court, and the police has spread a dragnet for him.
The team, led C. Sridar, Superintendent of Police, Tirunelveli, and Additional
Superintendent of Police Muthusamy, sifted through documents and other files in the
office of V.V. Minerals at Keeraikaaranthattu, and seized some files and computers.
When the police came out of the office premises, factory workers tried to block their
vehicles. Some workers pelted the vehicles with stones.
P. Kannappan, Deputy Inspector General of Police, Tirunelveli Range, came to
Thisaiyanvilai shortly before 3.30 p.m. and held discussions with the officials who
conducted the raid, examined the documents seized and the data stored in the
computers.
http://www.thehindu.com/2007/08/20/stories/2007082057461000.htm
I am not an enemy of DMK: Vaikundarajan (The Hindu, August 23, 2007)
CHENNAI: S. Vaikundarajan of V.V. Minerals, facing charges in several cases, on
Wednesday said he was neither against the ruling Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam party
nor an “enemy” of Chief Minister M. Karunanidhi.
He was well aware that as a businessman it would be difficult to work against the
Government and appealed to his well wishers not to politicise the case against him.
Mr. Vaikundarajan is a shareholder of Jaya TV.
— Special Correspondent
http://www.hindu.com/2007/08/23/stories/2007082353620400.htm
Police raid Jaya TV partner’s office
13
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Madurai, August 20: Police have carried out raids at the factory and office premises
of V V Minerals, owned by Jaya TV shareholder R Vaikundarajan, facing charges of
illegal mining of thorium, in Tirunelveli district, about 200 km from here.
Police today said they had seized several documents and computer hard discs during
the raid at Keeraikaranthattu yesterday, but declined to give more details, adding
the materials needed to be analysed.
An official of the V V Minerals claimed that the police had seized only some of the
award certificates won by the company and described the raid as an abuse of power.
The police team faced some resistance from employees of the company when they
came out of the office after the raid.
A police vehicle was pelted with stones and slogans were raised against police for
filing \"false case against Vaikundarajan\". They also heckled police for \"trying to trace
proof after filing the case\".
A case was registered in June last under the Atomic Energy Act against
Vaikundarajan and his company after Kanyakumari district revenue officials found
that sand transported by the company contained thorium and monosite.
On August 9 last, the Madurai Bench of the Madras High Court, directing
Vaikundarajan to surrender in the case while dismissing his plea to quash the FIR,
had posed a series of questions about the nature of exports done by V V Minerals
and whether they were actually usable in atomic energy production. The court also
asked whether the police had any proof that the company exported sand to an
atomic firm and whether the sand actually contained thorium.
It had said police could take Vaikundarajan into custody for further investigations.
However, Vaikundarajan has so far not surrendered before any court and the police
had spread a dragnet for him.
V V Minerals had contended they exported only sand for extraction of garnet and
they were innocent. They alleged that police were harassing them because
Vaikundarajan was a Jaya TV partner. (Agencies)
Published: Monday, August 20, 2007
http://tinyurl.com/2uxng7
ATOMIC ENERGY ACT 1962 NO. 33 OF 1962
26. Cognizance of offences
(1) All offences under this Act shall be cognizable under the Code of Criminal
Procedure, 1898, but no action shall be taken in respect of any person for any
offence under this Act except on the basis of a written complaint made -
14
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

(a) in respect of contravention of section 8, 14 or 17 or any rule or order
made thereunder, by the person authorised to exercise powers of entry and
inspection;
(b) in respect of any other contravention, by a person duly authorised to
make such complaints by the Central Government.
2. Definition and Interpretation
(1) In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires,-
(a) \"atomic energy\" means energy released from atomic nuclei as a result of
any process, including the fission and fusion processes;
(b) \"fissile material\" means uranium 233, uranium 235, plutonium or any
material containing these substances or any other material that may be declared as
such by notification by the Central Government;
(c) \"minerals\" include all substances obtained or obtaining from the soil
(including alluvium or rocks) by underground or surface working…
8. Power of entry and inspection
(1) Any person authorised by the Central Government may, on producing, if so
required, a duly authenticated document showing his authority, enter any mine,
premises or land -
(a) where he has reason to believe that work is being carried out for the
purpose of or in connection with production and processing of any prescribed
substances or substances from which a prescribed substance can be obtained or
production, development or use of atomic energy or research into matters connected
therewith, or
(b) where any such plant as is mentioned in clause (b) of section 7 is
situated, and may inspect the mine, premises or land and any articles contained
therein.
(2) The person carrying out the inspection may make copies of or extracts from
any drawing, plan or other document found in the mine, premises or land and for the
purpose of making such copies or extracts, may remove any such drawing, plan or
other document after giving a duly signed receipt for the same and retain possession
thereof for a period not exceeding seven days…
10. Compulsory aquisition of rights to work minerals
(1) Where it appears to the Central Government that any minerals from which
in its opinion any of the prescribed substances can be obtained are present inor any
land, either in a natural state or in a deposit of waste material obtained from any
underground or surface working, it may be order provide for compulsorily vesting in
the Central Government the exclusive right, so long as the order remains in force, to
work those minerals and any other minerals which it appears to the Central
Government to be necessary to work with those minerals, and may also provide, by
15
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

that order or a subsequent order, for compulsorily vesting in the Central Government
any other ancillary rights which appear to the Central Government to be necessary
for the purpose of working the minerals aforesaid including (without prejudice to the
generality of the foregoing provisions)-
(a) rights to withdraw support;
(b) rights necessary for the purpose of access to or conveyance of the
minerals aforesaid or the ventilation or drainage of the working;
(c) rights to use and occupy the surface of any land for the purpose of
erecting any necessary buildings and installing any necessary plant in connection
with the working of the minerals aforesaid;
(d) rights to use and occupy for the purpose of working the minerals
aforesaid any land forming part of or used in connection with an existing mine or
quarry, and to use or acquire any plant used in connection with any such mine or
quarry, and
(e) rights to obtain a supply of water for any of the pur-poses connected
with the working of the minerals aforesaid, or to dispose of water or other liquid
matter obtained in consequence of working such minerals.
(2) Notice of any order proposed to be made under this section shall be served
by the Central Government -
(a) on all persons who, but for the order, would be entitled to work the
minerals affected; and
(b) on every owner, lessee and occupier (except tenants for a month or for
less than a month) of any land in respect of which rights are proposed to be acquired
under the order…
14. Control over production and use of atomic energy
(1) The Central Government may, subject to such rules as may be made in this
behalf, by order prohibit except under a license granted by it -
(i) the working of any mine or minerals specified in the order, being a mine
or minerals from which in the opinion of the Central Government any of the
prescribed substances can be obtained;
(ii) the acquisition, production, possession, use disposal, export or import-
(a) of any of the prescribed substances; or
(b) of any minerals or other substances specified in the rules, from
which in the opinion of the Central Government any of the prescribed substances can
be obtained; or
(c) of any plant designed or adopted or manufactured for the production,
development and use of atomic energy or for research into matters connected
therewith; or
(d) of any prescribed equipment.
16
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Annex 7
First Information Report and related court papers (19 pages) may be downloaded
from: http://www.slideshare.net/kalyan97/courtpapers1/
17
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Annex 8
Failure to protect thorium and Ramsetu (intertwined earth science phenomena)
The extraordinary fact that the largest reserves of thorium in the world occur on
Kerala sands should force a pause in studying, examining, exploring and
evaluating the geological forces and ocean currents at work in accumulating these
placer deposits which are vital for the nation's nuclear programme. Any project in the
region should be subjected first to this imperative study and evaluation.
http://maritime.haifa.ac.il/departm/lessons/ocean/wwr205.gif This map shows the
unique phenomenon of two ocean currents in two opposing direcions operating like a
cyclotron/sieve to isolate heavier minerals with heavy atomic weights such as
Thorium 232 and Titanium.
Strategic importance of Ramasetu: thorium
Ramasetu and Indian ocean currents contribute to the accumulation of placer
deposits of thorium minerals in Tamilnadu, Kerala beaches.
Tsunami protection measures are required in the belt between Nagore (Tamilnadu)
and Kayamkulam (Kerala) since the last tsunami impacted the mouth of kayamkulam
canal. As Prof. Tad Murthy (an expert on tsunami who was engaged by Govt. of India
to set up a tsunami warning system) apprehends, if the present Sethusamudram
18
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

channel project alignment is implemented, the next tsunami will destroy this part of
Kerala since the channel pointing to the epicenter of the tsunami will absorb the
tsunami energy and funnel into the channel which will move in a narrow arc to
destroy the coastline of Tamilnadu and Kerala. The accumulation of thorium reserves
of India is party attributed to the reworking of beachsands by seawaves (almost like
a cyclotron or sieving operation to remove small stones from fresh husked paddy by
women in India) given the nature of the ocean currents and the Ramasetu (Adam’s
bridge) acting as a barrier to the ocean currents inducing countercurrents. Views of
Prof. Rajamanickam, geomorphologist and mineralogist: “The coast between
Nagapattinam to Nagore, Nagore to Poompuhar, Colachal and Madras were the
places where the strong impact from the Tsunami was noticed. These were also the
places where a high order of ilmenites was found soon after the Tsunami. For
example in the Nagore coast, the pre-Tsunami heavy mineral content of 14 per cent
jumped to 70 per cent of ilmenites after the Tsunami.”
http://soma-fish.net/stories.php?story=05/08/14/4004215
Monazite, a radioactive material, contains 3 to 7% thorium by weight. Ilmenite less
radioactive, contains .05% thorium.
http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=3186552
Chavara mineral division, India Rare Earths Limited. Corporate office:
Plot No.1207,Veer Savakar Marg, Near Siddhi Vinayak Temple, Prabhadevi,Mumbai -
400 028 +91 22 24382042/ 24211630/ 24211851, 24220230 FAX +91 22
24220236 Major Activity : Mining and separation of Heavy Minerals like, Ilmenite,
Rutile, Zircon, Sillimanite, Garnet and Monazite from beach sand. Also engaged in
chemical processing of Monazite to yield Thorium compounds, Rare Earth Chlorides
and Tri-Sodium Phosphate.
Dr. S. Suresh Kumar, Head Tel. No: (0476) 268 0701 – 05 Located 10 Km north of
Kollam, 85 Km from Thiruvananthapuram capital of Kerala and 135 Km by road from
Kochi is perhaps blessed with the best mineral sand deposit of the country.The plant
operates on a mining area containing as high as 40% heavy minerals and extending
over a length of 23 Km in the belt of Neendakara and Kayamkulam. The deposit is
quite rich with respect to ilmenite, rutile and zircon and the mineral-ilmenite happens
to be of weathered variety analyzing 60% TiO2. The present annual production
capacity of Chavara unit engaged in dry as well as wet (dredging/ up-gradation)
mining and mineral separation stands at 1,54,000t of ilmenite, 9,500t of rutile,
14,000t of zircon and 7,000t of sillimanite. In addition the plant has facilities for
annual production of ground zircon called zirflor (-45 micron) and microzir (1-3
micron) of the order of 6,000t and 500t respectively.
http://irel.gov.in/companydetails/Unit.htm
MANAVALAKURICHI (MK) MINERAL DIVISION:Shri K.P.Sreenivasan, Head & General
ManagerTel. No: (04651) 237 255- 57 E-mail: iremk@vsnl.com ,
ngc_iremk@sancharnet.in
Plant is situated 25 Kms north of Kanyakumari (Cape Comorin), the southern most
tip of the Indian sub-continent. All weather major seaport Tuticorin and the nearest
airport at Thiruvananthapuram are equidistant, about 65 kms from the plant site.
Nagercoil at a distance of about 18 kms from the plant, is the closest major Railway
station. MK plant annually produces about 90,000t ilmenite of 55%. TiO2 grade,
3500t rutile and 10,000t zircon in addition to 3000t monazite and 10,000t garnet
based primarily on beach washing supplied by fishermen of surrounding five villages.
19
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

IREL has also mining lease of mineral rich areas wherein raw sand can be made
available in large quantities through dredging operation. In addition to mining and
minerals separation, the unit has a chemical plant to add value to zircon in the form
of zircon frit and other zirconium based chemicals in limited quantities.
RARE EARTHS DIVISION (RED) Aluva:
Shri L.N.Maharana, Chief General Manager
Tel. No: (0484) 254 5062 - 65
E-mail: irered@vsnl.com
Unlike the three units of IREL as described earlier, RED is an exclusively value adding
chemical plant wherein the mineral monazite produced by MK, is chemically treated
to separate thorium as hydroxide upgrade and rare earths in its composite chloride
form. It is located on the banks of river Periyar at a distance of 12 Km by road from
Kochi. This plant was made operational way back in 1952 to take on processing of
1400t of monazite every year. However over the years, the capacity of the plant was
gradually augmented to treat about 3600t of monazite. Elaborate solvent extraction
and ion exchange facilities were built up to produce individual R.E. oxides, like oxides
of Ce, Nd, Pr and La in adequate purities. Today RED has built up large stock pile of
impure thorium hydroxide upgrade associated with rare earths and unreacted
materials. Henceforth, RED proposes to treat this hydroxide upgrade rather than
fresh monazite to convert thorium into pure oxalate and rare earth as two major
fractions namely Ce oxide and Ce oxide free rare earth chloride.
http://irel.gov.in/companydetails/Unit.htm#MK
The total known world reservesof Thi nRA R category are estimated at about 1.16
million tonnes. About 31% of this (0.36 mt) is known to be available in the beach
and inland placers of India…Prior to the second world war thorium was used widely in
the manufacture of gas mantles, welding rods, refractories andin magnesium based
alloys .Its use as fuel in nuclear energy, in spite of its limited demand as of now and
low forecast, is gaining importance because of its transmutation to 233 u. Several
countries like India, Russia, France and U.K. have shown considerable interest in the
development of fast breeder reactors (FBR) anditisexpected thatbytheturnof this
century someofthe countries would have started commissioning large capacity units…
20
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Beach sands: Although monazite occurs associated with ilmenite and beach sands,
skirting the entire Peninsular India, its economic concentration is confined to only
some areas where suitable physiographic conditions exist.The west coast placers are
essentially beachorbarrier deposits with development of dunes where aeolin action is
prominent in dry months…
Origin of West Coast deposits: …The deposits are formed in four successive
stages:(i) lateritisation of gneissic complexes, (ii) successive mountain uplift and
simultaneous seaward shift of strand line., (iii) reworking
of the beach sands by sea waves, which rise often to a height of 3m.in 12s.period
and (iv) littoral drift caused by the breaking of thewaves faraway from the shore and
consequent northerly movement of lighter minerals along the reflected waves…
In Manavalakurchi, Tamil Nadu, the depositis formed by the \"southerly tilt of the tip
of the peninsula [9] aided by seasonal variation of sea currents, both in direction and
magnitude [Udas, G.R.,Jayaram, K.M.V., Ramachandran, M and Sankaran,R.,Beach
sand placer deposits of the world vs. Indian deposits. Plant maintenance and import
substitution.1978.35.] …
The reasonably assured resources of thorium in India, form about 31% of the
world's estimated deposits.The reserves could have been several times more if
systematic surveys are carried out…
http://www.iaea.org/inis/aws/fnss/fulltext/0412_1.pdf
Mining of raw beach sand containing the six heavy minerals and separation of
the later in adequate purities happen to be the common activity of all the three
Mineral Division namely Chavara, MK (Manavalakurichi) and OSCOM (Orissa Sand
Complex, Chatrapur, 150 kms. from Bhubaneswar). As per as mining practice is
concerned, they do differ from one division to other. For example at MK, all the raw
sand required to operate the plant at its full capacity is collected by the fisherman of
surrounding villages from near by beaches and supplied to the unit at a cost. At
Chavara also beach washing is available but not in adequate quantity to meet the full
requirement of the plant.
The heavy mineral rich sand feed either in the form of beach washings or
dredge concentrate is subjected to final concentration in a facility provided with a
host of spirals to enrich the feed with 97-98% heavy minerals.
Such upgraded material is next dried in a fluid bed drier to take on the
separation of individual minerals/ores by taking advantage of the difference in their
electrical, magnetic properties as well as specific gravity.
http://irel.gov.in/activity/Mineral.htm
Strategic Value addition
Recovery from thorium value Chemical processing of monazite to separate the
contained thorium value (~8% ThO2) in the form of thorium hydroxide concentrate
happen to be the most fundamental value addition activity of the company carried
out for last 50 years or so. In the recent time thorium is separated as its pure
oxalate form. A part of it is taken to OSCOM for its further processing by solvent
21
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

extraction to produce about 150-200 TPA of its thorium nitrate for its mantle
application. A small part of the purified thorium nitrate is covered to nuclear grade
thorium oxide powder to meet the requirement of Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
(BARC) and Nuclear Fuel Complex (NFC) for developing thorium based fuel for our
nuclear reactors. Recovery of Uranium value.
Recovery of Uranium value.
In recent time IREL has got engaged through its Rare Earths Division, in
activity involving recovery of uranium value present in Indian monazite in the form
of Nuclear grade ammonium diuranate (ADU) to supplement the indigenous supply
scenario for uranium as required in the Indian Nuclear Power programme. In addition
to monazite, RED has developed facilities for recovering uranium value from other
secondary resource as well.
http://irel.gov.in/activity/Strategic.htm
Indian ocean currents both east to west and counter currents result in a churning
operation and consequent deposition of heavy minerals such as thorium or titanium.
This is a colour version of Figure 11.3 of Regional Oceanography: an Introduction by
M. Tomczak and S. J. Godfrey (Pergamon Press, New York 1994, 422 p.).
http://www.lei.furg.br/ocfis/mattom/regoc/text/11circ.html
22
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Major ocean currents of the world. On this illustration red arrows indicate warm
currents, while cold currents are displayed in blue. (Source: PhysicalGeography.net)
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Ocean_circulation
Indian Ocean Tsunami Model,
December 26, 2004
http://sos.noaa.gov/gallery/
Movie - Indian Ocean view (8 mb)
Beaches of Kerala with thorium
sands.
http://www.mcdonald.cam.ac.uk/genetics/images/kerala_lowres.jpg
The issue of thorium as the nuclear fuel which will unleash the nuclear potential of
Bharatam has been underscored in the BARC website. One of the principal earth
science reasons for the accumulation of thorium resources on Kerala beaches is the
oscillating, sieving action of the ocean currents around Ramasetu. Incursive channel
in an arbitrarily drawn medial line between Bharatam and Srilanka as a defacto
boundary of international waters, discarding the age-old rights as 'historic waters'
23
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

under the UN Law of the Sea, is a serious dereliction of responsibility on the part of
the Sethusamudram Channel Project designers. PM and UPA Chairperson have to
explain to the nation for the undue haste and carelessness in choosing an alignment
impacting on Ramsethu while five other alternative channels closer to the Bharatam
coastline were available. Was the new, arbitrarily drawn medial line as the channel
alignment influenced by US Navy Operational Directives of 23 June 2005? Is it mere
coincidence that the inauguration of SSCP takes place within a week thereafter, on 2
July 2005 ignoring the imperative subjecting the impact of a future tsunami on the
integrity of the coastline if the present chosen alignment is implemented? Together
with the destruction of Kerala, will it impact on the harnessing of the thorium
resource as the foundation fuel for the nuclear programme of Bharatam? As the trial
for treason unravels, in case Bharatam succumbs to US geopolitical pressures, a lot
of questions will have to be raised and answered. Was the PM satisfied by the
answers (provided on 30 June 2005) to the 16 questions raised by PMO on 8 March
2005? Something is fishy in the state of Bharatam.
Importance of Thorium for Bharat, f rom BARC website: Thorium deposits - ~
3,60,000 tonnes
•The currently known Indian thorium reserves amount to 358,000 GWe-yr of
electrical energy and can easily meet the energy requirements during the next
century and beyond.
•India 's vast thorium deposits permit design and operation of U-233 fuelled breeder
reactors.
•These U-233/Th-232 based breeder reactors are under development and would
serve as the mainstay of the final thorium utilization stage of the Indian nuclear
programme.
http://www.barc.ernet.in/webpages/about/anu1.htm
The US study can be downloaded from
www.carnegieendowment.org/publications: Tellis notes that India reserves f 78,000
metric tons of uranium.
•eight reactors allocating a quarter of their cores for the production of weapons-
grade material, uranium needed would be: 19,965 to 29,124 tons. T two research
reactors will need 938 to 1,088 tons.
• These would yield India 12,135 to 13,370 kilograms of weapons-grade plutonium.
•Thorium blanket as fuel will be the nuclear fuel of the future for Bharatam, which
has the largest reserves of thorium in the world. A team of scientists led by Dr. VJ
Loveson of the CISR New Delhi, studying placer deposits in the area, says an
estimated 40 million tonnes of Titanium alone has been deposited in the entire
stretch of 500 km. coastline.
Bye-bye to historic waters
US Navy operational directive, 23 June 2005: Historic waters, intl. Waters; 30 June
2005, Chairman TCPT replies to PMO; 2 July 2005, inauguration. The haste is fishy.
Aug 76 Act No. 80 Enables government to declare waters as historic. June 79 Law
No. 41
Waters of Palk Bay between coast and boundary with Sri Lanka claimed as internal
waters; waters of Gulf of Mannar between coast and maritime boundayr claimed as
historic waters. This claim is not recognized by the United States. US conducted
24
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

operational assertions in 1993 and 1994, to Gulf of Mannar claim in 1999 (jiski laathi
uski bhains; tadi eduttasvan tandalkaaran). UN Conf. on the Law of the Sea (1958),
Convention of the Territorial Sea and and contiguous zone recognizes HISTORIC
waters Agreement between Sri Lanka and India on the Maritime Boundary between
the two countries in the Gulf of Mannar and the Bay of Bengal and Related Matters
23 March 1976 on Historic Waters.
Implications of intrusive identification of 'international waters boundary' drawn as the
Setu channel passage just 3 kms. west of the medial line recognized in ‘historic
waters’ by an agreement of June 1974 between the late PM of India Smt. Indira
Gandhi and President of India Smt. Sirimavo Bandaranaike has been stated
succinctly by Arulanandam:
http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2201/images/20050114005902402.jpg
U. Arulanandam, President, Singaravelar Fishermen's Forum : the project is being
implemented to enforce the international boundary line in the waters.
Once the canal is a reality, it will become an unofficial boundary line on the sea
between India and Sri Lanka. Fisherpeople are afraid: the catch is that it is in the Sri
Lankan waters that fish thrive. The canal would seal their entry into those waters for
fishing.
http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2201/stories/20050114005902400.htm
25
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Annex 9
Former President Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam: thorium for energy independence
Chennai: July 27, 2007 India's former president A.P.J Abdul Kalam returned to a
profession he likes the most a day after he demitted office on Thursday (July 26).
Kalam interacted with the students and faculty members of southern Anna
University in Chennai, capital city of Tamil Nadu state.
Credited with substantial contribution to India's missile technology, Kalam on
Thursday said the country should go for thorium-based nuclear reactors to feed the
energy hungry economy.
\"India has to go nuclear generation in a big way using thorium-based
research reactors. Thorium, of course, is a non-fissile material for research available
in abundance in our country. Intensive research is essential for converting thorium
for maximizing its utilization for electricity generation through thorium-based
reactors,\" Kalam said.
India's nuclear power capacity of 14 reactors is presently 3900 MW.
It is expected to go to 7400 MW by 2010 with the completion of nine
reactors, which are now in progress.
http://tvscripts.edt.reuters.com/2007-07-26/34a2b1ff.html
http://www.andhranews.net/India/2007/July/27-Thorium-based-nuke-9527.asp
26
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Annex 10
1st thorium unit in India soon
Chennai, Aug 2: India is on the verge of setting up the world’s first Advanced
Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) which uses thorium as fuel. “We have the design
and the technology to install a 300 MW thorium based reactor. It is going through
the process of regulatory clearance. We will start work on it in the eleventh plan
period. And we hope to complete the work within seven years,” Dr Baldev Raj ,
director, Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR), Kalpakkam said on
Thursday. In an exclusive interview with this newspaper, Dr Baldev Raj, an
internationally acclaimed metallurgist, said that the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
at Trombay near Mumbai has been doing research into Thorium based reactors for
the last 50 years. He explained that India was the only country with adequate
reserves of thorium to make the use of the reactors based on it viable financially.
“As of today, no other country in the world is doing any research on thorium based
reactors as they do not have adequate thorium reserves,” Dr Raj added. This would
be a major technological achievement for the country as thorium based reactors
would see the completion of India’s nuclear fuel cycle, according to him.
The first stage of India’s nuclear programme saw pressurized heavy water reactors
which created plutonium. “The Fast Breeder Reactors coming up at Kalpakkam and
other places will use this plutonium as fuel. This in turn will help us build up an
inventory of Uranium- 233 which could be used along with Thorium-232 to run the
thorium reactors,” Dr Raj explained. He said that within three decades the country’s
thorium reactors would start generating power for the national grid. “I am sure by
2037 we will have thorium reactors in place,” he said. With its vast thorium
resources along the Kerala and Tamil Nadu coast, the country would not need to
worry about its fuel needs in the future, according to him.
Former President Dr A P J Abdul Kalam, himself a scientist of international repute,
had recently spoken about the neccessity to develop thorium based reactors to
make the country energy independent. With the commissioning of the thorium
based reactor, the country is expected to make a quantum leap towards economy
and safety in power generation.
Since thorium produces 10 to 10,000 times less long-lived radioactive waste than
uranium or plutonium reactors, chances of any radiation hazards are lesser in
Thorium reactors, experts point out. According to Dr Raj work on the 500 MW Fast
Breeder Reactor at Kalpakkam was progressing as per schedule. “ We are sure that
the FBR will be commissioned by September 2010. It will start supplying power to
the national grid by March 2011. We have almost finished the civil construction work.
The reactor vault has been completed without any problems.
The main vessel of the reactor, safety vessel, core structure, control rod drives,
fuel-handling mechanism are all in various stages of completion. From the end of
September, we will start loading all components into the building,” he added. He said
that his team of scientists and engineers were working on a goal to produce power at
the rate of Rs 2 per unit. “As of today the power from FBR costs Rs 3. 20 per unit.
Our dream is to bring it down by a rupee,” he disclosed
http://www.deccan.com/chennaichronicle/Home/HomeDetails.asp#1st thorium unit
in India soon
27
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Annex 11
India's importance in global nuclear renaissance up: Chidambaram
Mumbai, Sept. 3 (PTI): The importance of India in global nuclear renaissance is
increasing as the country will be needed by the international community in the long
run, Principal Scientific Advisor to Government of India Dr R Chidambaram said here
today.
Although India wants the world in the short-term in nuclear energy the world is
going to need India in the long term, he said while inaugurating a day-long seminar
on `Recycling for Electronic and automotive Industry at the Homi Bhabha Centre for
Science Education.
\"This is what I say in my lectures abroad\", he said talking about the closed fuel
cycle which is adopted by India which helps in a comprehensive nuclear waste
management.
In many countries, nuclear technology has stagnated and when nuclear technology
stagnates, knowledge management becomes a problem, Chidambaram said.
Whereas India and China are the two main countries where nuclear industry growth
is seen due to surging energy demand, he added.
The knowledge management in nuclear energy is booming and young people still
take a lot of interest in joining the field in India while there is slow R and D growth
in other parts of the world, including where there is stagnation, he said.
So for us, nuclear knowledge management is not a problem, Chidambaram said.
While talking about nuclear waste management, he said India uses closed fuel cycle
and this is also required because the same amount of uranium, when you recycle it
through fast breeder reactors (FBRs), will give you 50 times more power and if you
close the fuel cycle with thorium, maybe it will give you 600 times more power.
\"So if you want to optimally utilise nuclear fuel resources of the world uranium and
thorium, you will have to close the nuclear fuel cycle. So, the importance of the
three-stage programme goes beyond just building the first generation of reactors\",
Chidambaram said.
Americans have access to cheaper uranium but now they are also looking at
reprocessing but the plutonium stored over a period as waste disposal Yucca
mountain is actually a plutonium mine and since the half-life of plutonium is over
24,000 years, it could be used later as other radioactive products in the spent fuel
would have died down.
On the automotive and electronic waste management, he said he was interested in
evolving guidelines as an immediate step to handle these hazardous waste in an
28
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

organized and safe manner which could later on be recommended for country
legislation.
Since India has developed a throwing away culture recently and with the
exponential growth of electronic and automotive production and consumption, if
steps and precautions are not taken to manage them, India will end up facing a
serious crisis, he added.
http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/001200709032044.htm
See also: http://www.rediff.com/news/2007/sep/03india2.htm
29
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Annex 12
RSS for use of thorium deposits
Dipankar Chakraborty (Statesman, Kolkata, Sept. 4, 2007)
NEW DELHI, Sept. 3: In a categorical rejection of the Indo-US nuclear deal and
taking note of “apprehensions” in the BJP on the matter, the RSS has reminded the
party of the need to strictly adhere to its 2006 national executive resolution in
Nagpur which termed the deal as against national interest.
The assertion of the RSS stand on the nuclear agreement and its apparent rejection
of the opinion of Mr LK Advani in an interview on 26 August, has appeared in the 9
September issue of Panchajanya, the RSS mouthpiece. Mr Advani said in the
interview that there was no problem with the 123 agreement if an amendment to the
Indian Atomic Energy Act was brought about. The Sangh magazine, which published
last year’s Nagpur resolution in its latest issue, said it had been done to ensure that
“there is no misconception (brahm) or apprehension (shanka)” in anyone’s mind on
the RSS stand on the nuclear deal.
The RSS Nagpur Pratinidhi Sabha resolution last year while expressing concern over
the serious ramifications of the Indo-US nuclear deal said it would scuttle India’s
nuclear programme and put an end to all future nuclear tests by the country. It said
the deal would bring India’s nuclear sector under total American control. As long as
India is not officially recognised as a nuclear state opening up nuclear installations
for international inspection would be a step fraught with dangerous consequences for
the strategic and foreign policy of the country.
The RSS resolution also expressed its opposition to the separation of the country’s
civil and military nuclear programme and said it would be against national interest as
more than three fourth of nuclear units would directly come under international
inspection. The RSS advised the government to focus on huge deposits of thorium
available within the country for the country’s nuclear fuel needs. The resolution paid
rich tribute to the expertise of Indian nuclear scientists and congratulated them for
raising their objections to the deal.
Alongside the resolution, Panchajanya also carries an interview with senior BJP
leader and an expert on nuclear issues Mr Murli Manohar Joshi. Reiterating the RSS
stand on the nuclear agreement, Mr Joshi said the deal was not only against the
country’s energy and nuclear sovereignty but would have a far reaching impact on
the foreign policy. He said despite spending crores of rupees and becoming
dependent on the USA for technical support and fuel for nuclear reactors, the country
would not be able to make use of nuclear energy in at least next 10 years. He said
even after making such a huge investment, the nuclear plants would not be able to
meet more than 20 per cent of the country’s energy requirements. He said the
country’s thorium cycle research work had reached a crucial stage and the deal
would put a spanner in it. Pointing to the financial and other consequences of the
deal, Mr Joshi said setting up 50 nuclear reactors would cost the country about Rs
25,000 crore. http://tinyurl.com/28uymf
30
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Annex 13
A strategy for growth of electrical energy in India
loc. cit. R. B. Grover and Subash Chandra, “A strategy for growth of electrical energy
in India”, Document No 10, Department of Atomic Energy, Mumbai, India, August
2004 reproduced below: (Source: http://www.dae.gov.in/iaea/ak-paris0305.doc )
A strategy for growth of electrical energy in India
introduction
Abstract:
Energy, particularly electricity, is a key input for accelerating economic growth.
The present per capita electricity generation in India is about 600 kWh per year.
Since 1990s, India’s gross domestic product (GDP) has been growing quite
fast and it is forecast that it will continue to do so in the coming several decades.
GDP growth has to be accompanied by growth in consumption of primary energy as
well as electricity. India’s population continues to rise and could reach 1.5 billion by
the middle of the century. Our estimate indicates that even after recognizing that
energy intensity
of GDP would continue to decline as in the past, the total electricity generation by
the middle of the century would be an order of magnitude higher than the generation
in the fiscal year 2002-03. This calls for developing a strategy for growth of
electricity gener-ation based on a careful examination of all issues related to
sustainability, particularly abundance of available energy resources, diversity of
sources of energy supply and technologies, security of supplies, self sufficiency,
security of energy infrastructure, effect on local, regional and global environment,
health externalities and demand side management.
Introduction:
India, the largest democracy with an estimated population of about 1.04 billion, is
on a road to rapid growth in economy. During the period 1981-2000, it has
witnessed an impressive GDP growth rate of around 6%/yr . Policy initiatives of the
Government of India during the past decade have resulted in a faster growth of GDP
and forecasts by several agencies point towards continued growth of Indian
economy. Dominic Wilson and Roopa Purushothaman of Goldman Sachs in their
paper write, “India has the potential to show the fastest growth over the next 30 to
50 years. Growth could be higher than over the next 30 years and close to 5% as
late as 2050 if development proceeds successfully.” To ensure that the development
proceeds successfully, Government of India has been very proactive and several
steps have been taken in the recent past. These include policy initiatives as well as
planning and launching of projects aimed at improving energy, transport and
communication infrastructure in the country. The Electricity Act – 2003, notified in
June 2003, is one such important initiative. All these are the steps towards achieving
an average annual growth of 8% in GDP during the ongoing 10th five year plan (April
2002 to March 2007).
As elsewhere in the world, the energy and electricity growth in India is closely
linked to growth in economy. One may notice this by comparing per capita electricity
consumption and GDP in PPP US $ (purchasing power parity US $) of various
countries in the neighbourhood as well as in other regions of the world. Key World
Energy Statistics published by the International Energy Agency gives detailed
information about electricity consumption in various countries and GDP in 1995 PPP
US $. India’s electricity consumption based on data from utilities is given as 408 kWh
per year per capita for the year 2001, while GDP per capita in PPP US $ is given as
31
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

2138. Corresponding figures for Indonesia are 423 and 2684, for Thailand 1563 and
5833, for Malaysia 2824 and 7645, and for Singapore 7677 and 20426. For OECD
countries these numbers are 7879 and 21785. Here one may note a correlation
between per capita GDP and per capita electricity consumption.
At the time of independence in the year 1947, total installed electricity generation
capacity was 1,363 MWe. It rose to 30,214 MWe in the year 1980-81, to 66,086
MWe in the year 1990-91 and to 138,730 MWe on 31st March 2003 , the
corresponding growth rates being 9.54%/yr, 8.14%/yr and 6.26%/yr. The average
growth rate over the entire period, thus, has been an impressive 8.6%/yr. In spite of
this impressive growth, per capita electricity as well as primary energy consumption
are still very low. In addition, the share of non-commercial energy resources
continues to be much higher than what it is in developed countries . Domestic
production of commercial energy has registered an average growth of about 5.9%/yr
during the period 1981-2000. Various constraints, particularly poor hydrocarbon
resource base, have forced an increased reliance on energy imports, which have
grown at the rate of about 7.1%/yr . The electricity sector also has experienced
severe shortages during the above period despite an impressive growth. During the
year 2000-01, there was an average electricity shortage of 7.8% and a peak power
demand shortage of 13% . It has now increased to 10% and 15% respectively .
The growth rate of electricity has been substantially higher than other forms of
energy, the reason being convenience of use and cleanliness at the user end.
Electricity generation in India during the fiscal year 2002-03 was about 532 billion
kWh from electric utilities and about 104 billion kWh from captive power plants . On
per capita basis it turns out to be about 610 kWh per year. As already mentioned,
India’s GDP has been growing quite fast and it is forecast that it will continue to be
so in the coming decades. GDP growth has to be accompanied by growth of primary
energy consumption as well as electricity consumption. A number of organs of the
Government of India (GOI) are engaged in energy production and we felt it desirable
to look at all the fuel resources, the plans of all the organs of GOI and examine the
energy scenario as it might emerge in the decades to come. Long-term forecast is
always full of uncertainties; still it is necessary to build scenarios for the future so as
to identify available alternatives. In case of energy technologies, electrical energy in
particular, lead times for developing new technologies are very long and, therefore,
scenario building is desirable to identify problem areas and initiate R&D on relevant
topics. The present study has been carried out with this objective. In this study, after
making brief remarks on the population projection, we review projections about
India’s energy demand growth rates based on other studies and present our
projection about electricity growth rate and a strategy to meet the projected
demand.
1.
2. Statistical Outline of India, page 11, 2001- 2002, Tata Services Limited, Mumbai.
Dominic Wilson and Roopa Purushothaman, “Dreaming with BRICs: The Path to
3. 2050”,Global Economics Paper No: 99, Goldmann Sachs, 1st Oct. 2003
4. (http://www.gs.com/insight/research/reports/99.pdf).
Key World Energy Statistics, 2003, International Energy Agency.
5. RKD Shah, “Strategies for Growth of Thermal Power”, Energy for Growth and
Sustainability, Indian National Academy of Engineering, 1998.
i) Power from Utilities: Thermal, Hydro, Nuclear and Wind: 107,972.8 MWe
(http://cea.nic.in/exec_summ/chapters.htm#GENERATION%20INSTALLED%20
6. CAPACITY(MW)), accessed on 23.4.03
32
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

ii) Captive Power: 29,000 MWe PowerLine, November 2001 gives estimates of
captive power installed capacity in India and these have been extrapolated based
on data given in PowerLine, December 2002.
7. Coal, petroleum, natural gas, nuclear and hydro and other renewable forms of
energy constitute commercial energy. Traditional or non-commercial energy
8. resources include biomass such as fuel wood, crop-residue and animal-waste.
9. Data about non-commercial energy usage is not so well documented as that
10.about the commercial energy. In the present study we are mainly concerned with
the commercial form of energy and unless otherwise stated the term energy
would mean the commercial form of energy.
11.Estimated from data given in ‘Energy’, published by the Centre for Monitoring
12.Indian Economy Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai, page 4, April 2002,.
TERI Energy Data Directory & Yearbook, 2000/2001, TERI, New Delhi, India.
http://www.teriin.org/features/art195.htm accessed on 23.04.03
Throughout the report, we have preferred to talk about generation and not
consumption as it is difficult to separate theft from technical losses. It is expected
that by the middle of the century theft will be near zero and with technological
inputs technical losses will also come to below 10%.
Personal communication, Central Electricity Authority, May 2003.
Using the data of captive power plants given in “Energy”, published by Centre for
Monitoring Indian Economy, April 2002, a capacity factor of 41% has been
estimated. At the same capacity factor and an estimated captive power base of
29,000 MWe the electric power generated is 104 billion kWh
Population projection
According to the recent census , India’s population has increased from 0.843 billion
in the year 1991 to 1.027 billion in the year 2001. It represents an average annual
growth rate of 1.99%/yr for the ten years. Although the population is increasing, the
growth rate has been decreasing for the last many decades. According to a study
published by the United Nations , depending on the population growth scenario,
India’s population will cross 1.88 billion (high variant), 1.57 billion (medium variant)
or 1.2 billion (Low variant) in the year 2050. For this to happen, the Total Fertility
Rate (TFR) will have to go down from the present 2.9 children per woman to 2.6 by
the year 2020 for the high variant, to 2.1 by the year 2020 for the medium variant
or to 1.6 by the period 2010-15 for the low variant. In the case of the low variant,
the population will be passing through a peak of nearly 1.3 billion around the year
2040. The national population policy (NPP), 2000, recently adopted by the
Government of India states that ‘the long-term objective is to achieve a stable
population by 2045’. The policy document assumes that the medium term objective
of bringing down the total fertility rate (TFR) to the replacement level of 2.1 children
per woman by the year 2010 will be achieved.
In tune with the long term objective of the Government of India, the present study
assumes that India’s population will stabilize by the year 2050 at a level of 1.50
billion. A decreasing growth rate of population (1.5%/yr till 2011, 1.1%/yr till 2021,
0.7%/yr till 2031, 0.4%/yr till 2041, 0.2%/yr till 2051 and then zero) has also been
assumed (Table 1).
Primary energy & its components
33
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

During the fiscal year 2002-03 the estimated total available energy was 18.96 EJ
(Domestic 15 EJ, Imported 3.96 EJ). Out of the total, about 71% (13.46 EJ) was the
commercial component and 29% (5.49 EJ) non-commercial . During the year 2001,
the commercial primary energy consum-ption in the world was about 382 EJ. India’s
consumption was merely 3.4% (U.S.A. 24.5%) of world’s commercial energy
consumption, while its population stood at nearly 16.6% (U.S.A. 4.6%) of the
world’s population. Per capita commercial energy consumption in India stood at
nearly 1/5th of the world average and 1/26th of that of the U.S.A . Table 2 gives
contribution of various fuels to primary commercial energy and to electrical
generation during the year 2002-03.
3.1 Coal and Lignite
India has large reserves of coal and is the third largest coal producing country of
the world. As per the estimates of the Geological Survey of India, total gross in situ
coal reserves in the country are 245.53 BT (Proven: 93.79, Indicated: 109.50 and
Inferred: 42.24). Following the procedure assigning reserves with 90% confidence
level to the proven category, 70% to the indicated category and 40% to the inferred
category and then applying the criterion of reserve to mineable resource ratio of
4.7:1, the working group on coal & lignite for the 10th five year plan tentatively
projected the extractable coal to be only 37.86 BT.
India’s requirements of coking coal are almost entirely fulfilled by imports. Even
the non-coking coal is being increasingly imported in order to blend it with Indian
coal having high ash content and use in power plants at certain coastal locations due
to commercial reasons. During 2001-02 domestic production of coal was about 323
MT, while the net import was at 22.8 MT. In view of the large dependence on coal
and its stagnating production, it may be necessary to increase its import. Production
of lignite was about 24.8 MT during the same period. The currently known lignite
reserves in the country, much less than coal, are estimated to be 34.6 BT (Proven
3.69, Indicated 11.14 and Inferred 19.76). It is relatively a small quantity and
cannot make a significant contribution towards long-term energy security.
3.2 Oil and Natural Gas
During the year 2001-02, domestic crude oil production was 32.03 MT as
compared to net import of 75.63 MT. In the same year, about 29.7 billion cubic
metres of natural gas (NG) was produced domestically. To meet the increasing
demand, the government has permitted private sector participation in this field. In
November 2002, discovery of a large gas field in Karnataka estimated to contain
about 0.2 trillion cubic metre gas was made by a private entrepreneur. There is a
high potential for discoveries offshore, particularly in deep waters. Exploration has so
far taken place in only about one-quarter of India’s 26 sedimentary basins. It is
estimated that these basins may contain as much as 30 BT of hydrocarbon reserves ,
. India’s recoverable reserves of crude oil and natural gas were till recently
considered to be about 600 MT and about 650 billion cubic metres respectively . The
Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas has set strategic goals for the next two decades
(2001-2020) of ‘Doubling Reserve Accretion’ to 12 BT (O+OEG)’ and ‘Improving
Recovery Factor to the order of 40%’ . Exploration is a dynamic process and one
could expect further growth in reserves in the years to come. Considering that India
is one of the least explored countries for oil and gas and the present thrust by GOI in
this area, it is assumed that cumulative availability of hydrocarbons up to the year
2052 would be nearly 12 BT of (O+OEG).
34
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Coal Bed Methane (CBM), primarily a methane gas occurring in coal seams, is
being harnessed in USA for more than a decade. Resource potential of CBM in our
country has been conservatively estimated at 850 billion cubic metres . Exploration
and exploitation of CBM is complex and exposure to this technology in India is
limited. Efforts are being made to acquire technical know how to harness CBM from
on-going mines as well as from virgin coal bearing areas. In near future this new
source of energy is expected to come on stream from 8 CBM blocks .
3.3 Hydro Energy
The hydro electric potential in India has been estimated to be 600 billion kWh
annually, corresponding to a name-plate capacity of 150 GWe . It is mostly located in
the northern and north-eastern regions of the country. As of March 2003, only about
27 GWe has either been developed or is being developed. A vision paper prepared by
the Ministry of Power envisions harnessing of entire balance hydro power potential of
India by the year 2025-26. It is proposed to add 16 GWe of new capacity in the
Tenth Plan and 19.3 GWe in the Eleventh Plan .
3.4 Non-conventional Renewable Energy
The estimated potential of non-conventional renewable energy resources in our
country is about 100 GWe. Wind, small Hydro and Biomass Power/ Co-generation
have potentials of 45 GWe, 15 GWe and 19.5 GWe respectively ; Solar PV, Solar
Thermal and Waste-to-Energy being the other important components. All these
resources will be increasingly used in future especially in remote areas. The medium
term goal is to ensure that 10% of the installed capacity to be added by the year
2012, i.e. about 10 GWe, comes from renewable sources. Good progress has been
made in the field of wind power and installed capacity additions in the recent years
have been quite impressive. However, the wind mills have, so far, reported very poor
capacity factors, (14% for wind power during the year 2002-03).
3.5 Nuclear Energy
As in case of coal, uranium reserves are also given certain categorisation. These
are Reasonable Assured Resources (RAR), Estimated Additional Resources-I (EAR-I),
Estimated Additional Res-ources-II (EAR-II) and Speculative Resources (SR).
Uranium reserves in India pertaining to categories RAR, EAR-I and EAR-II are
estimated to be about 95,000 tonnes of metal. Speculative reserves are over and
above this quantity and with further exploration, could become available for nuclear
power programme. After accounting for various losses including mining (15%),
milling (20%) and fabrication (5%), the net uranium available for power generation
is about 61,000 tonnes. Thorium reserves are present in a much larger quantity.
Total estimated reserves of monazite in India are about 8 million tonnes (containing
about 0.63 million tonnes of thorium metal) occurring in beach and river sands in
association with other heavy minerals. Out of nearly 100 deposits of the heavy
minerals, at present only 17 deposits containing about ~4 million tonnes of monazite
have been identified as exploitable. Mineable reserves are ~70% of identified
exploitable resources. Therefore, about 2,25,000 tonnes of thorium metal is available
for nuclear power programme.
The present indigenous nuclear power plants are of Pressurized Heavy Water
Reactor (PHWR) type, having heavy water as moderator and coolant, and working on
the once-through-cycle of natural uranium fuel. Based on such reactors nearly 330
GWe-yr of electricity can be produced from domestic uranium resource. This is
equivalent to about 10 GWe installed capacity of PHWRs running at a life-time
35
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

capacity factor of 80% for 40 years. This uranium on multiple recycling through the
route of Fast Breeder Reactors (FBR) has the potential to provide about 42,200 GWe-
yr assuming utilisation of 60% of heavy metal, percentage utilisation being an
indicative number. Actual value will be have the potential of about 150,000 GWe-yr,
which can satisfy our energy needs for a long time.
A three-stage nuclear power programme has been chalked out in the Department
of Atomic Energy to systematically exploit all these resources. It is planned to install
a nuclear power capacity of about 20 GWe by the year 2020. The second stage of the
nuclear power programme envisages building a chain of fast breeder reactors
multiplying fissile material inventory along with power production. Approval of the
Government for the construction of the first 500 MWe Prototype Fast Breeder
Reactor (PFBR) was obtained in September 2003 and it is scheduled for completion
in the year 2011. It is envisaged that four more such units will be constructed by the
year 2020 as a part of the programme to set up about 20 GWe by the year 2020.
Subsequently FBRs will be the mainstay of the nuclear power programme in India.
The third stage consists of exploiting country’s vast resources of thorium through the
route of fast or thermal critical reactors or the accelerator driven sub-critical reactors
(ADS) . A 300 MWe Advan-ced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR), designed to draw
about two-third power from thorium fuel, is under development and will provide
experience in all aspects of technologies related to thorium fuel cycle. A beginning is
being made towards developing an accelerator needed for ADS.
3.6 New Fuel Resources and Technologies
With enhanced exploration and mining, in tune with the trend so far, it is likely
that new deposits of coal and hydrocarbons will be discovered, thereby increasing
our resource base in future. New technologies such as in situ coal gasification will
make more efficient use of the present resources and will enable the country to tap
resources presently considered uneconomical.
A recent article in Nature gives account of hydrocarbons and how the energy-
returned-on-energy-invested (EROI) has tended to decline over time for all energy
resources. For example, the EROI of oil in the US has decreased from a value of at
least determined as one proceeds with the progra-mme and gets some experience.
Issues involved are fuel burn-up, extent of multiple recycling possible, cycle losses
during reprocessing and re-fabrication, and out-of-pile period consisting of
transportation, storage, reprocessing, re-fabrication etc. FBR generation potential
indicated above is equivalent to an installed capacity of about 530 GWe operating for
100 years at a life-time capacity factor of 80%. The thorium reserves, on multiple
recycling through appropriate reactor systems, 100 to 1 for oil discoveries in 1930s
to about 17 to 1 today for oil and gas extraction. The paper also says that the
alternate liquid fuels such as ethanol from corn have a very low EROI. An EROI of
much greater than 1 to 1 is needed to run a society. For a country like India having a
high density of population, non-conventional renewable energy resources would
continue to be important, but low EROI and competing pressures on the use of land
would not permit them to contribute a significant share to the total energy mix.
US Department of Energy has funded eight projects under the Clean Coal
Initiative and has also ann-ounced plan to develop a pollution free coal fired power
plant (Code named ‘FutureGen’) of the future . Similar proactive efforts are needed
in India in the areas of coal mining as well as coal based power plant technologies.
36
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Many countries have interest in exploiting the gas hydrates. Gas hydrates or
methane hydrates are ice-like solids in which water molecules form cages around
molecules of methane, the chief component of natural gas. Reserves of hydrates
may offer more energy than coal . However, this resource needs to be precisely
evaluated. In India also these resources are being identified. Estimates of this rather
newly identified energy resource in India vary by orders of magnitude. According to a
press report , various agencies in India have mapped out 6150 trillion cubic meters
of gas hydrates along the southern coastline of the Indian peninsula. However, the
technology of gas production from hydrates is yet to be commercially proven. The
Department of Science and Technology (DST) is pursuing a proposal to develop
technologies for exploiting gas hydrates in collaboration with Russian Federation.
Fusion is another attractive long-term energy option and R&D on fusion is being
done worldwide including in India at the Institute for Plasma Research, Gandhinagar,
Gujarat. Fusion based reactor systems may become a reality by middle of the
century.
13.
14.Provisional Population Totals, page 34, Census of India 2001, Registrar General &
15.Census Commissioner, India.
16.World Population: Major Trends- A Study by United Nations, (www. iiasa.ac.at /
Research / LUC /Papers) accessed on 19.08.2002
Provisional Population Totals, page 31, Census of India 2001, Registrar General &
Census Commissioner, India.
17.Estimated from the Annual Reports 2002-03 of various ministries of the
government of India, EJ = Exa Joule =1018 Joules. Other commonly used units
18.are MTOE and MTCE. 1 EJ = 23.9 MTOE = 34.5 MTCE. World Energy Assessment:
19.Energy and the Challenge of Sustainability, 2000, page 139 gives definition of all
20.the energy units. MTOE is based on the assumption that calorific value of oil
21.i10,000 kcal/kg. Similarly MTCE is based on the assumption that calorific value of
coal is 6,930 kcal/kg.
22.Report of the Steering Committee on Energy Sector for 12th Five Year Plan,
23.Government of India, Planning Commission (Sr. No. 1/2001, March-2002).
BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2002.
24.Report of Working Group on Coal & Lignite for The Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-
25.2007), July 2001.
26.An Energy Overview of India, DOE, USA,
27.(www.fe.doe.gov/international/indiover.html) accessed on11.06.2002.
Vision Hydrocarbon-2025, 2000, Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas,
28.Government of India - Strategy Paper for Development of the Hydrocarbon
29.Sector, February 2000.
30.BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2002, (www.bp.com/centres/energy/)
accessed on 15.07.2002.
31.Annual Report, 2002-2003, Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas, Government of
India page 13. ‘O+OEG’ stands for ‘Oil’ and ‘Oil Equivalent Gas’
32.Disha - Green India 2047, page 283,TERI 2001.
Annual Report 2002- 2003, page 3, Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas,
Government of India
33.Annual Report 2001- 2002, page 6, Ministry of Power, Government of India.
Report of the Steering Committee on Energy Sector for 10th Five Year Plan,
34.Government of India, Planning Commission (Sr. No. 1/2001, March-2002).
35.Annual Report, page 4, 2001-02, Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Resources,
36.Government of India.
37
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

37.A.B.Awati, Internal note, July 24, 2003, Department of Atomic Energy,
Government of India.
38.It consists of two components: 80,000 tonnes from Reasonably Assured Resource
(RAR) and Estimated Additional Resources-I (EAR-I) and 15,000 tonnes from
39.Estimated Additional Resource-II (EAR-II).
Out of 3.93 MT of monazite ore about 70% is available for further processing
40.which contains 9% of ThO2 of which 87.87 % is thorium metal.
One viewpoint is that ongoing research to increase the fuel burn-up could enable
41.achieving burn-up of the order of 200,000 MWd/T a reality in the next one
decade. To achieve 60% heavy metal utilization would, thus, require only 3
cycles, which should be achievable.
Anil Kakodkar, “Perspective of a Developing Country with Expanding Nuclear
Power Programme”, International Conference on Innovative Technologies for
Nuclear Fuel Cycles and Nuclear Power, June 2003, IAEA, Vienna.
Charles Hall et al, “Hydrocarbons and the evolution of human culture” Nature, vol
426, 20 November 2003.
“Bush takes the Initiative on Clean Coal”, Modern Power Systems, April 2003,
page 3.
“Methane extraction and carbon sequestration” ORNL Review, No. 2, 2002, page
4.
“Massive gas-hydrate reserves discovered” Financial Express, Nov. 15, 1998
(http://www.indian-express.com/fe/daily/19981115/31955104.html) accessed on
15.07.2002.
Proposed Indo-Russian Centre for Gas Hydrate Studies, Integrated Long Term
Programme for Cooperation in Science & Technology between India and Russia,
Department of Science and Technology, October 2002, page 59.
Koji Tokimatsu et.al. ‘Role of nuclear fusion in future energy systems and the
environment under future uncertainties’ Energy Policy 31 (2003) 775-797.
‘An Outline Roadmap for Fusion Energy Science: A Portfolio Approach- Discussion
Draft’ 11-13-1998 (http://www.math.nyu.edu/mfdd/imre/roadmap.pdf)
accessed on 10.10.2003.
Peter Rodgers, “Waiting for the power of the sun”, Physics World, July 2002, page
45.
Electricity Demand Projection
Many national and international agencies have made projections of energy demands
of India. We first present a survey of various studies and then give our projections.
4.1. A Survey of Various Studies
There is a considerable spread in energy demand forecasts made for India by
various investigators. Some important forecasts/scenarios are summarized in Table
3.
Various working groups of the steering committee on energy sector for the 10th
five year plan projected an average primary commercial energy demand growth rate
of 5.74%/yr for the two forthcoming five year plans. In view of (a) the increased
emphasis on energy efficiency and energy conservation, (b) an expected higher
contribution of the service sector to the GDP in future and (c) the impact of
information technology and e-commerce, the steering committee came up with a
lower figure of 4.25%/yr for the demand growth rate .
The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) , carried out an analysis of the Indian
energy scenario and suggested strategies for sustainable development . In their base
case scenario the primary energy growth rate was taken as 4.4%/yr during the
38
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

period 1997-2019 and 3.6%/yr during the period 2020-2047. For electricity, the
corresponding growth rates were 5.7%/yr and 3.9%/yr. In the alternative scenario,
growth rates are smaller, 3.7%/yr and 3.0%/yr for the primary energy and 5.1%/yr
and 3.4%/yr for electricity. Both of these scenarios assume a very large dependence
on imports, which is projected to increase from about 20% in the year 1997 to about
70% in the year 2047 in the base scenario and 60% in the alternative scenario.
The International Energy Outlook 2002 (IEO) of the United States predicts for
India a reference primary energy consumption growth rate of 3.6%/yr during the
period 1997 to 2020. The high and low growth scenarios correspond to 4.5%/yr and
2.6%/yr respectively. For the electricity consumption, the three corresponding
growth rates for the above period are 3.8%/yr, 4.5%/yr and 2.6%/yr.
Under the project “A Long-term Perspective on Environment and Development in
the Asia-Pacific Region” of the Environment Agency of the Government of Japan the
primary energy consumption growth rates, for India, were projected to be 3.9%/yr
till the year 2025, 2.6%/yr till the year 2050 and 1.8%/yr till the year 2100 under
their high estimate category . Similar growth rates have been assumed for India in
another study “US-Japan Energy Cooperation to Help Achieve Sustainable
Development in Asia” .
The primary and electricity energy growth rate forecasts made by the Institute of
Energy Economics of Japan (IEEJ), for India, are 5.2%/yr and 5.4%/yr respectively
for the forthcoming twenty years .
The Royal Society and The Royal Academy of Engineers of the United Kingdom in
their study on the role of nuclear energy in generating electricity have referred to
Morrison’s projections of world energy requirement. For the developing nations,
those are based on 4%/yr until the year 2026, 3%/yr until the year 2050 and 2%/yr
for the rest of the century .
In India, Central Electricity Authority (CEA) undertakes periodic electric power
surveys (EPS) to make projections of the energy requirements of the country. These
estimates guide the planning process for the capacity additions. CEA released its
report on the 16th electric power survey in January 2001 and projected electricity
growth requirement, for the period 1997-2012, to be about 6.5%/yr and 7.4%/yr in
its two scenarios .
Beyond the year 2050, most of the energy growth forecasts are around 1 to
2%/yr.
4.2 Demand Projection: Our View
India’s GDP is growing fast. Energy Intensity of GDP has been observed to follow
a certain trend worldwide. Below a certain level of development, growth results in
increase in energy intensity. With further growth in economy, the energy intensity
starts declining. Energy intensity of GDP in India is same as in OECD countries ,
when GDP is calculated in terms of the purchasing power parity (PPP). Energy-GDP
elasticity , the ratio of the growth rates of the two, remained around 1.3 from early
fifties to mid-seventies. Since then it has been continuously decreasing. Electricity is
the most important component of the primary energy. Electricity-GDP elasticity was
3.0 till the mid-sixties. It has also decreased since then. Reasons for these energy–
economy elasticity changes are: demographic shifts from rural to urban areas ,
structural economic changes towards lighter industry, impressive growth of services,
increased use of energy efficient devices, increased efficiency of conversion
equipments and inter-fuel substitution with more efficient alternatives. Based on the
CMIE data the average value of the Electricity-GDP elasticity during 1991-2000 has
been calculated to be 1.213 and that of the primary energy- GDP elasticity to be
0.907. Estimating the future GDP growth rates of India from the projections made by
Dominic Wilson and Roopa Purushothaman , taking the primary energy intensity fall
39
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

to be 1.2 %/yr , extrapolating the electricity intensity fall from past data till the year
2022 and subsequently a constant fall of 1.2 %/yr the growth rates of the primary
energy and electrical energy have been estimated by us as follows.
These rates form the basis of the projections reported in this study. It may be
recalled that historical primary energy and electricity growth rates during the period
1981-2000 were 6%/yr and 7.8%/yr respectively.
Based on the growth rates given in the above table, per capita electricity
generation would reach about 5300 kWh per year in the year 2052 and the total
about 8000 billion kWh. By then the cumulative energy expenditure will be about
2400 EJ. The ratio of thermal equivalent of electrical energy to the primary
commercial energy will rise from about 57% in the year 2002-03 to about 65% in
the year 2052-53.
Power generation in India was only 4.1 billion kWh in the year 1947-48 and in
the year 2002-03 it was more than 600 billion kWh. Considering the past record, the
future economy growth scenario and likely boost to captive power plant sector as a
result of changes arising due to Electricity Act 2003 , the target of generating about
8000 billion kWh per year by 2052 is achievable.
42.
Report of the Steering Committee on Energy Sector for 12th Five Year Plan,
43. Government of India, Planning Commission (Sr. No. 1/2001, March-2002).
44..It was earlier called Tata Energy Research Institute.
45. Disha-Green India 2047, TERI, 2001.
International Energy Outlook, Energy Information Administration, Appendices A,
46. B and C, March 2002, (www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/index.html) accessed on
10.07.2002.
47. A Long Term Perspective on Environment and Development in the Asia-Pacific
Region, (http://www.ecoasia.org/workshop/bluebook/contents.html) accessed on
48. 30.05.2002.
49. John Layman, US - Japan Energy Cooperation to Help Achieve Sustainable
Development in Asia, Energy Outlook for Asia, Sep. 2000,
50. (www.acus.org/Publications/Occasionalpapers/Energy/LymanEnergy.pdf.)
accessed on 30.05.2002.
51. Kazuya Fujime, IEEJ, ( http://eneken,ieej.or.jp/en/data/pdf/115.pdf.) accessed
52. on 11.06.2002.
53. Nuclear Energy-The Future Climate, The Royal Society and The Royal Academy of
54. Engineering, U.K., June 1999, (www.royalsoc.ac.uk/policy/nuclearreport.htm)
accessed on 24.05.2002.
55. Sixteenth Electric Power Survey of India, Central Electricity Authority, Ministry of
Power, Government of India, September 2000 (page 132).
56. Energy Intensity of GDP is defined as the ratio of energy consumption to GDP
e.g., MTOE/ Rs.1000 of GDP.
Key World Energy Statistics, 2003, International Energy Agency.
57. TERI Energy Data Directory & Yearbook 2000/2001, Tata Energy Research
Institute, New Delhi, India.
58. Movement from rural to urban areas influences energy-economy elasticity in
several ways. It causes a shift from non-commercial energy to commercial
59. energy particularly electricity. It also results in efficient use of energy and a shift
towards services.
40
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Dominic Wilson and Roopa Purushothaman, ‘Dreaming with BRICs: The Path to
2050’ Global Economics Paper No. 99, Goldman Sachs, 1st Oct. 2003
(https://www.gs.com/insight/research/reports/99.pdf).
From 2000 to 2030, global energy intensity will fall by 1.2% per year. Intensity
will fall more quickly in the non-OECD regions, largely because of improved
energy efficiency and structural economic changes towards lighter industry. See
World Energy Outlook, Highlights, page 32 - 2002.
This is higher than what this ratio is in developed countries and reflects the shift
towards cleaner energy source due to likely advances in technology in the
coming five decades.
RKD Shah, “Strategies for Growth of Thermal Power”, Energy for Growth and
Sustainability, Indian National Academy of Engineering, 1998.
http://powermin.nic.in/electricity_act_2003 accessed on 28.10.2003.
Meeting Demand Projection
The present status of various fuel-resources in India is given in Table 4. The
domestic mineable coal (about 38 BT) and the estimated hydrocarbon reserves
(about 12 BT) together may provide about 1200 EJ of energy. To meet the projected
demand of about 2400 EJ, one has to tap all options including using the known fossil
reserves efficiently, looking for increasing fossil resource base, competitive import of
energy (including building gas pipe lines whenever and wherever permitted based on
geo-political considerations and found feasible from technocomm-ercial con-
siderations), harnessing full hydro potential for generation of electricity and
increasing use of non-fossil resources including nuclear and non-conventional.
Nuclear fuel-resources have the potential of significantly reducing the gap in the
demand and supply of energy. Issues like comparative economics, effect on
environment, security of supplies, future technological deve-lopments in India and all
over the world, perceived proliferation concerns etc. will dictate contributions of
various energy resources. We made an attempt to understand all issues and build a
reference scenario to meet the projected demand. With regard to nuclear, issues
involved are likely evolution of policies being followed by nuclear resource suppliers,
further indigenous development of fast breeder re-actor technologies and
development of technologies for setting up of ADS. Reference scenario assumes that
while import of reactors having an installed capacity of 8000 MWe by the year 2020
included in the plans of the Department of Atomic Energy would be possible, any
further imports may not be possible due to prevailing international nuclear
commerce scenario. Reference sce-nario also assumes that fast breeder reactors to
be set up beyond 2020 would be based on metal fuels having short doubling time.
Other cases considered included no imports of reactors beyond the two already
contracted, and development of ADS by 2030. These are referred to briefly in this
report. Before giving further details about the reference scenario, we will like to
comment on certain important factors viz., imports, economics and environment.
Imports
At present, India imports about 30% of its commercial energy . It is desirable
that in future also the import content is limited to about the same level. India is
importing coal, hydrocarbons as well as enriched uranium . Possibilities for importing
gas through a pipe line from Central Asia or Middle East are being talked about, but
in view of strategic constraints no firm plans are in place. It is worthwhile to compare
import of nuclear fuel with the import of other forms of fuel (Table 5). Nuclear fuel
contains energy in a concentrated form thus requiring much less tonnage for fuel to
be transported or stored. In the overall cost of electricity generated from nuclear
fuel, the cost of fuel is a much smaller component as compared to the other
41
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

components. In addition, spent fuel is a resource for fuel to be used in fast breeder
reactors. The cost indicated is on the assumption that the fuel is used in once
through mode. These numbers can undergo minor changes over a period of time, but
the order of magnitude differe-nce between the characteristics of nuclear fuel and
other fuels will always remain. Further, the fuel discharged from nuclear reactors
also con-tains fissile component and that can be recovered by reprocessing and
recycled, preferably in FBRs, thereby further multiplying the fissile material. Thus, if
import of energy is a necessity, from strategic considerations nuclear fuel is a
preferable option.
To keep the energy import at an affordable level and to have diversity of supply
sources, it is necessary that the share of nuclear energy be substantially increased
from the present about 3% of the total generation. Growth of nuclear installed
capacity in India would depend on the chara-cteristics of the concept chosen for fast
breeder reactors and associated fuel cycle technologies.
Economics and Environment
The comparative economics of various modes of power generation depends on
local conditions, discount rates and availability of cheap fuels like coal and gas.
Wherever fossil fuels are available at reasonable prices, the setting up of thermal
power plants is an option to be considered in any techno-economic analysis. Issues
to be considered in case of coal based plants include location of coal-mines vis-a-vis
load centres, coal transportation, availability of railroads for transportation, sulphur
and ash content of the fuel and associated environmental impact. Plants based on
imported coal have to be set up at coastal sites. India’s oil reserves are minuscule
and should be reserved for use by transport sector. Gas prices are subject to
fluctuations due to market forces and form a sizable fraction of electricity cost
produced from gas-fired plants.
An internal study done by Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd. (NPCIL)
indicates that nuclear power is competitive as compared to coal fired thermal power,
when the nuclear plant is about 1000 km from the pit-head. There are several
regions in the country where such haulage is involved. Being capital intensive in
nature, the cost of nuclear electricity becomes more competitive with the age of the
plant as the capital cost depreciates.
The study referred to in the previous paragraph is based on economics data
pertaining to PHWRs being constructed and operated by NPCIL. Studies by IGCAR
indicate that the cost of fast breeder reactor will be comparable to, if not less than,
PHWR cost. “The estimated unit energy cost works out to INR 3.25 per kWh. With
increased fuel burn up and series construction of reactors, the unit energy cost will
come down.” The recently published study on nuclear power by MIT points out that
recycle option would impose a significant penalty on nuclear power. This, however,
has been strongly criticized by the French , who have real industrial experience with
reprocessing and plutonium recycling. The CEA report says that “….the incremental
cost of MOX recycling is between 4% and 6% of the kWh cost.” This essentially
indicates that fuel cost in case of recycling is only marginally above the once through
case. For Indian conditions, where the cost of natural uranium is significantly above
that in the international market, this indicates that cost of plutonium-based fuels
would be very competitive.
42
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Generally only direct costs are used in comparative assessment of different
electricity options. However, the opinion is building up in favour of internalising all
costs of generation in any comparative assess-ment of energy options and this would
include, inter alia, the cost of impact on environment and health and cost of setting
up of infrastructure for fuel transportation which is often subsidised. The largest
environmental impacts associated with fossil fuels are carbon dioxide and other
forms of air pollution, which can cause chronic illness. The risks associated with
these impacts affect the entire planet. In addition, the volume of waste generated in
case of energy generation from fossil fuels is quite large. Technically nuclear energy
is far more benign and much of the cost is already internalized in financial plans. For
example, nuclear power operators are required to provide funds for decommissioning
of installations. External costs have been estimated by a study conducted under
European Commission’s ExternE project and results reported in the year 1998 are
summarized in the Table 6. Similar studies need to be conducted under Indian
conditions so as to factor externalities in the process of planning.
To reduce the risk of global climate change, industrialized countries have made
commitments to reduce GHG emissions under a protocol, negotiated in Kyoto, Japan
in 1997 as an addition to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC). In the so-called Kyoto Protocol, indu-strialized countries have
agreed to reduce their collective emissions during the period 2008-2012 by at least
5.2% below 1990 levels. So far no decision has been taken about carbon reduction
commitments for the period beyond the year 2012, but statements have already
been made, that countries like India and China should also make carbon reduction
commitments. It is pertinent to note that per capita carbon emission in India is 1.1
tonnes per year and it is 2.5 tonnes per year in China while for the OECD countries,
it is 10.9 tonnes per year While developing future energy technology mix, nuclear
energy has to be an important part of the mix as it produces virtually no GHG
emissions.
The basis for the scenario and the main features are summarized hereafter.
5.1 The Basis for Building the Scenario to Meet the Projected Demand.
Capacity Factors and Thermal to Electrical Energy Conversion Efficiency
Due to continued improvement in technology, capacity factors of various types of
power plants and thermal to electrical energy conversion efficiencies would improve
as projected in the Table 7.
Hydro
The Central Electricity Authority has completed the preliminary ranking study of
hydroelectric schemes to harness the balance hydroelectric potential in the country
and the report was released on 5th February 2002. It recommended achieving
cumulative hydro installed capacity of 115 GWe by the year 2021-22 and the full 150
GWe by the year 2025-26.
Non-conventional Renewable
Out of the total potential of 100 GWe of the non-conventional energy, 10 GWe is
planned to be added by the year 2011-12. Assuming same rate of growth, about 56
GWe will be reached by the year 2022-23. The remaining potential is assumed to be
attained by the year 2052-53.
43
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Nuclear
The target set by DAE of installing about 20 GWe nuclear power by the year 2020
will be achieved. This target includes 2.5 GWe of Oxide fuelled FBRs and 8 GWe of
LWRs.
R&D for using metal fuel in FBRs will be completed by the year 2020.
Corresponding fuel cycle technologies will also be developed. Industrial capability to
construct required numbers of FBRs of 1 GWe rating will be in place by the year 2021
and this capacity will be expanded subsequently.
All the plutonium produced in PHWRs and in LWRs will be used for fuelling FBRs.
Reactor physics parameters used for calculating growth of nuclear installed capacity
are given in the Annex.
The study indicates that about a quarter of the total electricity generation by
nuclear power by the middle of the century is possible. The R&D issues to be
completed before the year 2020 to achieve such a growth have been identified and
in our opinion this is doable. It is possible to have a contribution even higher than a
quarter based on nuclear energy by the middle of the century if, (i) All R&D, for
setting up an ADS based on thorium as fuel, is completed and a demonstration unit
is commissioned by around the year 2020,
(ii) A prototype unit of large capacity is constructed by the year 2030, and
(iii) Many such power units are set up so as to make significant contribution to
electricity generation as well as to primary energy by the middle of the century.
R&D to achieve this has been initiated as a part of the 10th five year plan in
India . Efforts are being made worldwide to develop ADS for power generation as
well as waste incineration and the expectation is that the construction of a full size
prototype device would start around the year 2030. However, in view of paucity of
energy resources, India has to take a lead role and the development on this front
has to be faster. As indicated earlier, this scenario is not reported as it is yet to be
fully developed.
Fossil
Fossil resources would meet the remaining demand. Various demand growth rates
assumed in the present study are based on the sectoral demand estimates made by
TERI , the resource position of the domestic fuels (Table 4) and desirability of
minimizing import .
As per this scenario, the growth rates for coal & lignite demand will be about
2.9%/yr till the year 2022, 5.3%/yr during the period 2022-2032, 5.1%/yr during
the period 2032-2042 and 4.3%/yr during the period 2042-2052.
During the corresponding periods the growth rates of demand of hydrocarbons will
be about 3.7 %/yr., 4.4%/yr, 4.6%/yr and 3.2%/yr.
5.2 Salient Features of the Projected Scenario
Using the basis given in Section 5.1, the complete scenario has been calculated
and the results are given in Tables 8 to 11 and figures 1 and 2. Salient features are
as follows.
Energy
Annual electricity generation would increase from about 638 TWh in the year 2002-
03 to about 7957 TWh in the year 2052-53.
Total Installed power capacity will go up from about 139 GWe in the year 2002-03
44
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

to about 1344 GWe in the year 2052-53.
Annual primary energy consumption would increase from about 13.5 EJ in the year
2002-03 to about 117 EJ in the year 2052-53.
Contribution of Different Fuel Resources to Primary and Electrical Energy
Approximate percentage contributions of various resources towards electricity
generation in the year 2052-53 will be coal - 47%, hydrocarbon - 16%, hydro - 8%,
non-conventional renewable - 4% and nuclear - 26%.
Installed capacity distribution in the above year will be coal - 46%, hydrocarbon -
15%, hydro-11%, non-conventional renewable - 7%, and nuclear - 20%.
Various components of primary energy in the year 2052 are projected to be Coal -
40.7%, hydrocarbon - 35.4%, Hydro - 4.9%, non-conventional renewable -2.4% and
nuclear - 16.6%.
Primary Energy – Cumulative Usage
Cumulative usage of coal by the year 2052 will be about 943 EJ as against the
present domestic mineable reserves of 667 EJ. To meet the difference and to meet
future requirements of coal, extensive efforts need to be launched towards
discovering additional resources, improving technology of extracting coal so as to
improve recovery from existing resources and exploiting resources presently
considered economically unviable. The demand gap remaining after all these efforts
has to be met by imports.
For the hydrocarbons the cumulative usage will be 912 EJ as against the reserves
511 EJ. To meet the difference and to meet future requirements of hydrocarbons
extensive efforts need to be launched towards discovering additional resources and
improving technology so as to ensure better recovery. The demand gap remaining
after all these efforts has to be met by imports.
Cumulative hydro-energy generation till the year 2052 will be about 212 EJ.
Cumulative non-conventional renewable energy till the year 2052 will be about 72
EJ.
Cumulative nuclear generation till the year 2052 will be about 246 EJ. Out of it 226
EJ will be the domestic component.
Cumulative total primary energy consumption will be ~2385 EJ. Unless known
domestic resources are augmented, there will be a shortage of ~697 EJ, constituting
about 29% of the total. This will have to be met by imports.
As the presently known extractable coal reserves would have been exhausted by
the middle of century, it is necessary to ensure that nuclear generation through fast
breeder reactors and thorium fuelled reactors is poised to replace some of the coal
based plants after about 5 decades. This requires development of ADS and/or fusion
based systems at the earliest.
60.
61.Estimated from data given in ‘Energy’ published by Centre For Monitoring Indian
Economy Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai, April 2002.
India has 12 pressurized heavy water and 2 boiling water reactors in operation.
For the boiling water reactors, enriched uranium is imported. The remaining
reactors use indigenously produced fuel. Of the nine reactors under construction,
62.two are light water reactors being set up in technical cooperation with the Russian
Federation and will use enriched uranium imported from Russian Federation and
63.one is a fast breeder reactor and will use plutonium derived from reprocessing of
spent fuel discharged from PHWRs. The remaining six will use natural uranium.
64.A K Nema, B K Pathak and R B Grover, “India – Nuclear Power for GHG Mitigation
45
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

65.and Sustainable Energy Development”, Nuclear Power for Greenhouse Gas
Mitigation, International Atomic Energy Agency, November, 2000.
66.S B Bhoje, “Status of Fast Reactor Development in India”, Conference on Nuclear
Power Technologies with Fast Neutron Reactors, Obninsk, Dec, 2003.
67.Eric S Beckjord, “The Future of Nuclear Power”, An Interdisciplinary MIT Study,
68.2003.
“Comments by CEA on the MIT Report on the Future of Nuclear Power –
69.Interdisciplinary MIT Study” 2003, personal communication from Arthur de
70.Montalembert
71.H-H Rogner \" Nuclear Power and Sustainable Development\", IAEA Side Event at
72.the 8th Conference of Parties (CoP-8) to the UNFCCC, New Delhi, 28th Oct. 2002.
Human Development Report, Page 213-215, Oxford University Press – 2002.
This report is in 7 volumes. The volume 1 is the general report and can be
downloaded from
http://www.cea.nic.in/hpid/preliminary_ranking_study_of_hyd.htm
Tenth Plan Proposals, Report of Working Group R&D Sector, June 2001, DAE, GOI
Edwin Cartlidge, “Nuclear Alchemy”, Physics World, June 2003, page 8.
Disha-Green India 2047, Page 249, TERI 2001.
Once the power demand from fossil resources is fixed based on all the
assumptions the distribution amongst the two components, coal and hydrocarbon
is done as follows. Out of the two fossil components coal is preferable due to its
relatively larger domestic availability and stable international price. Coal is
required for other industries also like steel etc. In the year 2002 about 80% of
the total coal consumption was in the power industry. It is assumed here that it
can at best increase to 85%. The rest of the power is derived from hydrocarbons.
Concluding Remarks
To meet increasing energy requirements, policy decisions to speedily develop and
utilize all types of energy resources at our command need to be taken and
implemented. Full potential of the hydro and non-conventional renewable resources
should be exploited at the earliest. In the coming five decades, though coal based
thermal power plants will continue to be the mainstay of electricity generation, share
of nuclear power has to be significantly expanded. For the nuclear power to play this
role, the ongoing PHWR, LWR and FBR programmes should be completed. The
development of U-Pu metal based FBRs of requisite breeding characteristics and
associated fuel reprocessing technologies should be completed in the next 15-20
years. Fast breeder reactors have the potential to ensure that generation by nuclear
power by the middle of the present century is about a quarter of the total electricity
generation and this would enable to limit the primary energy import to about 30%.
Thorium based thermal and/or fast breeder technology as well as ADS, should be
developed so as to provide required fissile material beyond the year 2052. All efforts
should be made to develop and deploy advanced technologies in a shorter time
frame so as to ensure still higher contribution by nuclear energy thereby reducing
the energy import.
Intensive R&D efforts need to be mobilized towards exploration of hydrocarbons and
coal and better utilization of existing resource base, development of efficient fuel
cycle technologies for nuclear power and for exploitation of new fuel resources such
as gas hydrates.
Acknowledgement
Authors would like to thank Dr. Anil Kakodkar, Chairman, AEC for fruitful discussions
throughout the course of the study. Authors also thankfully acknowledge the
comments received from BARC, IGCAR and NPCIL.
46
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Figure 1:
Projected
Installed
Power
Capacity
47
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Figure 2: Projected Annual Electricity Generation
48
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Top ^
Table 1: Population Projection
Av.Gr. Rate * Population**
Year
(%/yr) (Billion)
1991 1.99 0.843
2001 1.50 1.027
2011 1.02 1.19
2021 0.70 1.32
2031 0.40 1.41
2041 0.20 1.47
2051 0.00 1.50
* Average growth rate figures are applicable for the next
decade. The figure for 1991 is calculated, the rest are
projected.
** The population figures for 1991 & 2001 are from
Census of India 2001, the rest are projected.
Table 2: Contribution of Different Fuel Resources to Primary &
Electrical Energy
Primary Energy, Year 2002-03 (Estimated)
Coal+Lig Crude NG Hydro Nuc Non-conv
Contribution in 6.40 4.83 1.18 0.79 0.23 0.03 13.46
EJ
% of total 47.53 35.92 8.79 5.85 1.72 0.19 100.00
Import (EJ) 0.51 3.42 ~0.0 ~0.0 0.03 0.00 3.96
% of above 7.97 70.81 ~0.0 ~0.0 13.0 0.00 29.42
Source: Annual Reports of the year 2002-03 of Ministries of Power, Coal, Petroleum
& Natural Gas, Non-Conventional Energy Sources, Department of Atomic Energy and
communication from Central Electricity Authority.
Electricity, Year 2002-03
Thermal Hydro Nuclear Non-conv Total
Contribution in TWh 550.82 65.66 19.24 2.66 638.38
% of total 86.3 10.3 3.0 0.4 100.0
1. Power from Utilities: Thermal, Hydro and Nuclear: 531.61 TWh
(Source http://cea.nic.in/data/opt2_mon_gen_act.htm assessed on 23.4.03),
2. Wind: 2.13 TWh (Source Annual Report 2002-03 Ministry of Non-conventional
Energy Sources)
3. Captive Power: Capacity factor of 41% for the year 2000-01 is calculated from the
data given in “Energy” published by the Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy, April
2002. Generation of 104 billion kWh in 2002-03 has been calculated assuming a
capacity factor of 41% on an estimated base of 29 GWe.
<![endif]>
49
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Table 3 : A Survey of Energy Growth Rate Projections for India1[1]
Investigator Primary
Electrical
Period of Commercial
Energy Growth
Projection Energy Growth
Rate (%/y)
Rate (%/y)
SCE-India2[2]
1 2002-2012 4.3
1997-2019 4.5 5.7
TERI-India3[3]
2
2020- 2047 3.7 3.9
IEO-USA4[4]
3 1997- 2020 4.5 4.5
1990- 2025 3.9 ….
EAGJ-Japan5[5]
4 2026- 2050 2.4 ….
2051-2100 1.8 ….
IEEJ-Japan6[6]
5 1999-2020 5.2 5.4
until 2026 …. 4.0
RS&RAE-UK7[7] until 2050 …. 3.0
6
2051-2100 …. 2.0
8[8]
7 CEA-India 1997- 2012 …. 6.5
2002- 2022 4.6 6.3
2022-2032 4.5 4.9
8 Present Study
2032-2042 4.5 4.5
2042- 2052 3.9 3.9
Table 4: India's Energy Resource Base
1[1]
Historical energy growth rates for 1981 to 2000 were 6%/yr & 7.8 %/yr for primary energy &
electricity from utilities respectively.
2[2]
Report of the Steering Committee on Energy (SCE) Sector, 10th Five Year Plan, Government
of India, Planning Commission (Sr. No. 1/2001, March-2002).
3[3]
Disha- Green India 2047, TERI, 2001. Disha gives demand growth rates for coal, oil and gas.
Primary energy growth rates are derived based on the calorific values of the fossil fuels and
the thermal equivalents of the electricity generated (See Table 7, page 274 and Tables 8&9.
page 287). Disha gives total generation in the years 1997, 2019 & 2047. Electricity growth
rates are calculated from the given data. Conversion efficiencies from electrical energy to
thermal energy are given in the Table 7.
4[4]
International Energy Outlook (IEO), Energy Information Administration, Appendices A, B and
C, March 2002, (www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/index.html). The growth rates correspond to the
High Economy Growth Scenario (Appendix B).
5[5]
A Long Term Perspective on Environment and Development in the Asia-Pacific Region
(http://www.ecoasia.org/workshop/bluebook/contents.html) by Environmental Agency of Japan
(EAGJ). The growth rates pertain to the region Asia-Pacific and not exclusively to India.
Considering India’s projected GDP growth rate, high estimate is quoted.
6[6]
Kazuya Fujime, Managing Director, Institute of Energy Economics, Japan (IEEJ),
(http://eneken,ieej.or.jp/en/data/pdf/115.pdf.).
7[7]
Nuclear Energy- The Future Climate, The Royal Society and The Royal Academy of
Engineering (RS & RAE), U.K., June 1999. The growth rates pertain to developing countries
and not exclusively to India.
8[8]
Sixteenth Electric Power Survey of India, Central Electricity Authority (CEA), Ministry of
Power, Government of India, September 2000 (page 132). The growth rate corresponds to
lower of the two scenarios. Higher growth rate is 7.3%.
50
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Electricity
Amount Thermal Energy
Potential
EJ TWh GW-yr GWe-yr
Fossil
9[9]
Coal 38 - BT 667 185,279 21,151 7,614
Hydrocarbon10[10] 12 - BT 511 141,946 16,204 5,833
Non-Fossil
Nuclear11[11]
Uranium-Metal 61,000 -T
In PHWR 28.9 7,992 913 328
In Fast Breeders 3,699 1,027,616 117,308 42,231
2,25,000 -
Thorium-Metal
T
In Breeders 13,622 3,783,886 431,950 155,502
Renewable
12[12]
Hydro 150 - GWe 6.0 1,679 192 69
Non-conv. Ren.13[13] 100 - GWe 2.9 803 92 33
Assumptions for Potential Calculations
Fossil:
1. Complete source is used for calculating electricity potential with thermal efficiency
of 0.36
2. Calorific values: Coal: 4,200 kcal/kg, Hydrocarbon: 10,200 kcal/kg
Non-Fossil:
Thermal energy is the equivalent fossil energy required to produce electricity at 0.36
efficiency.
Nuclear
1. PHWR burn-up = 6,700 MWd/T of uranium oxide, efficiency = 0.29.
9[9]
Report of Working Group on Coal & Lignite for The 10th Five Year Plan (2002-2007) July 2001
10[10]
Annual Report 2002- 2003, Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas, Government of India
and remarks in the para 3.2 of the present report.
11[11]
A.B. Awati, Internal note, July 24, 2003, Department of Atomic Energy, Government of
India.
12[12]
Annual Report 2001- 2002, Ministry of Power, Government of India.
13[13]
Annual Report, 2001-02, Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Resources, Government of
India.
Top ^
51
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

2. Fast breeders can use 60% of the uranium. This is an indicative number. Actual
value will be determined as one proceeds with the programme and gets some
experience. Fast reactor thermal to electrical energy conversion efficiency is taken
to be 42%.
3. Breeders can use 60% thorium with efficiency of 42%. At this stage, the type of
reactors wherein thorium will be used are yet to be decided. The numbers are
only indicative.
Hydro
1. Name plate capacity is 150 GWe.
2. Estimated hydro- potential of 600 billion kWh and name plate capacity of 150 GWe
gives a capacity factor of 0.46.
Non-conventional Renewable
1. Includes: Wind 45 GWe, Small Hydro 15 GWe, Biomass Power/ Co-gen. 19.5 GWe
and Waste to Energy 1.7 GWe etc.
2. Capacity factor of 0.33 has been assumed for potential calculation.
Table 5: Cost of Imported Fuel
Fuel Rs./Tonne Billion US $/EJ
Naphtha at Indian port 13,470 5.86
L.N.G. at Indian port 12,500 5.80
Coal at Indian port 2,346 1.67
Nat.-U (U3O8) at International 11,00,000 0.04
market
Costs of fossil fuels are from \" Draft Report of the Expert Committee on Fuels for
Power Generation, Central Electricity Authority, Government of India, April 2002\".
Natural uranium cost is the one prevailing for most part of the year 2002-
http://www.uxc.com/review/uxc_g_2yr_price.html (accessed on 23-01-2003).
Table 6: External Costs
Equivalent
Costs
Fuel lives lost (per
(mEcu/kWh)
GWe-year)
Coal 18 -150 213
Lignite 35 - 84 138
Oil 26 -109 213
Gas 5.0 - 31 27
Wind 0.5 - 2.6 5
Hydro 0.8 - 7 2
Biomass 1.2 - 29 51
Nuclear 2.5 - 7.3 1
Adapted by IAEA (H-H Rogner) from European
Commission ExternE Project 1998
Table 7: Capacity Factors & Thermal to Electrical Energy Conversion Efficiency
52
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Capacity Factor Efficiency
Year Thermal Hydro Non-conv Nuclear
2002 0.7 0.38 0.14 0.80 0.30
2022 0.7 0.46 0.33 0.80 0.36
2032 0.7 0.46 0.33 0.80 0.36
2042 0.7 0.46 0.33 0.85 0.36
2052 0.7 0.46 0.33 0.85 0.38
The efficiencies quoted here have been used for calculation of Primary Energy-
equivalents of hydro, nuclear and non-conventional renewable electricity produced.
Table 8: Primary and Electrical Energy – Projected Growth
Non- Elec/
Popul- Coal + Hydro- Nucl- Prim.
Year Hydro conv- Electricity Prim-
ation Lignite carbon ear Energy
Ren ary
Per
EJ
Billion EJ EJ EJ EJ EJ EJ TWh Cap %
(ET)
kWh
2002 1.04 6.40 6.02 0.79 0.23 0.03 13.46 7.65 638 614 57
2022 1.33 11 13 4.6 2.1 1.6 33 22 2154 1620 66
2032 1.42 19 19 6 4.4 2.0 51 35 3485 2454 68
2042 1.47 31 30 6 9.8 2.4 80 54 5438 3699 68
2052 1.50 47 41 6 19.4 2.7 117 75 7957 5305 64
For calculating primary energy in EJ equivalent to electrical energy generated by
hydro, nuclear or non-conventional renewable sources, efficiencies given in Table 7
have been used. ET stands for equivalent thermal.
Table 9: Installed Electrical Capacities – Fuel Mix
(Including estimated captive power)
Non-conv
Coal Hydro-carbon Hydro Nuclear Total
Renewable
GWe % GWe % GWe % GWe % GWe % GWe
2002 71.92 51.84 32.81 23.65 27.78 20.02 3.5 2.52 2.72 1.96 138.73
2022 156 37 60 14 115 28 56 13 29 7 417
2032 266 41 101 15 150 23 68 11 63 10 648
2042 436 46 155 16 150 16 82 9 131 14 954
2052 615 46 204 15 150 11 100 7 275 20 1344
Table 10: Electricity Generation – Fuel Mix
53
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

(Including estimated captive power generation)
Non-conv Per Cap
Year Coal Hydro-carbon Hydro Nuclear Total
Renewable Elec Gen
TWh % TWh % TWh % TWh % TWh % TWh kWh
2002 425.74 66.69 125.08 19.61 65.66 10.29 2.66 0.42 19.24 3.01 638.38 614
2022 957 44 369 17 460 21 162 8 206 10 2154 1620
2032 1630 47 618 18 600 17 197 6 441 13 3485 2454
2042 2673 49 950 18 600 11 237 4 978 18 5438 3699
2052 3774 47 1250 16 600 8 289 4 2044 26 7957 5305
Table 11: Cumulative Nuclear Power Installed Capacity
PHWR, AHWR and FBR LWR and FBR based on Sub Total Grand
based on Pu from PHWR Pu from LWR Total
Year Thermal Fast (GWe) Thermal Fast (GWe) Oxide Metal (GWe)
(GWe) (GWe) (GWe) (GWe)
Oxide Oxide Metal Oxide Oxide Metal
2002 2.40 0.00 0.00 0.32 0.00 0.00 2.72 0.00 2.72
2022 9.96 2.50 6.00 8.00 0.00 3.00 20.46 9.00 29.46
2032 9.40 2.50 33.00 8.00 0.00 10.00 19.90 43.00 62.90
2042 7.86 2.50 87.00 8.00 0.00 26.00 18.36 113.00 131.36
2052 4.06 2.50 199.00 8.00 0.00 61.00 14.56 260.00 274.56
If only the already negotiated 2 GWe LWRs are imported then the installed capacity
in 2052
will be 208 GWe instead of 275 GWe.
Table 12: FBR Breeding Characteristics & Cycle Fissile Inventory
Fissile Breeding
Cycle fissile inventory for
Fuel Type one year out of pile
System Doubling System Growth
period (T)
Time (yr) Rate (%/yr)
Oxide 18.8 3.8 4.7
Carbide 11.0 6.5 3.9
Metal 8.9 8.1 3.7
Source: INFCE Studies- see Annex 2
1. Reactor Unit Installed Capacity= 1 GWe
2. Reactor Capacity Factor = 0.75
3. Fuel Discharge Burn-up: Maximum = 100 GWd/T, Average = 67.5 GWd/T
4. Out-of-pile time period includes transportation, intermediate storage,
pretreatment, reprocessing, fabrication etc. of the fuel
54
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Annex: Basis for Calculating Growth of Installed Nuclear Capacity
The requirement of natural uranium as the initial inventory for the 540 MWe
PHWR is about 110 T of UO2 which is equivalent to 97 T of uranium metal i.e. about
180 TU/GWe. For the existing PHWRs of 220 MWe size this number is about the
same. For the future 700 MWe PHWRs, as the core remains the same as that of the
540 MWe reactor, the initial inventory per GWe is lower, about 138 TU/GWe. As the
total PHWR capacity would consist of roughly equally of the two designs, an average
value of about 160 TU/GWe has been taken in the present study.
The annual fuel operational requirement depends on the power, the burn-up, the
capacity factor and the thermal to electrical energy conversion efficiency. It is about
150 TU for 1 GWe power, 6,700 MWd/T burn-up, 80% capacity factor and 0.29
thermal to electrical energy conversion efficiency. The discharged fuel contains about
3.5 kg plutonium. Out of this plutonium, only about 75% is the fissile component.
Depleted uranium would constitute the major fraction (about 0.988) of the
discharged fuel. It would be used mainly in FBRs.
For the 1 GWe LWR, the fuel discharge rate is estimated to be 25 T per year at
35,000 MWd/T burn-up, 0.33% thermal to electrical energy conversion efficiency and
80% capacity factor. The discharged fuel contains about 1% plutonium, of which
two-third will be the fissile component .
For the 1 GWe FBR the fuel discharge rate is estimated to be 10.81 T per year at
67,500 MWd/T burn up, at 0.42 thermal to electrical energy conversion efficiency
and 80% capacity factor. The fissile component in discharged fuel will be 1.081 times
of that of the fissile component of the fuel loaded in the reactor. This number viz.,
1.081 has been calculated by INFCE based on 0.75 capacity factor. Larger the
capacity factor larger would be this number. Use of this number in the present study
is conservative.
It is assumed that the technology of Pu-U metal based FBRs having the fissile
growth rate of 8.1 %/yr, would have been developed by 2020 (Table 12).
The critical fissile mass required for the above FBR and associated fuel cycle is
about 3.7 T for one-year out of pile period. The critical mass may vary with the
isotopic composition of the plutonium used i.e. whether it is plutonium discharged
from PHWR, LWR or FBR, but this consideration is beyond the scope of the present
estimates and is assumed to have negligible effect.
Metal-fuelled FBRs of 4 GWe capacity or more will be installed annually from 2021
till the plutonium inventory from PHWR discharged fuel lasts and then as many as
possible FBRs will continue to be added from the plutonium further bred in PHWRs as
well as FBRs. Similarly, FBRs will be installed from the plutonium generated in LWRs
and also from the plutonium bred in FBRs themselves.
The depleted uranium discharged from the PHWRs will be used in the FBRs as initial
inventory and as makeup requirements i.e. the difference between the feeds and the
discharges. The total cycle inventory would be approximately 130 T per GWe and the
annual makeup requirement would be about 1.1 T per GWe. It strictly applies for the
INFCE reference oxide design only but has been taken to be applicable for the metal
design as well. It may have little effect on the present estimates based on the metal
design. Accordingly about 35,750 T of the depleted uranium would be tied up in
55
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

FBRs. The annual makeup requirement after 2052 would be about 300 T per year,
whereas nearly 24,000 T would be the inventory in hand. It would be sufficient for
the life time of the FBRs.
INFCE data is based on a burn up of 100,000MWd/T. It is expected that by 2020,
R&D will be completed to ensure that fuel burn up is 200,000 MWd/T and this might
also increase fissile material growth by reducing cycle losses. Use of INFCE data for
the present study is conservative.
86.
87.Design Manual NAPP – 01100, July 1989.
88.B. Rouben, ‘The Nuclear Fuel Cycle’
(http://engphys.mcmaster.ca/~garlandw/sner/fuelcycl2.pdf) accessed on
07.02.2004.
INFCE Fast Breeders, International Fuel Cycle Evaluation Conference Working
Group 5(INFCE), 1980, IAEA.
56
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Annex 14
Foreign firms interested in India’s thorium deposits
Business Editors/Energy Editors
Novastar Resources to Tour India's Bhabha Atomic Research Center, Discuss Future
Commercialization with Indian Rare Earths Ltd.
NEW YORK, NEW YORK, Jun. 7 -/E-Wire/Business Wire/-- Novastar Resources Ltd., a
significant commercial mining source of Thorium, a naturally occurring nuclear
energy more efficient and far less radioactive than Uranium, will visit India for a tour
of the Department of Atomic Energy's Bhabha Atomic Research Center (BARC) and
for discussions with Indian Rare Earths Ltd. (IREL) (www.indianrareearths.com) to
discuss both Novastar's recent Thorium drill log results and the process of refining
Monazite to yield commercial grade Thorium Oxide (ThO2). After meeting with IREL
in Aluva, India, the Company plans to meet with officials from other major mining
operations headquartered in the country.
Mr. Raj Pamnani, International Relations Consultant, for Novastar Resources and
Managing Partner, Jina Partners (www.jinapartners.com), a venture capital
management firm with a powerful international network of contacts including
scientists, politicians, investors, and entrepreneurs, will meet with executives at
Indian Rare Earths Ltd. The Company will specifically meet with the Rare Earth
Division (\"RED\") of IREL, which is a chemical plant wherein the mineral monazite
produced is chemically treated to separate thorium as an oxide upgrade and Rare
Earths elements in composite chloride form.
Mr. Pamnani will also meet with BARC officials for a tour of the design and operation
of their Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR), built for the utilization of a
Thorium-based fuel cycle. The AHWR will use thorium-based mixed oxide (MOX) fuel
to generate power. Development of thorium-plutonium (Th-Pu) and thorium-uranium
(Th-U233) mixed oxide fuels (MOX) was initiated in 2001. This research included the
development of indigenous equipment for the production of thorium dioxide powder
and trials with uranium dioxide. The design and development of this AHWR will
provide research and development support for India's Pressurized Heavy Water
Reactor (PHWR) program.
\"This trip holds a lot of potential for Novastar, because IREL is well regarded in the
field of separating and refining Thorium ore from Monazite and India is fully
committed to the utilization of Thorium as a primary energy source,\" said Pamnani.
\"During our visit to India, we plan to discuss the potential our Thorium property has
for India and highlight the mutually beneficial relationships that can be forged for the
sole purpose of exploring Thorium as a viable source of primary energy for India and
other countries.\"
While in India, the delegation from Novastar will focus on:
1 Exploring the possibility of establishing a relationship between India and Novastar
Resources
2 Studying IREL and RED and the extensive Thorium mining capabilities, among
57
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

others, and
3 Formalizing the business relationship and setting up cooperative programs and
projects with the Indian government
There is increasing interest in utilizing Thorium as a nuclear fuel because Thorium is
a more efficient nuclear fuel and far less radioactive than Uranium. Also, all of the
mined Thorium is potentially useable in a reactor, compared with the 0.7% of natural
uranium, so some 40 times the amount of energy per unit mass could potentially be
made available. Therefore, the Thorium fuel cycle, with its potential for breeding fuel
without the need for fast-neutron reactors, holds considerable potential long-term. It
is a key factor in the sustainability of nuclear energy.
About Novastar Resources
Novastar Resources, Ltd. is a publicly traded company within the commercial mining
sector and is a significant commercial mining source of Thorium, a naturally
occurring nuclear energy more efficient and far less radioactive than Uranium. The
company's stock is traded and quoted on the OTC Bulletin Board under the symbol
NVAS. Further information is available on the company's website at
www.novastarresources.com
Safe Harbor Statement This press release may include certain statements that are
not descriptions of historical facts, but are forward-looking statements within the
meaning of Section 27A of the Securities Act of 1933 and Section 21E of the
Securities and Exchange Act of 1934. These forward looking statements may include
the description of our plans and objectives for future operations, assumptions
underlying such plans and objectives and other forward looking terminology such as
\"may,\" \"expects,\" \"believes,\" \"anticipates,\" \"intends,\" \"expects,\" \"projects,\" or
similar terms, variations of such terms or the negative of such terms. Such
information is based upon various assumptions made by, and expectations of, our
management that were reasonable when made but may prove to be incorrect. All of
such assumptions are inherently subject to significant economic and competitive
uncertainties and contingencies beyond our control and upon assumptions with
respect to the future business decisions which are subject to change. Accordingly,
there can be no assurance that actual results will meet expectations and actual
results may vary (perhaps materially) from certain of the results anticipated herein.
/SOURCE: Novastar Resources Ltd.
-0- 06-07-2005
/CONTACT: Harrison Wise hwise@rubensteinpr.com
/WEB SITE: http://www.novastarresources.com/
http://www.indianrareearths.com/
http://www.igcar.ernet.in/press_releases/press11.htm
THE HINDU dated 24.11.2004
58
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Annex 15
Fast-breeder reactors more important for India
Embargoes have only increased India's self-reliance in the nuclear field, says Anil
Kakodkar, Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission and Secretary, Department of
Atomic Energy. In a recent interview to The Hindu in Mumbai , Dr. Kakodkar spoke of
the importance of fast-breeder reactors in meeting the country's energy needs.
Excerpts:
Question: What are the achievements and failures of the Department of Atomic
Energy in the last 50 years?
Dr. Kakodkar: We have a large, capable human resource pool of scientists and
technologists. This, I think, is a very important achievement. The second important
achievement is that our programme, on the basis of self-reliance, has demonstrated
that we can take our R&D efforts, carried out in our laboratories, to commercial scale
of excellence in the marketplace.
The third achievement is that the first stage of India's nuclear power programme,
presently consisting of 12 Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs), is completely
in the industrial domain. It will grow on its own steam. Lastly, as a result of the
consolidation of the entire work done in the last 50 years, we now have a clearly
defined roadmap for future R&D and its commercialisation.
In terms of failures — I will not call them failures — but we did see several
challenges. For example, embargoes have been a major challenge. Embargoes have
not deterred us from making progress and, in fact, they have made our self-reliance
that much more robust. Obviously, the dimensions of our programme would have
been bigger if we had been able to do things at a much faster pace.
Without the embargoes?
Yes, without the embargoes. On the whole, I will say that we have now succeeded in
this very frontline technology in all its dimensions. We have different technologies for
various applications.
Can you give examples?
Nuclear energy applications in agriculture, health, food security and so on. While we
have done this, we have also contributed towards nuclear weapons ability in the
country. India today is a country with nuclear weapons to ensure its long-term
security. At the same time, we have domestic capability to guarantee long-term
energy security in a manner that will help in preserving the environment and
avoiding the adverse impact of climate change.
How important are the fast-breeder reactors in ensuring India's energy security?
Fast-breeder reactors are more important to India than to other countries which
have capabilities in nuclear power technology. This is because of the nuclear
resource profile we have in the country. Our uranium reserves — what we have — as
59
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

per the present state of exploration will be able to support 10,000 MWe generating
capacity, which is not large. But it is the starting point for setting up fast reactors.
When the same uranium, which will support 10,000 MWe generating capacity in the
PHWRs, comes out as spent fuel and we process that spent fuel into plutonium and
residual uranium, and use it in the fast reactors, we will be able to go to electricity
capacity which will be as large 5,00,000 MWe. This is due to the breeding potential of
the fast reactors, using the plutonium-uranium cycle. That is the importance of the
fast-breeder reactors under Indian conditions, compared to other countries.
France, the U.S. and the U.K. have not persisted with their breeder reactors
programme. Are we entering an area others have backed out from?
That is not true. There is a programme called Generation Four Initiative Forum, GIF
for short. This is a programme led by the United States in which ten other countries
are participating. They have nuclear power reactor configurations that are important
for the future. They have identified a total of six configurations, six reactors. Out of
that, three or four are fast reactors. So the importance of fast reactors in future
energy requirements is recognised well worldwide. In fact, in Russia, an 800 MWe
fast reactor is under construction. The ground reality now is that uranium is available
at a much cheaper price internationally. In this situation of plenty of uranium
availability, there is no urgency for these countries to move on to fast-breeder
reactor technology. This, however, is not the case with us.
How many breeder reactors will we build in the near future?
We are making a beginning with the first 500 MWe and we will complete it by 2010.
After that, we will build more similar units. We have planned four in the programme
up to 2020. The development of the fast-breeder technology will go on at the IGCAR.
In this development, we will proceed in two directions.
One direction is to go for higher capacity reactors, may be developing 1,000 MWe
reactors. The other direction is to use the reactor design and its associated fuel
cycle, which will have a shorter doubling time because we get into a higher and
higher generating capacity through the breeding process. The faster the breeding,
quicker will be the rise in the fast-breeder reactor's capacity. So we should pursue
both the directions: one is the higher reactor unit size, and the other, the fuel cycle,
which has a shorter doubling time. In this, we have drawn the entire road map
including R&D activities, the development that should be done and, the new energy
systems to be built.
The 300 MWe Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR), which will use thorium as
fuel, is your pet project. Why the delay in its construction, which was to begin before
the end of last April?
The fast-breeder reactors constitute the second stage of our programme. While we
have scarcity in terms of uranium, our thorium resources are abundant. [The third
stage of the programme using] thorium-uranium 233 fuel can run in a sustained
mode for a long time. So we have made this as our third stage after we have
sufficient capacity through breeder reactors. For if you irradiate thorium at a higher
capacity level, then you will have a very long programme at a higher capacity level.
We are also working on development [of reactors] that will allow growth with the
thorium fuel cycle. Besides, we have programmes on other applications of thorium,
60
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

such as the high temperature energy generation. All this constitutes the third stage
of our nuclear power programme, that is, demonstrating large-scale electricity
generation using thorium. We are very happy with the support promised by the
Prime Minister.
The AHWR will be one of the first elements in the third stage. Its design is complete.
We have prepared the project report. We have completed a peer review by
knowledgeable people other than those who designed it. A fairly large amount of
R&D work has been completed. There is more R&D work to be done. It is true that
we should have started the AHWR construction this year. But we felt that since the
reactor will be ultimately implemented in the public domain, it is important that its
design is also reviewed by the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (which keeps a tab
on safety in nuclear power facilities in the country). So we have now created an
arrangement wherein for such developments [reactors], which will ultimately go out
of the BARC for use by the society or industry, safety aspects should be entrusted
with the AERB. We are in the process of making that arrangement now.
The Prime Minister has asserted that India would not be the source of proliferation of
sensitive technologies and also spoken about the developments in the
neighbourhood. Do you see a toughening of India's stance on proliferation issues?
If you look at India's track record, it has always behaved in a very responsible
fashion. At the same time, we carry out our indigenous efforts in a self-reliant
manner for developing technologies and their implementation in the national
interest. This is of course a legitimate right. India is one sixth of humanity. One sees
that when such barriers are imposed, they put some kind of resistance to the pace at
which we can grow.
Then one has to question the justification for such a process. It is our policy to act in
a manner that this nuclear technology is managed in a responsible way. We have
come to this level, based on our own self-reliant effort. On the other side, [in] a
regime which they have put in place, clandestine activities still go on. What we are
talking about is a regime which facilitates development, addresses the development
of a large country like India. What he [the Prime Minister] said was rather than
arresting proliferation by irresponsible people, today's framework seems to be
creating barriers for our development. We want a system which addresses the true
proliferation concerns and still solves the problems we face in our development. For
we are talking of a large fraction of humanity.
Will the dialogue with the U.S., Next Steps in Strategic Partnership, be of any use to
India for developing our nuclear power technology?
I don't think so.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V4D-4J91NRP-
3&_user=1968367&_coverDate=04%2F30%2F2006&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search
&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000052195&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=196836
7&md5=081c3451e0aa8c996eb6396cb7411d2a
61
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Annex 16
Design and development of the AHWR—the Indian thorium fuelled innovative nuclear
reactor
R.K. Sinha , and A. Kakodkar
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400085, India
Received 11 March 2004; revised 26 September 2005; accepted 28 September
2005. Available online 17 February 2006.
Abstract
India has chalked out a nuclear power program based on its domestic resource
position of uranium and thorium. The first stage started with setting up the
Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWR) based on natural uranium and pressure
tube technology. In the second phase, the fissile material base will be multiplied in
Fast Breeder Reactors using the plutonium obtained from the PHWRs. Considering
the large thorium reserves in India, the future nuclear power program will be based
on thorium–233U fuel cycle. However, there is a need for the timely development of
thorium-based technologies for the entire fuel cycle. The Advanced Heavy Water
Reactor (AHWR) has been designed to fulfill this need. The AHWR is a 300 MWe,
vertical, pressure tube type, heavy water moderated, boiling light water cooled
natural circulation reactor. The fuel consists of (Th–Pu)O2 and (Th–233U)O2 pins. The
fuel cluster is designed to generate maximum energy out of 233U, which is bred in
situ from thorium and has a slightly negative void coefficient of reactivity. For the
AHWR, the well-proven pressure tube technology has been adopted and many
passive safety features, consistent with the international trend, have been
incorporated. A distinguishing feature which makes this reactor unique, from other
conventional nuclear power reactors is the fact that it is designed to remove core
heat by natural circulation, under normal operating conditions, eliminating the need
of pumps. In addition to this passive feature, several innovative passive safety
systems have been incorporated in the design, for decay heat removal under shut
down condition and mitigation of postulated accident conditions. The design of the
reactor has progressively undergone modifications and improvements based on the
feedbacks from the analytical and the experimental R&D. This paper gives the details
of the current design of the AHWR.
Article Outline
1. Introduction
2. Evolution of the AHWR concept
3. Overview of the reactor configuration
4. Fuel and fuel cycle
5. Reactor physics
5.1. Main objectives of the physics design
62
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

5.1.1. Achieving negative void coefficient of reactivity in both operating and
accidental conditions
5.1.2. Achieving a flat radial power distribution
5.1.3. Optimizing the axial power profile for adequate thermal margin
233
5.1.4. Achieving self-sustenance in U
5.1.5. Minimization of plutonium make-up requirement
5.2. Reactor physics analyses
5.2.1. Physics analysis for the equilibrium core
5.2.2. The initial core of AHWR
5.2.3. Recycling of uranium
5.2.4. Xenon oscillations
6. Description of major reactor systems
6.1. Reactor block
6.1.1. Calandria
6.1.2. End shields
6.1.3. Coolant channel assembly
6.2. Fuel handling and storage system
6.2.1. Fuel transfer system to transfer fuel across containment walls
6.2.2. Fuelling machine
6.2.3. Fuel storage bay
6.3. Reactor building
7. Passive systems and inherent safety features of AHWR
7.1. Passive core heat removal by natural circulation during normal operation
7.2. Passive core decay heat removal system
7.3. Emergency core cooling in passive mode and core submergence
7.4. Passive containment isolation system
7.5. Vapor suppression in gravity driven water pool
7.6. Passive containment cooling
7.7. Passive shutdown on MHT system high pressure
7.8. Passive concrete cooling system
8. Thermal hydraulic analysis
8.1. Effect of tail pipe height
8.2. Effect of tail pipe size
8.3. Effect of feed water temperature
8.4. Stability analyses
63
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

9. Experimental programs to demonstrate the inherent and passive features relevant
to AHWR and their development status
10. Safety analyses
11. Summary
References
1. Introduction
The Indian nuclear power program has been conceived bearing in mind the optimum
utilization of domestic uranium and thorium reserves with the objective of providing
long-term energy security to the country. One of the essential elements of the Indian
strategy is to enhance the fuel utilization using a closed fuel cycle. This entails
reprocessing of the spent fuel to recover fissile and fertile materials and its recycle
back into the system. Considering this objective, the indigenous nuclear power
program in India was initiated with Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) using
natural uranium and heavy water, and based on pressure tube technology. The
pressure tube concept, used in PHWRs, has several advantages such as:
• physical separation of the high-temperature high-pressure coolant from the low-
temperature low-pressure moderator;
• a high conversion ratio with well thermalized neutron spectrum due to cold
moderator;
• low excess reactivity in the core arising out of on-power fuelling;
• a greater flexibility in adopting different refuelling schemes.
India has been operating and developing improved versions of its current generation
PHWRs on the basis of operating experience, international trends and indigenous
R&D inputs as a first stage.
In the second stage of the Indian nuclear power program, plutonium from the
natural uranium-based PHWRs will be used in Fast Breeder Reactors for multiplying
the fissile base. Considering the large thorium reserves in India, the future systems,
in the third stage of Indian nuclear power program, will be based on thorium–233U
fuel cycle. While the initiation of the third stage will take place in the future, there is
a need for the timely development of thorium-based technologies for the entire
thorium fuel cycle. The Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) is being developed
to fulfill this need.
2. Evolution of the AHWR concept
Thorium is a fertile material and has to be converted into 233U, a fissile isotope. Of
the three fissile species (233U, 235U and 239Pu), 233U has the highest value of η
64
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

(number of neutrons liberated for every neutron absorbed in the fuel) in thermal
spectrum. Since 233U does not occur in the nature, it is desirable that any system
that uses 233U should be self-sustaining in this nuclide in the entire fuel cycle, which
implies that the amount of 233U used in the cycle should be equal to the amount
produced and recovered. Thorium in its natural state does not contain any fissile
isotope the way uranium does. Hence, with thorium-based fuel, enrichment with
fissile material is essential. The large absorption cross-section for thermal neutrons
in thorium facilitates the use of light water as coolant. On account of its high cost
and its association with radioactive tritium, use of heavy water coolant requires
implementation of a costly heavy water management and recovery system. The use
of light water as coolant makes it possible to use boiling in the core, thus producing
steam at a higher pressure than otherwise possible with a pressurized non-boiling
system. With boiling coolant, the reactor has to be vertical, making full core heat
removal by natural circulation feasible. The choice of heavy water as moderator is
derived from its excellent fuel utilization characteristics. Considering these
characteristics, the mainly thorium fuelled AHWR, is heavy water moderated, boiling
light water cooled, and has a vertical core.
The future Indian thorium-based reactor systems will be optimized for the thorium
cycle. For the AHWR, pressure tube type PHWR technology is selected to take
advantage of the vast experience gained and infrastructure developed in the country.
It is desirable for the new reactors to incorporate passive safety characteristics
consistent with the emerging international trends. The design of the reactor has
progressively undergone several modifications and improvements based on
feedbacks from the results of analytical and experimental R&D. This paper describes
the current design of the AHWR.
3. Overview of the reactor configuration
As already mentioned, the AHWR is a vertical, pressure tube type, heavy water
moderated and boiling light water cooled natural circulation reactor (Sinha and
Kakodkar, 2003) designed to generate 300 MWe and 500 m3/day of desalinated
water. The AHWR is fuelled with (Th–233U)O2 pins and (Th–Pu)O2 pins. The fuel is
designed to maximize generation of energy from thorium, to maintain self-sufficiency
in 233U and to achieve a slightly negative void coefficient of reactivity. An emergency
core cooling system injects water directly into the fuel.
The reactor core of the AHWR consists of 505 lattice locations in a square lattice
pitch of 245 mm. Of these, 53 locations are for the reactivity control devices and
shut down systems. Reactivity control is achieved by on-line fuelling, boron dissolved
in moderator and reactivity devices. Boron in moderator is used for reactivity
management of equilibrium xenon load. There are 12 control rods, grouped into
regulating rods, absorber rods and shim rods of 4 each. The reactor has two
independent, functionally diverse, fast acting shut down systems, namely, Shut
Down System-1 (SDS-1) consisting of mechanical shut off rods and Shut Down
System-2 (SDS-2) based on liquid poison injection into the moderator. There are 30
interstitial lattice locations housing 150 in-core self-powered neutron detectors and 6
out-of-core locations containing 9 ion chambers and 3 start-up detectors. An
automatic reactor regulating system is used to control the reactor power, power/flux
distribution, power-setback and xenon override. Both for the control rods and the
shut off rods, the absorber material, boron carbide, is packed in an annulus within 80
stainless steel tubes. The core map is given in Fig. 1.
65
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Fig. 1. Core map of the AHWR.
The reactor core is housed in a low-pressure reactor vessel called calandria. The
calandria contains heavy water, which act as moderator as well as reflector. The
calandria houses the vertical coolant channels, consisting of pressure tubes rolled in
top and bottom end fittings. The pressure tube contains the fuel cluster. A calandria
tube envelops each pressure tube and the air annulus between the two tubes
provides thermal insulation between the hot coolant channel and the cold moderator.
The calandria tubes are rolled, in the tube sheets of top and bottom end shields of
the calandria.
The light water coolant picks up nuclear heat in boiling mode from fuel assemblies.
The coolant circulation is driven by natural convection through tail pipes to steam
drums, where steam is separated and is supplied to the turbine. A simplified
schematic arrangement of the AHWR is shown in Fig. 2.
66
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Fig. 2. Simplified schematic arrangement of the AHWR.
Four steam drums (only one shown in Fig. 2 for the sake of clarity), each catering to
one-fourth of the core, receive feed water at 403 K to provide optimum sub-cooling
at the reactor inlet. Four down-comers, from each steam drum, are connected to a
circular inlet header. The inlet header distributes the flow to each of the 452 coolant
channels through individual feeders. The AHWR incorporates several passive systems
to fulfill several safety functions (Sinha et al., 2000). A 6000 m3 capacity gravity
driven water pool (GDWP), located close to top of the containment serves as a heat
sink for several passive systems, besides acting as suppression pool and a source of
water for low-pressure emergency core cooling. Achievement of passive shutdown
using steam overpressure to provide the driving force and passive cooling of
concrete surfaces are some of the other unique passive safety features provided in
the AHWR.
A fuelling machine is located on top of the deck plate. The fuelling machine of the
AHWR handles the fuel clusters by means of ram drives and snout drive for coupling
and making a leak tight joint with the coolant channel. The AHWR has the flexibility
to have on power as well as off-power fuel handling. The dimensional details of the
core are given in Table 1.
Table 1.
67
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Dimensional details of the core
Total no. of lattice locations 505
Number of fuel channels 452
Number of lattice locations for control rods 12
Number of lattice locations for shut-off rods 41
Lattice pitch (mm) 245
Active core height (m) 3.5
Calandria
Inner diameter of the main shell (m) 7.4
Inner diameter of the sub-shell at each end (m) 6.8
Length (m) 5.3
Tube material
Pressure tube Zr2.5 Nb
Calandria tube Zircaloy-4
Tube dimension
Inner diameter/WT of Pressure tube (mm) 120/4
Outer diameter/WT of Calandria tube (mm) 168/2
Reflector thickness (D2O) axial/radial (mm) 750/600
Moderator temperature (K) 353
Moderator purity (% of D2O) 99.8
A seawater desalination plant will meet the demineralized water requirements of the
reactor and drinking water required at the plant, utilizing the low-pressure steam
from the turbine. A provision exists to add to the desalination capacity at the cost of
electrical power output.
4. Fuel and fuel cycle
68
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

The fuel has been designed to meet the requirement of thermal hydraulics, reactor
physics, fuel handling and reconstitution (i.e., replacement of outer ring of irradiated
(Th–Pu)O2 fuel pins with fresh ones). The vertical pressure tube configuration has
guided the structural design of the fuel assembly. The fuel assembly is 10.5 m in
length and is suspended from the top in the coolant channel. The assembly consists
of a fuel cluster and two shield sub-assemblies. These sub-assemblies are connected
to each other through a quick connecting/disconnecting joint to facilitate handling.
The fuel cluster is a cylindrical assembly of 4300 mm length and 118 mm diameter.
The arrangement of pins in the fuel cluster is shown in Fig. 3(a). The cluster has 54
fuel pins arranged in 3 concentric rings around a central rod as shown in Fig. 3(b)
(Anantharaman and Shivakumar, 2002). The 24 fuel pins in the outer ring have (Th–
Pu)O2 as fuel and the 30 fuel pins in the inner and intermediate rings have (Th–
233
U)O2 as fuel. The innermost 12 pins have a 233U content of 3.0 wt.% and the
middle 18 pins have 3.75 wt.% 233U. The outer ring of (Th–Pu)O2 pins contain
3.25 wt.% of total plutonium, of which the lower half of the active fuel has 4.0% Pu
and the upper part has 2.5% Pu (Kumar et al., 1999). Two enrichments have been
provided in the outer ring to have favorable minimum critical heat flux ratios.
69
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Fig. 3. (a) Cross-section of fuel pins in the cluster and (b) AHWR fuel cluster.
70
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

The fuel pin consists of fuel pellets confined in a Zircaloy-2 clad tube. The fuel pin
has a pellet stack length of 3500 mm and a plenum volume with a helical spring in it
to keep the pellet stack pressed. The fuel pins are assembled in the form of a cluster
with the help of the top and bottom tie-plates, with a central rod connecting the two
tie-plates. Six spacers along the length of the cluster provide the intermediate pin
spacing. The central rod has a tubular construction with holes for direct injection of
ECCS water on the fuel rods. It also contains dysprosium capsules containing
dysprosium oxide in Zirconia matrix. The design data of the fuel assembly is given in
Table 2.
Table 2.
Description of the AHWR fuel assembly
Parameter Value
Number of fuel pins 54
Outer diameter (mm) 11.2
Density (g/cm3) 9.6
Fuel clad
Material/thickness (mm) Zircaloy-2/0.6
Fuel type/number of pins
(Th–233U)O2/12
Inner ring
(Th–233U)O2/18
Middle ring
Outer ring (Th–Pu)O2/24
Fuel enrichment (wt%)
Inner ring (233U) 3.0
Middle ring (233U) 3.75
Outer ring (Pu) 3.25 (average)
Upper half 2.5
Lower half 4.0
71
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Parameter Value
Central rod
Tube o.d./thickness (mm) 36/2
Number of pins/capsule 12
Outer diameter of pin (mm) 6
Material/o.d. (mm) ZrO2 + Dy2O3
Dysprosium (wt%) 3.0
Average discharge burnup (MWd/t) 24,000
Average linear heat rating (kW/m) 10.6
Peak linear heat rating (kW/m) 14.0
The AHWR fuel cycle is a closed fuel cycle, envisaging recycle of both fissile 233U and
fertile thoria back to the reactor (Anantharaman et al., 2000). The currently
envisaged fuel cycle time is eight years. This comprises four years for in-reactor
residence time, two years for cooling, one year for reprocessing and one year for
refabrication. Since the 233U required for the reactor is to be bred in situ, the initial
core and annual reload for the initial few years will consist of (Th–Pu)O2 clusters
only. After reprocessing, 233U is always associated with 232U, whose daughter
products are hard gamma emitters. The radioactivity of 232U associated with 233U
starts increasing after separation. This poses radiation exposure problems during its
transportation, handling and refabrication. Hence, it is targeted to minimize delay
between separation of 233U and its refabrication into fuel. In view of this, a co-
location of the fuel cycle facility, comprising reprocessing, waste management and
fuel fabrication plant, with the AHWR has been planned. The 233U-based fuel needs to
be fabricated in shielded facilities due to activity associated with 232U. This also
requires considerable enhancement of automation and remotization technologies
used in fuel fabrication.
The spent fuel cluster, before reprocessing, would undergo disassembly for
segregation of (Th–Pu)O2 pins, (Th–233U)O2 pins, structural materials and burnable
absorbers. The (Th–233U)O2 pins will require a two stream reprocessing process, i.e.,
separation of thorium and uranium whereas the (Th–Pu)O2 pins will require a three
stream reprocessing process, i.e., separation of thorium, uranium and plutonium. A
part of the of reprocessed thorium (45%) may be used immediately in the fabrication
of (Th–233U)O2 pins since 233U fabrication is required to be carried out in shielded
facilities. The remaining thorium will be stored for sufficient amount of time for the
activity to decay to a level at which, it is easier for handling with minimal shielding.
The stored thorium will be subsequently used for the fabrication of (Th–Pu)O2 fuel
pins.
5. Reactor physics
72
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

5.1. Main objectives of the physics design
The physics design of AHWR is carried out to fulfill the following objectives
(Srivenkatesan et al., 2000):
233
(1) maximize the energy from in situ burning of U;
(2) achieve a negative void coefficient of reactivity;
(3) achieve greater than 20,000 MWd/t fuel discharge burnup;
(4) minimize, to the extent possible, the initial plutonium inventory;
(5) minimize, to the extent possible, the consumption of plutonium for given energy
output;
233
(6) achieve self-sustenance in U;
(7) deliver a thermal power of 920 MW to the coolant.
To achieve these objectives, the physics design has progressively evolved from a
seed-blanket core design concept to a core consisting of a single type of cluster
called composite cluster, containing both (Th–233U)O2 and (Th–Pu)O2 fuel pins
(Kumar, 2000). The main considerations governing the fulfillment of these objectives
are discussed in the following sub-sections.
5.1.1. Achieving negative void coefficient of reactivity in both operating and
accidental conditions
The cluster design is mainly dictated by the objective of achieving negative void
coefficient of reactivity. The void coefficient of reactivity can be made negative by
maintaining a harder neutron spectrum in the core. This can be achieved either by
changing the properties of the moderating medium or by decreasing the inventory of
the moderator (for example, by increasing the cluster size in relation to the lattice
pitch). It is also possible to achieve negative void coefficient of reactivity by using a
burnable absorber either in the fuel or in isolated pins in an inert matrix. On voiding
of the coolant, the thermal neutron flux increases in the cluster, and the neutron flux
can be reduced by using a slow burning absorber. In the AHWR, dysprosium is used
as a burnable absorber within the cluster at a lattice pitch of 245 mm, to make the
void coefficient of reactivity negative for average core burnup.
5.1.2. Achieving a flat radial power distribution
Heat removal through natural convection is an important feature of this reactor. In
order to have good thermal hydraulic and neutronic coupling, the radial power
distribution has to be flat. This requires the height of the active core to be kept small
with respect to the diameter of the core. In view of this, the core height has been
chosen to be 3.5 m and the calandria vessel diameter is 7.4 m. There are 505 lattice
locations in the core, out of which 452 locations are occupied by fuel and the rest by
reactivity devices.
73
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

5.1.3. Optimizing the axial power profile for adequate thermal margin
In a typical boiling water reactor with bulk boiling, the axial power profile is bottom-
peaked and this increases the thermal margin in the top region of the fuel where the
void fraction is high. In AHWR, in order to achieve a desirable axial power
distribution for adequate thermal margin, graded enrichment is used along the
length of the fuel assembly. This is achieved by altering only the plutonium content
in the outer pins without compromising the void reactivity. The lower half of the fuel
assembly is loaded with 4.0 wt.% Pu and the upper half with 2.5 wt.% Pu in thorium
dioxide.
233
5.1.4. Achieving self-sustenance in U
The objective of achieving self-sustenance in 233U has governed the reactor physics
design of AHWR core. The 233U bred in the cluster decides the self-sustaining
characteristic of AHWR fuel. With irradiation, the 233U content depletes in the inner
(Th–233U)O2 pins and increases in the outer (Th–Pu)O2 pins due to conversion from
thorium. The conversion has been maximized by making the spectrum harder, i.e., in
an intermediate energy range around 0.2 eV.
5.1.5. Minimization of plutonium make-up requirement
The plutonium pins are placed in the outermost ring of the cluster to minimize the
plutonium requirement. The plutonium used as make-up fuel comes from the
discharged PHWR fuel. The power from thorium is 60%.
5.2. Reactor physics analyses
The analyses comprise core calculations, using a 3D code for core optimization, for
obtaining the optimum fuel discharge burnup, flattened channel power distribution
and worth of the reactivity devices.
5.2.1. Physics analysis for the equilibrium core
The reactor physics analysis presented here mainly pertains to the equilibrium core
configuration, which consists of the composite type of cluster. Detailed lattice
analyses have been performed to calculate the variation of lattice parameters such
as the lattice reactivity (k-infinity), the macroscopic cross-sections and the isotopic
compositions as a function of irradiation. The pin-wise power distribution across the
cluster, reactivity coefficients, and other lattice characteristics are also obtained. The
lattice evaluations have been done with WIMSD code system (Askew et al., 1996)
and the 69 energy groups WIMSD nuclear data library from the basic data set of
ENDF/BVI.8 (IAEA, 2002).
The design features of AHWR for equilibrium core configuration are given in Table 3.
The core calculations have been done using 3DKIN and FEMTAVG (Kumar and
Srivenkatesan, 1984). The time-averaged simulations have been done to get
optimum discharge burnup and flattened channel power distribution for the
equilibrium core configuration. The core power distribution has been optimized for a
total power of 920 MWt.
74
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Table 3.
Physics parameter of AHWR equilibrium core
Parameter Value
Fuelling rate, annual
Number of fuel channels 113
Pu (kg) 200
233
Conversion ratio, U 97%
Power from thorium/233U 60%
Peaking factors (maximum)
Local 1.45
Radial 1.2
Axial 1.64
Total 2.85
Reactivity control
Boron/gadolinium in moderator
Control rods (no.) 12 (total of 18.9 mk)
Absorber rods (no.) 4 (total of 7.1 mk)
Regulating rods (no.) 4 (total of 8.1 mk)
Shim rods (no.) 4 (total of 3.7 mk)
41 nos. (total of 80 mk; 46 mk with two maximum
Shut Down System-1
worth rods not available)
Absorber material B4C pins in SS shell
Shut Down System-2 Liquid poison injection in moderator
75
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Parameter Value
Safety parameters
Delayed neutron fraction, β 0.003
Prompt neutron generation
0.22
time, Λ (ms)
Reactivity coefficients, ∆k/k (°C)
−2.0 × 10−5
Fuel temperature
+3.5 × 10−5
Coolant temperature
+1.0 × 10−5
Channel temperature
Void coefficient, ∆k/k (%
−6.0 × 10−5
void)
In order to achieve flux flattening, the equilibrium core has been divided into three
burnup zones, which are adjusted to get the average discharge burnup of nearly
24,000 MWd/t and the maximum channel power of 2.6 MWt. The average coolant
density in the core is 550 kg/m3. The code FEMTAVG is coupled to a static thermal–
hydraulics code THABNA, and the coolant density as a function of distance from inlet
for every channel is calculated. It is seen that the core burnup, power and coolant
density distribution converge in three to four iterations and the optimum power
distribution is estimated accordingly. The quarter core power distribution, calculated
for the average coolant density of 550 kg/m3 throughout the core, is shown in Table
4. The burnup zones and their exit burnups are also given in Table 4.
Table 4.
Optimized core power distribution
The exit burnups of the three zones are 30,000, 23,500 and 20,000 MWd/t. The
average discharge burnup is nearly 24,000 MWd/t. The radial and axial peaking
factors are calculated to be 1.2 and 1.64, respectively. The limits on power
distribution/power are derived from the minimum critical heat flux ratio—MCHFR
(CHFR is the ratio of the critical heat flux at any point in the flow channel to the
actual flux at that point), and it is a measure of safety margin available for the
reactor core. The MCHFR calculated at 20% overpower is 1.67.
76
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

The reactivity balance in AHWR is given in Table 5. The equilibrium xenon load is
21.0 mk and the maximum transient xenon load peaking following shut down is
7.0 mk (US$ 1 = 3 mk). This is due to relatively low thermal flux level of
7.0 × 1013 n/cm2/s. The void reactivity for equilibrium core of AHWR has been
calculated as 6.0 mk.
Table 5.
Reactivity balance in AHWR
Reactor core state Reactivity (mk)
Reactivity swings
(1) Cold to hot standby
Channel temperature (300–558 K) +2.5
Moderator temperature (300–353 K) +3.0
Total +5.5
(2a) Hot standby to full power
Fuel temperature (558–898 K) −6.5
Coolant void (coolant density from 0.74 to 0.55 g/cm3) −2.0
Total −8.5
(2b) LOCA from full power (coolant density 0.55–0.0 g/cm3) −4.0
(3) Xenon load
Equilibrium load −21.0
Transient load after shutdown from full power (peak at about 5 h) −7.0
The major postulated initiating events, considered from the point of reactivity
changes, are loss of regulation accident and cold-water ingress. Out of these, only
loss of regulation accident involves substantial positive reactivity addition. Both the
shut down systems of AHWR are capable of independently shutting down the reactor
in time.
77
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

5.2.2. The initial core of AHWR
The 233U, required for the equilibrium core of AHWR will be bred in situ. It is
envisaged that there will be a gradual transition from the initial core that will not
contain any 233U, to the equilibrium core.
5.2.3. Recycling of uranium
With several recycles, the 234U content in uranium increases from 6 to about 12%. It
is seen that the reactivity load due to 234U in successive recycling of uranium in the
AHWR causes a penalty of about 1500 MWd/t. Fuel cycle calculations have been done
to optimize cycle length with respect to the self-sustenance in 233U and other fuel
performance characteristics.
5.2.4. Xenon oscillations
The possibility of xenon instabilities in the AHWR is reduced considerably due to
relatively low thermal flux level along with negative void and power feedback. Only
first azimuthal mode, with sub-criticality of 12 mk, is close to the instability threshold
in the AHWR. There are four regulating rods, one in each quadrant, to suppress any
flux tilt arising due to these azimuthal oscillations.
6. Description of major reactor systems
6.1. Reactor block
The reactor block of AHWR consists of calandria, end shields, coolant channels and
associated piping, deck plate, reactor control and protection systems, and ECCS
header with associated piping and main heat transport (MHT) system inlet header.
The layout of components in reactor block is shown in Fig. 4. The calandria is housed
in a light water filled reactor vault that acts as an effective radiation shield. End
shields, supported on concrete structure, are provided at both the ends of the
calandria.
78
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Fig. 4. Reactor block.
6.1.1. Calandria
The calandria is a 5.3 m long cylindrical stainless steel (SS304L) vessel. It houses
the reactor core, moderator, reflector, and a portion of the reactor control and
protection systems. The central portion of the calandria is called the main shell
(7.4 m i.d. × 3.5 m long). Two sub-shells of smaller diameter (6.8 m i.d.) are
attached to the main shell at top and bottom with flexible annular plates. The
calandria is fully filled with heavy water and is connected to the expansion tank to
accommodate volumetric expansion of the moderator. The nozzle penetrations,
required for the moderator system, the liquid poison injection system and the
expansion tank are provided in the sub-shells of the calandria vessel. The nozzle
penetrations for over pressure relief devices are provided in main shell of the
calandria vessel to protect the calandria against internal pressure above the design
limit occurring during accidental conditions. The nominal inlet and outlet
temperatures of the moderator are 328 and 353 K, respectively, and the calandria is
designed for 0.05 MPa above the static head due to moderator.
6.1.2. End shields
The end shields are composite cylindrical stainless steel (SS304L) structures, filled
with a mixture of steel balls and water and are attached to the top and bottom ends
of the calandria by in situ welding. These end shields provide radiation shielding and
serve as pressure boundary to the moderator system. The end shields also support
and guide the coolant channel assemblies, reactor control systems and protection
systems. The vertical calandria tubes are joined to the end shield lattice tubes by
rolled joints. Light water is circulated through the end shields to remove the nuclear
heat generated.
6.1.3. Coolant channel assembly
The coolant channel houses the fuel assembly with shielding blocks and has suitable
interfaces for coupling to the main heat transport system. A suitable interface is
provided for coupling the fuelling machine with the coolant channel to facilitate
removal of hot radioactive fuel from the reactor and introduction of fresh fuel into
the reactor. The coolant channel has features to accommodate thermal expansion,
and irradiation creep and growth. The schematic arrangement of the coolant channel
with the fuel assembly is shown in Fig. 5. The vertical coolant channel consists of
pressure tube, top and bottom end fittings, and calandria tube. The pressure tube,
made of zirconium–niobium alloy, is located in the core portion. The core portion is
extended with top and bottom end fittings made of stainless steel. The feeder pipe is
connected to the bottom end fitting through a self-energized metal seal coupling and
this facilitates easy removal. The tail pipe is welded to the top end fitting. The
coolant enters the coolant channel at 533.5 K, flows past the fuel assembly and hot
coolant flows out as steam–water mixture at 558 K flows out to tail pipes. The
annular space between the pressure tube and calandria tube, as shown in Fig. 6,
provides a thermal insulation between the hot coolant and the cold moderator. The
coolant channel assembly is laterally supported within the lattice tube by two
bearings located at the two ends of the top end shield lattice tube. The weight of the
coolant channel is supported at the top end shield. An annulus leak monitoring
system is incorporated to provide an early warning of a leakage in the pressure tube,
79
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

as a part of the strategy to meet the leak before break requirement for the pressure
tube.
Fig. 5. Schematic arrangement of the coolant channel assembly.
80
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Fig. 6. Fuel cluster in the pressure tube.
Easy replacement of pressure tubes, as a part of the normal maintenance activity is
an important consideration in the design of the coolant channel assemblies. The
AHWR coolant channel is designed for easy replacement of pressure tubes as a
regular maintenance activity without incurring a large downtime of the reactor. This
allows the individual coolant channel to be replaced at the end of its design life. A
longer life and easy replacement criteria have guided the selection of the pressure
tube material and the design of pressure tube, end fittings and the couplings. The
pressure tube is provided with an in-built reducer at the bottom end and a thicker
walled top end. The pressure tube is detachable from the rolled joint with the top
end fitting. The bottom end fitting can be detached from the feeder by de-coupling
the bottom metal seal coupling. The bottom end fitting is sized such that it can be
removed along with the pressure tube through the bore of the top end fitting after
detaching it from the feeder and the top end fitting. Top end fitting is provided with
two sets of rolled joint bores. A shop assembled fresh pressure tube with bottom end
fitting can be inserted through the bore of the top end fitting and rolled to the fresh
set of rolled joint grooves.
6.2. Fuel handling and storage system
The refuelling operation is carried out by a remotely operated fuelling machine
moving on rails laid on the reactor top. The fuel handling system mainly consists of a
fuelling machine, an inclined fuel transfer machine, a temporary fuel storage block
located inside the reactor building and a fuel storage bay located outside the reactor.
The temporary fuel storage block comprises fuel port and under water equipment.
The fuel port acts as an interface with fuelling machine for charging new fuel and
receiving spent fuel. Underwater equipment is used for handling the fuel within the
storage block, and for transferring the fuel clusters across the containment walls
through an inclined fuel transfer machine. The temporary fuel storage block also
caters to buffer storage of the fuel to meet refuelling requirement in case of
temporary outage of the inclined fuel transfer machine. The inclined fuel transfer
machine transfers the fuel from temporary fuel storage block to the fuel storage bay
located outside the reactor building. The fuel storage bay houses new fuel storage
area, spent fuel storage area and the handling equipment. The design of the system
has been conceptualized and following important concepts have been evolved.
81
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

6.2.1. Fuel transfer system to transfer fuel across containment walls
The inclined fuel transfer machine is a tall machine connecting the temporary fuel
storage block to the fuel storage bay through the containment walls. A water filled
pot containing fuel, guided in an inclined ramp, is hoisted up in the tilting leg and
subsequently hoisted down to unload the fuel on the other side. Fig. 7 shows the fuel
handling system of AHWR. The concept of the inclined fuel transfer machine is most
suitable because of less requirement of space inside the reactor building, on line fuel
transfer, small containment penetrations, assured cooling of fuel throughout the
transfer and passive containment isolation features.
Fig. 7. Fuel handling system of the AHWR.
6.2.2. Fuelling machine
The experience and feedback of fuelling machines of the existing PHWRs and the
Dhruva research reactor have been considered for the design of the AHWR fuelling
machine. The fuelling machine is a vertical and shielded machine designed to handle
the 10.5 m long fuel assembly (Fig. 8). The fuel assembly of the AHWR consists of
the fuel cluster, shield A and shield B joined together through collet joints. The
fuelling machine moves on the reactor top face to approach any individual coolant
channel for carrying out the refuelling operation. The function of the fuelling machine
is to remove and insert the fuel assembly. The major components of the fuelling
machine are ram assembly, magazine assembly, snout assembly, separator
assembly and its trolley and carriage assembly. The snout plug located in the snout
assembly makes a leak tight connection with the coolant channel end fitting. The
snout assembly clamps the fuelling machine to the end fitting for carrying out the
refuelling operation. The seal plug is located at the top of coolant channel and acts
as a pressure boundary for the MHT water/steam. The ram assembly consists of
three coaxial rams and the outer ram travels up to 7.6 m for removal of the fuel
assembly from the coolant channel. The three coaxial rams manipulate the snout
82
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

plug, seal plug, ram adaptors and shield plugs for their removal, movement and
installation. The magazine assembly consists of eight tubes fixed on a rotor and
temporarily stores the plugs and fuel cluster. The ram adaptor is hung in the
magazine tube and holds the fuel cluster through a collet joint. The separator
assembly is required to sense and hold the fuel assembly during its removal and
insertion to facilitate joining/disjoining different fuel assembly parts. The fuelling
machine head is hung to the fuelling machine support system through a X-trunion
located at the ram housing of the ram assembly. The fuelling machine support
system is mounted on a shielding assembly. The shielding assembly is supported on
a trolley and carriage assembly. The trolley moves in Y direction on the rails provided
on the carriage assembly. The carriage assembly moves across the reactor top face
in X direction on fuelling machine rails. The drive is provided by an oil hydraulic
system. The fuelling machine is coarse aligned to a particular channel through the
trolley and the carriage travels, and fine alignment is by X fine and Y fine
movements provided in the fuelling machine support system. During the refuelling
process the fuelling machine clamps with the channel, makes leak tight joint,
removes the seal plug, removes the fuel assembly, separates the shield ‘A’, shield ‘B’
and fuel cluster, replaces with new fuel and boxes up the channel after completing
the reverse sequences of operations. The entire operation of fuelling machine is done
remotely.
Fig. 8. Fuelling machine of the AHWR.
6.2.3. Fuel storage bay
83
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

A storage bay, located in the fuel building adjoining the reactor building, stores the
fresh and the spent fuel under water. The storage pool capacity is decided based on
the refuelling frequency of 113 fuel clusters (one-fourth of the core) per annum, two
years cooling span for the fuel cluster and six months inventory of new fuel clusters.
Provision is made to monitor the leakage from the bay. A fail-safe crane and
handling equipment are provided in the bay.
6.3. Reactor building
The concept of double containment has been adopted in the design of AHWR reactor
building. The containment structures consist of an inner containment wall and dome,
forming the primary containment. An outer containment wall and dome form the
secondary containment. The inner containment wall and the containment dome are
made of prestressed concrete and the outer containment wall and outer containment
dome are made of reinforced concrete. There exists an annular space of 5.2 m width
between the two containments. The containment structures and the internal
structures of the reactor building are founded on a common circular reinforced
concrete base raft. The base raft is 4 m thick near the center and 5 m thick near the
edges, where the walls are connected.
The AHWR reactor building has a 6000 m3 capacity circular water tank in the inner
containment located at an elevation of 136 m. This large water pool, called gravity
driven water pool, is sufficient to cool the reactor for three days following any
accident in the plant. The GDWP tank is made of reinforced concrete with a steel
liner inside. The pool is supported on the ring beam of the inner containment all
along its circumference. In addition to this, two tail pipe towers support it. These tail
pipe towers extend right up to the base of the raft. Two steam drums are located
within each tail pipe tower at an elevation of 123 m. The GDWP is divided into eight
compartments.
7. Passive systems and inherent safety features of AHWR
The AHWR has several passive safety systems for reactor normal operation, decay
heat removal, emergency core cooling, confinement of radioactivity, etc. (Bhat et al.,
2004). These passive safety features are listed below:
• core heat removal by natural circulation of coolant during normal operation and
shutdown conditions;
• direct injection of ECCS water in the fuel cluster in passive mode during postulated
accident conditions like LOCA;
• containment cooling by passive containment coolers;
• passive containment isolation by water seal, following a large break LOCA;
• availability of large inventory of water in GDWP at higher elevation inside the
containment to facilitate sustenance of core decay heat removal, ECCS injection,
containment cooling for at least 72 h without invoking any active systems or
operator action;
84
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

• passive shutdown by poison injection in the moderator, using the system pressure,
in case of MHT system high pressure due to failure of wired mechanical shutdown
system and liquid poison injection system;
• passive moderator cooling system to minimize the pressurization of calandria and
release of tritium through cover gas during shutdown and station blackout;
• passive concrete cooling system for protection of the concrete structure in high-
temperature zone.
The passive and active heat removal paths of the AHWR under various operational
states and in LOCA are shown in Fig. 9. The design features of passive systems are
described in the following paragraph.
Fig. 9. Heat removal paths of the AHWR.
7.1. Passive core heat removal by natural circulation during normal operation
During normal reactor operation, full reactor power is removed by natural circulation
caused by thermo siphoning phenomenon. The main heat transport system
transports heat from fuel rods to the steam drums using boiling light water in a
natural circulation mode. The necessary flow rate is achieved by locating the steam
drums at a suitable height above the core. By eliminating nuclear grade primary
circulating pumps and their drives, and control system, all event scenarios initiating
from non-availability of main pumps are therefore excluded besides providing
economical advantage. The above factors result in considerable enhancement of
system safety and reliability. Full power heat removal using natural circulation
85
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

depends on several associated phenomena. Some details of the analysis and
experimental studies are described later in the paper.
7.2. Passive core decay heat removal system
During reactor shut down, core decay heat is removed by eight isolation condensers
(ICs) submerged in the gravity driven water pool. The pool acts as a heat sink for
passive decay heat removal system. Four isolation condensers are capable of
removing 6% full power core heat (decay heat at reactor trip). Passive valves are
provided on the down stream of each isolation condenser. These valves get activated
at a set steam drum pressure, and establish steam flow by natural circulation
between the steam drums and corresponding isolation condenser under hot
shutdown. The steam condenses inside the isolation condenser pipes immersed in
the GDWP and the condensate returns to the core by gravity (Fig. 11).
The isolation condensers are designed to bring down the main heat transport system
temperature from 558 to 423 K. The water inventory in the GDWP is adequate to
cool the core for more than three days without any operator intervention and without
leading to boiling of pool water.
During normal shutdown, decay heat is removed by natural circulation in the main
heat transport circuit and the heat is transferred to ultimate heat sink through main
condenser. The isolation condenser system removes heat during non-availability of
the main condenser. In case of unavailability of both isolation condenser and main
condenser, decay heat is removed by active system utilizing the MHT purification
coolers.
7.3. Emergency core cooling in passive mode and core submergence
In the event of a loss of coolant accident (LOCA), four independent loops of ECCS
provide cooling to the core for at least 72 h. A high-pressure injection system using
accumulators and a low-pressure injection system using GDWP as source of water
are passively brought into action, in a sequential manner, as the depressurization of
the MHT system progresses, during LOCA.
The ECCS has four accumulators, each connecting to a quadrant of the fuel channels
through a one-way rupture disc and a non-return valve. The rupture action due to
the depressurization of the MHT system causes the injection of emergency coolant
from accumulators. The accumulator houses a fluidic flow control device as shown in
Fig. 10. It consists of a vortex chamber with a radial inlet connected to a vertical
standpipe open at the top and a small tangential inlet. A large mass of cold water
enters quickly into the core in the early stages of LOCA due to flow through the
standpipe and tangential inlet during water level higher than standpipe. Later, a
relatively small flow is extended for a longer time ( 15 min) through the tangential
inlet due to vortex formation in the fluidic flow control device.
86
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Fig. 10. Accumulator with fluid flow control device.
The GDWP is also connected to ECCS header by a one-way rupture disc and a non-
return valve. The GDWP water is injected to remove the decay heat in the fuel after
the MHT system pressure falls below GDWP pressure head.
During LOCA, the water from the MHT system, the accumulators and the GDWP,
after cooling the core, collects in the space around the core in the reactor cavity and
eventually submerges the core in water.
7.4. Passive containment isolation system
To minimize early large releases following a LOCA, it is necessary to isolate
containment following a large break LOCA. To achieve this, a passive containment
isolation arrangement has been provided, in addition to the closing of the normal
inlet and outlet ventilation dampers (Maheshwari et al., 2004). The reactor building
air supply and exhaust ducts are shaped in the form of U bends of sufficient height.
In the event of a large LOCA, the containment gets pressurized and the pressure
acts on the GDWP inventory and swiftly establishes a water siphon, into the
ventilation duct U bends. Water in the U bends acts as seal between the containment
and the external environment, providing the necessary isolation between the two. An
isolation water tank is provided inside the GDWP to achieve the water seal in
minimum possible time. The isolation water tank has a baffle plate with one side
connected to V1 volume (volume containing high enthalpy systems) through a vent
shaft and other side connected to V2 volume (volume comprise areas having low
enthalpy systems) U duct. Due to the differential pressure between two sides of the
baffle during the LOCA, the isolation tank water spill in to the U duct and isolate V1
volume from V2. Drain connections provided to the U bends permit the re-
establishment of containment ventilation manually when desired.
87
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

7.5. Vapor suppression in gravity driven water pool
The GDWP absorbs the energy released in the containment immediately following the
LOCA. After a postulated LOCA, the steam released to the V1 volume is directed to
the GDWP through a large number of large size vent ducts. The vent ducts opens
into the GDWP water, condensing the steam and cooling the non-condensable and
reduces the heat load released to the containment.
7.6. Passive containment cooling
The passive containment coolers are utilized to achieve post-accident primary
containment cooling to limit the primary containment pressure. The passive
containment coolers are located below the GDWP and are connected to the GDWP
inventory (Maheshwari et al., 2001). During the LOCA, a mixture of hot air and
steam flows over the passive containment coolers. Steam condenses and hot air
cools down on the outer tube surfaces of the coolers due to natural circulation of
GDWP water inside the tubes providing long-term containment cooling after the
accident.
7.7. Passive shutdown on MHT system high pressure
Passive shutdown system injects poison into the moderator by using the increased
steam pressure arising out of the failure of wired shutdown systems. The AHWR has
two independent shutdown systems, one comprising the mechanical shut off rods
(SDS-1) and the other employing injection of a liquid poison in the low-pressure
moderator (SDS-2). Both the shutdown systems require active signals for shutdown
of the reactor. The scheme of passive shutdown actuates on high steam pressure
due to unavailability of heat sink, followed by failure of SDS-1 and SDS-2. The
schematic of the passive shutdown on MHT high pressure is shown in Fig. 11. In such
an event of pressure rise, pressure opens a rupture disc and pressure is transmitted
for opening a passive valve connected to a pressurized poison tank, injecting poison
in the moderator to shutdown the reactor. Inadvertent poison injection is avoided by
keeping the rupture disc burst pressure above the expected MHT pressure rise during
and after reactor shutdown activated by either SDS-1 or SDS-2.
88
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Fig. 11. Passive shutdown device.
7.8. Passive concrete cooling system
This system is designed to protect the concrete structure of the reactor located in the
high-temperature zone (V1 volume). The cooling is achieved by circulation of coolant
from GDWP in natural circulation mode through cooling pipes located between the
concrete structure and an insulation panel. The heat transferred to the insulation
panel is transferred to the GDWP water by the cooling pipes, fixed on a corrugated
plate on outer surface of the insulation panel. Cooling pipes are placed at an
optimum pitch to maintain the concrete temperature below 358 K.
This passive feature has eliminated the requirement of otherwise needed active
equipment.
8. Thermal hydraulic analysis
The thermal hydraulic characteristics of a natural circulation reactor depend on the
geometry of system, pressure, inlet sub-cooling, feed water temperature, and radial
and axial power distribution in the core. The thermal hydraulic design of the AHWR
has been carried out to provide adequate stability margin as well as thermal margin.
The stability margin is defined as the ratio of successive amplitudes of flow
oscillations following a disturbance to the system and the thermal margin is the
minimum critical heat flux ratio. Thus, when the stability margin is less than one, the
system is stable; if it is more than one it is unstable and if it is one, the system is at
the threshold of stability. The MCHFR value has to be much larger than one for
having a larger thermal margin for the reactor. The computer codes, TINFLO-S
(Nayak et al., 2002) and ARTHA (Chandraker et al., 2002) were used to evaluate
89
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

these parameters for the reactor. The effect of various parameters affecting the
thermal and stability margins has been determined. The thermal hydraulic analyses
were carried out to determine the channel flow distribution, exit quality, void fraction
in the channels and the MCHFR. Some of the important results of the analyses are
given in Table 6. A high value of stability margin is desirable. Several parametric
studies were carried out to optimize the geometrical and operating conditions
(Kumar et al., 2002). A brief outline of the results obtained is described below.
Table 6.
Thermal hydraulic parameters of AHWR
Core fission power 960 MWt
Core power 920 MWt
Coolant Light water
Heated fuel length 3.5 m
Total core flow rate 2237 kg/s
Coolant inlet temperature 533.5 K (nominal)
Coolant outlet temperature 558 K
Feed water temperature 403 K
Average steam quality 18.2%
Steam generation rate 407.6 kg/s
Steam drum pressure 7 MPa
MHT loop height 39 m
Minimum critical heat flux ratio (MCHFR) at 20% overpower 1.67
Maximum channel power 2.6 MW
8.1. Effect of tail pipe height
The variations of core inlet sub-cooling and flow rate with the change in tail pipe
height for a high-power (2.6 MW) channel of the reactor are detailed in Fig. 12. It
can be seen that with an increase in the tail pipe height the channel flow rate
increases and sub-cooling at the core inlet decreases. Fig. 13 gives the variation of
stability margin and CHFR with the change in the tail pipe height. Stability margin
indicates that the normal operating region is away from the unstable region. Both
the stability and the thermal margin increases with increase in the tail pipe height.
However, beyond the tail pipe height of 20 m, the increase in the stability margin is
only marginal while the thermal margin keeps on improving.
90
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Fig. 12. Effect of tail pipe height on core inlet sub-cooling and channel flow rate.
Fig. 13. Effect of tail pipe height on thermal and stability margin.
8.2. Effect of tail pipe size
Fig. 14 shows the effect of tail pipe (riser) diameter on the channel flow rate and the
sub-cooling for a constant feed water temperature of 403 K. The channel flow rate
initially increases with increase in tail pipe size and saturates beyond 127 mm
diameter. The effect of tail pipe size on the stability and the thermal margin is shown
in Fig. 15. Initially, with increase in the tail pipe size, the stability margin increases
significantly but later on (beyond 127 mm tail pipe size) the increase is only
91
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

marginal. The thermal margin improves with an increase in the tail pipe size.
However, beyond the tail pipe size of 127 mm, the effect of increase in size is not
significant.
Fig. 14. Effect of tail pipe diameter on core inlet sub-cooling and channel flow rate.
Fig. 15. Effect of tail pipe diameter on CHFR and stability margin.
8.3. Effect of feed water temperature
The effect of feed water temperature on core inlet sub-cooling and the channel flow
rate is shown in Fig. 16. Both the channel flow rate and the sub-cooling decrease
92
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

with increase in the feed water temperature. Fig. 17 shows the effect of feed water
temperature on the thermal and the stability margin. The stability margin increases
with increase in the feed water temperature while the CHFR decreases with increase
in the feed water temperature.
Fig. 16. Effect of feed water temperature on core inlet sub-cooling and channel flow
rate.
Fig. 17. Effect of feed water temperature on stability margin and CHFR.
93
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

8.4. Stability analyses
The Ledinegg type of instability occurs when the inlet sub-cooling exceeds 9 K (Fig.
18) for the system pressure of 0.1 MPa and the channel power greater than 315 kW.
At a pressure of 1.0 MPa and sub-cooling less than 40 K, this type of instability is
completely avoided. Thus, at the operating pressure of 7 MPa, Ledinegg type of
instability is not a concern. However, density wave instability occurs even at a
pressure of 7.0 MPa and inlet sub-cooling of 25.9 K if the power is less than 49.8%
FP (Fig. 19). Thus, controlling the inlet sub-cooling and pressure will avoid both
these instabilities.
Fig. 18. Ledinegg type instability map for AHWR.
94
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Fig. 19. Stability map for dynamic stability.
9. Experimental programs to demonstrate the inherent and passive features relevant
to AHWR and their development status
Several passive features have been adopted for the AHWR for which analytical
studies have been carried out. Some of these needs to be validated through
experimental programs. A list of the experimental programs is given in Table 7.
Table 7.
Experimental program
Main objectives Enabling technologies Status of development
Negative void coefficient Tight lattice pitch Feasibility demonstrated
Use of a scatterer cum
Physics experiments to be
absorber component within
done in the critical facility
fuel cluster
Optimum use of passive Ongoing and
Natural circulation driven
systems for core heat experimental studies
main coolant system
removal planned in the ITL
Isolation condensers
Large passive heat sink
within containment
Passive valves R&D in progress
Enhanced safety following Passive emergency core Planned experiments in
LOCA cooling system (ECCS) the integral test loop
Ongoing experimental
Fluidic device in ECCS
program
ECCS injection directly into Ongoing experimental
fuel program
Demonstration planned in
Passive containment
a facility under
isolation
construction
Passive feature, no R&D
Core submergence
required
95
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Main objectives Enabling technologies Status of development
One-way rupture disk R&D planned
High reliability non-return
R&D in progress
valve
Additional features to
Passive poison injection Demonstration planned in
achieve low core damage
using steam pressure an experimental facility
frequency
Moderator heat removal,
stratification in large Passive moderator cooling Planned in a scaled model
diameter calandria
High-temperature Planned experiments in
Passive concrete cooling
protection of concrete ITL
A critical facility is being built at Bhabha Atomic Research Centre to validate the
physics calculation models used for the AHWR.
An extensive experimental program has been planned and executed to understand
the natural circulation characteristics including its stability for the design of the
AHWR. This comprises setting up of several experimental facilities. The AHWR
natural circulation characteristics during start-up, power raising and accidental
conditions have been experimentally simulated in these facilities. In addition to
several small facilities, a full size integral test loop (ITL) (Rao et al., 2002) has also
been built to simulate the thermal hydraulic characteristics of the AHWR. The facility
has the same elevation as that of the AHWR. The facility contains one full size
channel of the AHWR, with its associated inlet feeder and tail pipe. The geometry of
the feeder pipe and tail pipe of the ITL is retained the same as that of the AHWR,
thus it simulates not only the driving buoyancy head, but also the resisting frictional
forces which are vital in the simulation of natural circulation. The nominal operating
pressure of the ITL is 70 bar and maximum power of operation is about 2 MW, which
are closer to the prototypic conditions.
Fig. 20 and Fig. 21 show the simulation of decay heat removal behavior of the AHWR
in the ITL following a station blackout. Under this condition, due to non-availability of
the Class-IV power, the feed pumps are unavailable. The reactor is tripped and the
main steam isolation valve (MSIV) closes. The decay heat generated in the core is
removed by thermo siphon using the ICs. In the integral test loop, the decay heat
generation rate has been simulated by controlling the current flowing through the
cluster, heated electrically. From Fig. 21, it can be observed that the MHT pressure
continuously falls due to the steam condensation in the ICs. Many other safety
experiments are being carried out in this facility to validate the AHWR design
concepts.
96
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Fig. 20. Simulation of decay heat removal rate of the AHWR in integral test loop
following a station blackout.
Fig. 21. Variation of steam drum pressure in the integral test loop following a station
blackout.
The critical heat flux (CHF) under natural circulation condition is also a complex
phenomena and it has been found that the conventional CHF relationships for forced
97
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

circulation conditions cannot be applied over the entire range of operation under
natural circulation conditions. To study the CHF of the AHWR cluster, several phased
experimental program are underway both in BARC and at Indian Institute of
Technology, Mumbai. These include conducting experiments in prototypic AHWR
clusters using water as well as Freon as the working fluid and the corresponding
nominal operating conditions of the reactor as well as development of mathematical
models for critical power prediction based on film flow analysis.
Experiments on condensation of steam in presence of non-condensable gas are being
carried out on the passive external condenser tube of AHWR. The purpose of the
experiment is to determine the condensation heat transfer coefficient outside the
tube in a stagnant steam/air mixture simulating the prototypic conditions. The
experiments will be performed on different orientation of the tube with different
concentration of non-condensable gases. Further, the tests will be conducted with
the natural circulation of water inside the tube with steam/air mixture condensing
outside the tube.
10. Safety analyses
The emphasis in the reactor design has been to incorporate passive safety features
to the maximum extent, as a part of the defense in depth strategy. The main
objective has been to establish a case for elimination of a need for an evacuation
planning, following any credible accident scenario in the plant.
A major objective of design of the AHWR has been to provide a capability to
withstand a wide range of postulating events without exceeding specified fuel
temperature limits, thereby maintaining fuel integrity. The safety analysis of AHWR
has identified an exhaustive list of 55 postulated initiated events (PIEs) (Gupta and
Lele, 2002). The events considered include a wide range in the following categories:
• small, medium and large break LOCA;
• operational transients involving loss of coolant inventory;
• multiple system failure;
• power transients.
The safety analyses include 10 anticipated transients without scram scenario. The
latter include the combination of a frequent event with unavailability of shutdown
system. The acceptance criteria for all design basis accidents are given below:
• maximum fuel cladding temperature ≤ 1473 K;
• maximum local oxidation of fuel clad ≤ 18%;
• maximum fuel temperature anywhere in the core for any transient ≤ melting point
of ThO2;
• mass of Zr converted into ZrO2 ≤ 1% of the total mass of the cladding;
98
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

• radiation level at the plant boundary ≤ applicable levels for emergency planning.
The analyses indicate that in none of the accident sequences mentioned above the
fuel clad temperature exceeds 1073 K.
In the conventional sense, for the purpose of design of the containment, a double-
ended guillotine rupture of the 500 mm diameter inlet header has been considered. A
clad surface temperature transient for this case is furnished in Fig. 22. This shows
the efficiency and adequacy of the designed engineered safety feature, to limit the
consequences, well within the acceptance criteria limits. A large number of other
accident scenarios conventionally fall within the category of beyond design basis
accidents. However, even in these cases, including a case of station blackout
together with failures of both the independent fast acting shutdown systems (SDS-1
and SDS-2), it has been demonstrated (Fig. 23) that none of the acceptance criteria
for design basis accidents has been violated.
Fig. 22. Clad temperature of the maximum power rated channel for double-ended
guillotine break of inlet header.
99
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Fig. 23. Clad temperature of the maximum power rated channel under failure of
wired shutdown system.
11. Summary
The design of Advanced Heavy Water Reactor incorporates several new features.
These include utilization of thorium on a large scale and inclusion of several passive
safety features. In addition to development of a system of computational tools to
address the issues arising out of these innovations, an extensive experimental
programme is under way to validate the design approaches used. At the current
stage of design, the safety evaluations carried out so far, indicate that the peak clad
temperature remains within acceptable limits for practically the entire range of
initiating events and their credible combinations. The reactor is expected to serve as
a platform for the development and demonstration of all technologies associated with
the large-scale utilization of thorium, and advanced safety systems relevant for
water cooled reactors.
References
Anantharaman et al., 2000 K. Anantharaman, H.S. Kamath, S. Majumdar, A.
Ramanujam and M. Venkatramani, Thorium Based Fuel Reprocessing & Refabrication
Technologies and Strategies, INSAC-2000 Mumbai, 1–2 June (2000).
Anantharaman and Shivakumar, 2002 K. Anantharaman and V. Shivakumar, Design
& Fabrication of AHWR Fuel, CQCNF-2002 Hyderabad (December 2002).
Askew et al., 1996 J.R. Askew, F.J. Fayers and P.B. Kemshell, A General Description
of the Lattice Code WIMS, British Nuclear Energy Society (October 1996) p. 564.
100
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Bhat et al., 2004 N.R. Bhat, I.V. Dulera, M.G. Andhansare, D. Saha and R.K. Sinha,
Design of passive systems of Indian AHWR and CHTR, Paper Presented in IAEA
Technical Meeting I3-TM-26926 on ‘Review of Passive Safety Design Options for
Small and Medium Sized Reactors’ IAEA, Vienna, June 13–17 (2005).
Chandraker et al., 2002 D.K. Chandraker, N.K. Maheshwari, D. Saha and R.K. Sinha,
A computer code for the thermal hydraulic analysis of a natural circulation reactor,
16th National Heat and Mass Transfer Conference and 5th ISHMT-ASME Heat and
Mass Transfer Conference Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jadhavpur
University, Calcutta, India (January 2002).
Gupta and Lele, 2002 Gupta, S.K., Lele, H.G., 2002. Safety analyses of AHWR:
approaches, methodology and applications. In: Paper Presented in the First National
Conference on Nuclear Reactor Technology, Mumbai, India, 25–27 November.
IAEA, 2002 International Atomic Energy Agency, 2002. IAEA CRP on Final Stage of
the WIMS-D Library Update Project (WLUP), http://www.iaea-nds.org.
Kumar and Srivenkatesan, 1984 Kumar, A., Srivenkatesan, R., 1984. Nodal
Expansion Method for Reactor Core Calculation. BARC Report. BARC-1249.
Kumar et al., 1999 A. Kumar, U. Kannan, Y. Padala, G.M. Behera and R.
Srivenkatesan, Physics design of advanced heavy water reactor utilising thorium,
Paper Presented in the Technical Committee Meeting on Utilization of Thorium Fuel
Options IAEA, Vienna (November 1999).
Kumar et al., 2002 N. Kumar, D.K. Chandraker, A.K. Nayak, P.K. Vijayan, D. Saha
and R.K. Sinha, Effect of various geometric parameters on the design safety
considerations of a natural circulation boiling water reactor: thermal margin vs
stability margin, First National Conference on Nuclear Reactor Technology BARC,
Mumbai, India, 25–27 November (2002).
Kumar, 2000 A. Kumar, A new cluster design for the reduction of void reactivity in
AHWR, Poster Paper Presented at the Indian Nuclear Society Annual Conference
INSAC-2000, Mumbai, 1–2 June (2000).
Maheshwari et al., 2001 N.K. Maheshwari, D. Saha, D.K. Chandraker, V. Venkat Raj
and A. Kakodkar, Studies on the behaviour of a passive containment cooling system
for the Indian heavy water reactors, Kerntechnik 66 (2001), pp. 15–22.
Maheshwari et al., 2004 N.K. Maheshwari, P.K. Vijayan, D. Saha and R.K. Sinha,
Passive Safety Features of Indian Innovative Nuclear Reactors, Innovative Small and
Medium Sized Reactors: Design Features, Safety Approach and R&D Trends IAEA
TEC-DOC 1451, Vienna, 7–11 June (2004).
Nayak et al., 2002 A.K. Nayak, N. Kumar, P.K. Vijayan, D. Saha and R.K. Sinha,
Analytical study of flow instability behaviour in a boiling two phase natural circulation
loop under low quality conditions, Kerntechnik 67 (2002), pp. 95–101. View Record
in Scopus | Cited By in Scopus (2)
101
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Rao et al., 2002 Rao, G.S.S.P., Vijayan, P.K., Jain, V., Borgohain, A., Sharma, M.,
Nayak, A.K., Belokar, D.G., Pal, A.K., Saha, D., Sinha, R.K., 2002. AHWR integral
test loop scaling philosophy and system description, BARC Report,
BARC/2002/E/017.
Sinha et al., 2000 R.K. Sinha, H.S. Kushwaha, R.G. Agarwal, D. Saha, M.L. Dhawan,
H.P. Vyas and B.B. Rupani, Design and development of AHWR—the Indian thorium
fuelled innovative nuclear reactor, INSAC-2000, Annual Conference of Indian Nuclear
Society Mumbai, 1–2 June (2000).
Sinha and Kakodkar, 2003 R.K. Sinha and A. Kakodkar, The road map for a future
Indian nuclear energy system, International Conference on Innovative Technologies
for Nuclear Fuel Cycles and Nuclear Power Vienna, 23–26 June (2003).
Srivenkatesan et al., 2000 R. Srivenkatesan, A. Kumar, U. Kannan, V.K. Raina, M.K.
Arora, S. Ganesan and S.B. Degwekar, Physics considerations for utilization of
thorium in power reactors and subcritical cores, INSAC-2000, Annual Conference of
Indian Nuclear Society Mumbai, 1–2 June (2000).
Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 22 25505303; fax: +91 22 25505303.
Nuclear Engineering and Design
Volume 236, Issues 7-8, April 2006, Pages 683-700
India's Reactors: Past, Present, Future
http://www.uic.com.au/nip67.htm
102
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Annex 17
Thorium: UIC Briefing Paper # 67
May 2007
• Thorium is much more abundant in nature than uranium.
• Thorium can also be used as a nuclear fuel through breeding to uranium-233
(U-233).
• When this thorium fuel cycle is used, much less plutonium and other
transuranic elements are produced, compared with uranium fuel cycles.
• Several reactor concepts based on thorium fuel cycles are under
consideration.
Thorium is a naturally-occurring, slightly radioactive metal discovered in 1828 by the
Swedish chemist Jons Jakob Berzelius, who named it after Thor, the Norse god of
thunder. It is found in small amounts in most rocks and soils, where it is about three
times more abundant than uranium. Soil commonly contains an average of around 6
parts per million (ppm) of thorium.
Thorium occurs in several minerals, the most common being the rare earth-thorium-
phosphate mineral, monazite, which contains up to about 12% thorium oxide, but
average 6-7%. There are substantial deposits in several countries (see table).
Thorium-232 decays very slowly (its half-life is about three times the age of the
earth) but other thorium isotopes occur in its and in uranium's decay chains. Most of
these are short-lived and hence much more radioactive than Th-232, though on a
mass basis they are negligible.
World thorium resources
(economically extractable):
Country Reserves (tonnes)
Australia 300 000
India 290 000
Norway 170 000
USA 160 000
Canada 100 000
South Africa 35 000
Brazil 16 000
Other countries 95 000
World total 1 200 000
source: US Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 1999
The 2005 IAEA-NEA \"Red Book\" gives a figure of 4.5 million tonnes of reserves and
additional resources, but points out that this excludes data from much of the world.
Geoscience Australia confirms the above 300,000 tonne figure for Australia, but
103
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

stresses that this is based on assumptions, not direct geological data in the same
way as most mineral rsources.
When pure, thorium is a silvery white metal that retains its lustre for several months.
However, when it is contaminated with the oxide, thorium slowly tarnishes in air,
becoming grey and eventually black. Thorium oxide (ThO2), also called thoria, has
one of the highest melting points of all oxides (3300°C). When heated in air, thorium
metal turnings ignite and burn brilliantly with a white light. Because of these
properties, thorium has found applications in light bulb elements, lantern mantles,
arc-light lamps, welding electrodes and heat-resistant ceramics. Glass containing
thorium oxide has a high refractive index and dispersion and is used in high quality
lenses for cameras and scientific instruments.
Thorium as a nuclear fuel
Thorium, as well as uranium, can be used as a nuclear fuel. Although not fissile
itself, thorium-232 (Th-232) will absorb slow neutrons to produce uranium-233 (U-
233), which is fissile. Hence like uranium-238 (U-238) it is fertile.
In one significant respect U-233 is better than uranium-235 and plutonium-239,
because of its higher neutron yield per neutron absorbed. Given a start with some
other fissile material (U-235 or Pu-239), a breeding cycle similar to but more
efficient than that with U-238 and plutonium (in slow-neutron reactors) can be set
up. The Th-232 absorbs a neutron to become Th-233 which normally decays to
protactinium-233 and then U-233. The irradiated fuel can then be unloaded from the
reactor, the U-233 separated from the thorium, and fed back into another reactor as
part of a closed fuel cycle.
Over the last 30 years there has been interest in utilising thorium as a nuclear fuel
since it is more abundant in the Earth's crust than uranium. Also, all of the mined
thorium is potentially useable in a reactor, compared with the 0.7% of natural
uranium, so some 40 times the amount of energy per unit mass might theoretically
be available (withouit recourse to fast breeder reactors).
A major potential application for conventional PWRs involves fuel assemblies
arranged so that a blanket of mainly thorium fuel rods surrounds a more-enriched
seed element containing U-235 which supplies neutrons to the subcritical blanket. As
U-233 is produced in the blanket it is burned there. This is the Light Water Breeder
Reactor concept which was successfully demonstrated in the USA in the 1970s.
It is currently being developed in a more deliberately proliferation-resistant way. The
central seed region of each fuel assembly will have uranium enriched to 20% U-235.
The blanket will be thorium with some U-238, which means that any uranium
chemically separated from it (for the U-233 ) is not useable for weapons. Spent
blanket fuel also contains U-232, which decays rapidly and has very gamma-active
daughters creating significant problems in handling the bred U-233 and hence
conferring proliferation resistance. Plutonium produced in the seed will have a high
proportion of Pu-238, generating a lot of heat and making it even more unsuitable
for weapons than normal reactor-grade Pu.
A variation of this is the use of whole homogeneous assembles arranged so that a
set of them makes up a seed and blanket arrangement. If the seed fuel is metal
104
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

uranium alloy instead of oxide, there is better heat conduction to cope with its higher
temperatures. Seed fuel remains three years in the reactor, blanket fuel for up to 14
years.
Since the early 1990s Russia has had a program to develop a thorium-uranium fuel,
which more recently has moved to have a particular emphasis on utilisation of
weapons-grade plutonium in a thorium-plutonium fuel.
The program is based at Moscow's Kurchatov Institute and involves the US company
Thorium Power and US government funding to design fuel for Russian VVER-1000
reactors. Whereas normal fuel uses enriched uranium oxide, the new design has a
demountable centre portion and blanket arrangement, with the plutonium in the
centre and the thorium (with uranium) around it*. The Th-232 becomes U-233,
which is fissile - as is the core Pu-239. Blanket material remains in the reactor for 9
years but the centre portion is burned for only three years (as in a normal VVER).
Design of the seed fuel rods in the centre portion draws on extensive experience of
Russian navy reactors.
*More precisely: A normal VVER-1000 fuel assembly has 331 rods each 9 mm
diameter forming a hexagonal assembly 235 mm wide. Here, the centre portion of
each assembly is 155 mm across and holds the seed material consisting of metallic
Pu-Zr alloy (Pu is about 10% of alloy, and isotopically over 90% Pu-239) as 108
twisted tricorn-section rods 12.75 mm across with Zr-1%Nb cladding. The sub-
critical blanket consists of U-Th oxide fuel pellets (1:9 U:Th, the U enriched up to
almost 20%) in 228 Zr-1%Nb cladding tubes 8.4 mm diameter - four layers around
the centre portion. The blanket material achieves 100 GWd/t burn-up. Together as
one fuel assembly the seed and blanket have the same geometry as a normal VVER-
100 fuel assembly.
The thorium-plutonium fuel claims four advantages over MOX: proliferation
resistance, compatibility with existing reactors - which will need minimal modification
to be able to burn it, and the fuel can be made in existing plants in Russia. In
addition, a lot more plutonium can be put into a single fuel assembly than with MOX,
so that three times as much can be disposed of as when using MOX. The spent fuel
amounts to about half the volume of MOX and is even less likely to allow recovery of
weapons-useable material than spent MOX fuel, since less fissile plutonium remains
in it. With an estimated 150 tonnes of weapons Pu in Russia, the thorium-plutonium
project would not necessarily cut across existing plans to make MOX fuel.
In 2007 Thorium Power formed an alliance with Red Star nuclear design bureau in
Russia which will take forward the program to demonstrate the technology in lead-
test fuel assemblies in full-sized commercial reactors.
R&D history
The use of thorium-based fuel cycles has been studied for about 30 years, but on a
much smaller scale than uranium or uranium/plutonium cycles. Basic research and
development has been conducted in Germany, India, Japan, Russia, the UK and the
USA. Test reactor irradiation of thorium fuel to high burnups has also been
conducted and several test reactors have either been partially or completely loaded
with thorium-based fuel.
105
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Noteworthy experiments involving thorium fuel include the following, the first three
being high-temperature gas-cooled reactors:
• Between 1967 and 1988, the AVR experimental pebble bed reactor at Julich,
Germany, operated for over 750 weeks at 15 MWe, about 95% of the time
with thorium-based fuel. The fuel used consisted of about 100 000 billiard
ball-sized fuel elements. Overall a total of 1360 kg of thorium was used,
mixed with high-enriched uranium (HEU). Maximum burnups of 150,000
MWd/t were achieved.
• Thorium fuel elements with a 10:1 Th/U (HEU) ratio were irradiated in the 20
MWth Dragon reactor at Winfrith, UK, for 741 full power days. Dragon was
run as an OECD/Euratom cooperation project, involving Austria, Denmark,
Sweden, Norway and Switzerland in addition to the UK, from 1964 to 1973.
The Th/U fuel was used to 'breed and feed', so that the U-233 formed
replaced the U-235 at about the same rate, and fuel could be left in the
reactor for about six years.
• General Atomics' Peach Bottom high-temperature, graphite-moderated,
helium-cooled reactor (HTGR) in the USA operated between 1967 and 1974 at
110 MWth, using high-enriched uranium with thorium.
• In India, the Kamini 30 kWth experimental neutron-source research reactor
using U-233, recovered from ThO2 fuel irradiated in another reactor, started
up in 1996 near Kalpakkam. The reactor was built adjacent to the 40 MWt
Fast Breeder Test Reactor, in which the ThO2 is irradiated.
• In the Netherlands, an aqueous homogenous suspension reactor has operated
at 1MWth for three years. The HEU/Th fuel is circulated in solution and
reprocessing occurs continuously to remove fission products, resulting in a
high conversion rate to U-233.
• There have been several experiments with fast neutron reactors.
Power reactors
Much experience has been gained in thorium-based fuel in power reactors around the
world, some using high-enriched uranium (HEU) as the main fuel:
• The 300 MWe THTR reactor in Germany was developed from the AVR and
operated between 1983 and 1989 with 674,000 pebbles, over half containing
Th/HEU fuel (the rest graphite moderator and some neutron absorbers).
These were continuously recycled on load and on average the fuel passed six
times through the core. Fuel fabrication was on an industrial scale.
• The Fort St Vrain reactor was the only commercial thorium-fuelled nuclear
plant in the USA, also developed from the AVR in Germany, and operated
1976 - 1989. It was a high-temperature (700°C), graphite-moderated,
helium-cooled reactor with a Th/HEU fuel designed to operate at 842 MWth
(330 MWe). The fuel was in microspheres of thorium carbide and Th/U-235
carbide coated with silicon oxide and pyrolytic carbon to retain fission
products. It was arranged in hexagonal columns ('prisms') rather than as
pebbles. Almost 25 tonnes of thorium was used in fuel for the reactor, and
this achieved 170,000 MWd/t burn-up.
• Thorium-based fuel for Pressurised Water Reactors (PWRs) was investigated
at the Shippingport reactor in the USA using both U-235 and plutonium as the
initial fissile material. It was concluded that thorium would not significantly
affect operating strategies or core margins. The light water breeder reactor
106
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

(LWBR) concept was also successfully tested here from 1977 to 1982 with
thorium and U-233 fuel clad with Zircaloy using the 'seed/blanket' concept.
• The 60 MWe Lingen Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) in Germany utilised Th/Pu-
based fuel test elements.
India
In India, both Kakrapar-1 and -2 units are loaded with 500 kg of thorium fuel in
order to improve their operation when newly-started. Kakrapar-1 was the first
reactor in the world to use thorium, rather than depleted uranium, to achieve power
flattening across the reactor core. In 1995, Kakrapar-1 achieved about 300 days of
full power operation and Kakrapar-2 about 100 days utilising thorium fuel. The use of
thorium-based fuel was planned in Kaiga-1 and -2 and Rajasthan-3 and -4
(Rawatbhata) reactors.
With about six times more thorium than uranium, India has made utilisation of
thorium for large-scale energy production a major goal in its nuclear power program,
utilising a three-stage concept:
• Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs, elsewhere known as CANDUs)
fuelled by natural uranium, plus light water reactors, produce plutonium.
• Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs) use this plutonium-based fuel to breed U-233
from thorium. The blanket around the core will have uranium as well as
thorium, so that further plutonium (ideally high-fissile Pu) is produced as well
as the U-233. Then
• Advanced Heavy Water Reactors burn the U-233 and this plutonium with
thorium, getting about 75% of their power from the thorium.
The spent fuel will then be reprocessed to recover fissile materials for recycling.
This Indian program has moved from aiming to be sustained simply with thorium to
one \"driven\" with the addition of further fissile uranium and plutonium, to give
greater efficiency.
Another option for the third stage, while continuing with the PHWR and FBR
programs, is the subcritical Accelerator-Driven Systems (ADS), - see below.
Emerging advanced reactor concepts
Concepts for advanced reactors based on thorium-fuel cycles include:
• Light Water Reactors - With fuel based on plutonium oxide (PuO2), thorium
oxide (ThO2) and/or uranium oxide (UO2) particles arranged in fuel rods.
• High-Temperature Gas-cooled Reactors (HTGR) of two kinds: pebble bed and
with prismatic fuel elements.
Gas Turbine-Modular Helium Reactor (GT-MHR) - Research on HTGRs in the
USA led to a concept using a prismatic fuel. The use of helium as a coolant at
high temperature, and the relatively small power output per module (600
107
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

MWth), permit direct coupling of the MHR to a gas turbine (a Brayton cycle),
resulting in generation at almost 50% thermal efficiency. The GT-MHR core
can accommodate a wide range of fuel options, including HEU/Th, U-233/Th
and Pu/Th. The use of HEU/Th fuel was demonstrated in the Fort St Vrain
reactor (see above).
Pebble-Bed Modular reactor (PBMR) - Arising from German work the PBMR
was conceived in South Africa and is now being developed by a multinational
consortium. It can potentially use thorium in its fuel pebbles.
• Molten salt reactors - This is an advanced breeder concept, in which the fuel
is circulated in molten salt, without any external coolant in the core. The
primary circuit runs through a heat exchanger, which transfers the heat from
fission to a secondary salt circuit for steam generation. It was studied in
depth in the 1960s, but is now being revived because of the availability of
advanced technology for the materials and components.
• Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) - India is working on this, and like
the Canadian CANDU-NG the 250 MWe design is light water cooled. The main
part of the core is subcritical with Th/U-233 oxide, mixed so that the system
is self-sustaining in U-233. A few seed regions with conventional MOX fuel will
drive the reaction and give a negative void coefficient overall.
• CANDU-type reactors - AECL is researching the thorium fuel cycle application
to enhanced CANDU-6 and ACR-1000 reactors. With 5% plutonium (reactor
grade) plus thorium high burn-up and low power costs are indicated.
• Plutonium disposition - Today MOX (U,Pu) fuels are used in some
conventional reactors, with Pu-239 providing the main fissile ingredient. An
alternative is to use Th/Pu fuel, with plutonium being consumed and fissile U-
233 bred. The remaining U-233 after separation could be used in a Th/U fuel
cycle.
Use of thorium in Accelerator Driven Systems (ADS)
In an ADS system, high-energy neutrons are produced through the spallation
reaction of high-energy protons from an accelerator striking heavy target nuclei
(lead, lead-bismuth or other material). These neutrons can be directed to a
subcritical reactor containing thorium, where the neutrons breed U-233 and promote
the fission of it. There is therefore the possibility of sustaining a fission reaction
which can readily be turned off, and used either for power generation or destruction
of actinides resulting from the U/Pu fuel cycle. The use of thorium instead of uranium
means that less actinides are produced in the ADS itself. (see paper on Accelerator-
Driven Nuclear Energy).
Developing a thorium-based fuel cycle
Despite the thorium fuel cycle having a number of attractive features, development
even on the scale of India's has always run into difficulties. Problems include:
• the high cost of fuel fabrication, due partly to the high radioactivity of U-233
chemically separated from the irradiated thorium fuel. Separated U-233 is
always contaminated with traces of U-232 (69 year half life but whose
daughter products such as thallium-208 are strong gamma emitters with very
short half lives);
• the similar problems in recycling thorium itself due to highly radioactive Th-
228 (an alpha emitter with 2 year half life) present;
108
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

• some weapons proliferation risk of U-233 (if it could be separated on its
own); and
• the technical problems (not yet satisfactorily solved) in reprocessing.
Much development work is still required before the thorium fuel cycle can be
commercialised, and the effort required seems unlikely while (or where) abundant
uranium is available. In this respect international moves to bring India into the ambit
of international trade will be critical. If India has ready access to traded uranium and
conventional reactor designs, it may not persist with the thorium cycle.
Nevertheless, the thorium fuel cycle, with its potential for breeding fuel without the
need for fast-neutron reactors, holds considerable potential long-term. It is a
significant factor in the long-term sustainability of nuclear energy.
Sources:
Thorium based fuel options for the generation of electricity: Developments in the
1990s, IAEA-TECDOC-1155, International Atomic Energy Agency, May 2000.
The role of thorium in nuclear energy, Energy Information Administration/Uranium
Industry Annual, 1996, p.ix-xvii.
Nuclear Chemical Engineering (2nd Ed.), Chapter 6: Thorium, M Benedict, T H
Pigford and H W Levi, 1981, McGraw-Hill, p.283-317, ISBN: 0-07-004531-3.
See also: lead paper in Indian Nuclear Society 2001 conference proceedings, vol 2.
Kazimi M.S. 2003, Thorium Fuel for Nuclear Energy, American Scientist Sept-Oct
2003.
Morozov et al 2005, Thorium fuel as a superior approach to disposing of excess
weapons-grade plutonium in Russian VVER-1000 reactors. Nuclear Future?
OECD NEA & IAEA, 2006, Uranium 2005: Resources, Production and Demand
Uranium Information Centre Ltd
A.B.N. 30 005 503 828
GPO Box 1649N, Melbourne 3001, Australia
phone (03) 9629 7744
fax (03) 9629 7207
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V1R-45S7R3Y-
3&_user=1968367&_coverDate=11%2F30%2F2002&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search
&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000052195&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=196836
7&md5=1569b589fb2ac329f85bd72cd4644225
109
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Annex 18
Sensitivity analysis for AHWR fuel cluster parameters using different WIMS libraries
Arvind Kumar , , Umashankari Kannan and R. Srivenkatesan
Reactor Physics Design Section, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai- 400085,
India
Received 18 January 2002; accepted 25 January 2002. Available online 7 May
2002.
Abstract
India is presently engaged in the design of an advanced heavy water reactor (AHWR)
which utilises thorium as fuel. The AHWR is a boiling light water cooled heavy water
moderated reactor where the heat is removed through natural convection.
Dysprosium is used as burnable absorber to get a reduction in void reactivity. The
design needs to be well validated. The 69 group old WIMS library distributed by NEA
in 1980′s is presently being used for the design and analysis of AHWR. We have now
undertaken an exercise to study the sensitivity of the design parameters, such as k-
infinity and void reactivity with respect to the various datasets which have been
made available as part of the IAEA CRP on the final stage of the WIMS library update
project (WLUP). The k-infinity variations are within 1% both at the beginning of cycle
(BOC) and at the end of cycle (EOC). The results for the coolant void reactivity,
however, show significant differences between the different datasets at BOC itself
which increases further with burnup. In comparison, the differences for natural
uranium fuelled pressurised heavy water reactor (PHWR) lattice are relatively lower.
Major source of variations in AHWR lattice are probably coming from Th-233U data.
Article Outline
1. Introduction
2. Description of the problem
3. Method of analysis
4. Results
5. Conclusions
References
1. Introduction
110
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

An advanced heavy water reactor (AHWR) utilising thorium (Kakodkar; Balakrishnan;
Sinha and Srivenkatesan) is being developed in India. It is a boiling light water
cooled heavy water moderated reactor where heat is removed through natural
circulation. The main objectives are to achieve maximum power from thorium with
plutonium as an external fissile feed and to achieve self-sustaining characteristics in
233
U. The AHWR has been designed with advanced safety features like negative void
coefficient and passive heat removal under all conditions (Kakodkar, 1998). The
negative void coefficient is achieved by using Dysprosium as burnable absorber and
reduction in moderator inventory by using inter-lattice void tubes in the fuel cluster (
Sinha and Kumar).
Advanced reactor concepts have to be qualified thoroughly right at the design
starting from the basic nuclear data used. An exercise was done to study the
sensitivity of some of the above mentioned features to the basic nuclear data
available. The lattice calculations for design were performed with the WIMS-D/4 code
(Askew et al., 1966) and the old WIMS library. As part of the WIMS Library Update
Project (WLUP), an on-going Coordinated Research Programme of the IAEA, three 69
group WIMS libraries based on ENDF-B/VI, JENDL-3.2 and JEF-2.2 have been
distributed ( Trkov, 2000).
These libraries have been extensively validated for light water based uranium fuel
cycles. The performance of these libraries for thorium fuel cycles are being studied
as part of WLUP. In this paper, we present the sensitivity studies related to the
AHWR, which uses thorium fuel.
2. Description of the problem
The AHWR cluster, called D5, is a composite cluster consisting of two types of fuel
arranged in a circular array of 12, 18 and 24 pins and a central zirconium displacer
rod containing dysprosium as burnable absorber. The detailed design of AHWR along
with the lattice calculations based on the old WIMS library is given elsewhere
(Kumar, 2000). Only the salient features of this cluster are given here. The cross
section of the cluster is shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Cross-section of the AHWR fuel cluster.
The (Th,Pu)MOX pins are present in the outermost ring and use an enrichment of
3.0% Pu. The plutonium is that discharged from Indian PHWRs. The 233U enrichment
111
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

is 3.0% in the inner ring and 3.75% in the middle ring. The dysprosium is in the
form of Dy2O3 in a ZrO2 matrix with the equivalent 164Dy being 3.0 wt.% (Kumar,
2000). The volume of moderator has been reduced by using some inter-lattice void
tubes ( Sinha et al., 2000) as shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Lattice arrangement of the AHWR D5 cluster.
The intent of the problem was to re-calculate the design related lattice parameters
using different datasets to perform a sensitivity study. The parameters compared
were k-infinity, void reactivity, flux profile inside the cluster and the isotopic
compositions of fissile and fertile materials.
It was also decided to study a heavy water moderated 19 rod natural uranium
cluster used in currently operating PHWRs and perform a sensitivity analysis.
3. Method of analysis
The lattice calculations were carried out using the WIMS-D/4 code and the 69 group
WIMS library. The calculations have been done using the discrete ordinates method
with the S-16 approximation by appropriately accounting for the disadvantage
factors due to the differentially enriched pins of the cluster.
The sensitivity study was performed with the three WIMS libraries namely, ENDF-
B/6, JENDL-3.2 and JEF-2.2 distributed to the participants of the IAEA-CRP. The old
WIMS library, distributed by NEA data bank in the 1980s, is presently being used for
design calculations for Indian PHWRs and AHWR. Also, the above libraries have only
164
Dy and an equivalent 164Dy, instead of natural dysprosium, has been used for
these calculations.
112
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

A sensitivity study was then performed where the safety parameters and other
integral parameters were compared.
4. Results
The k-infinity and void reactivity for AHWR D5 cluster is given in Table 1. The k-
infinity pertains to the nominal operating condition.
Table 1. Performance characteristics of AHWR D5 cluster with different datasets
The coolant void reactivity is calculated as the difference in the infinite lattice
reactivity at 0% voids and full (100%) voids, respectively. As seen from Table 1,
there is a scatter of 7 mk between the different datasets in the k-infinity at the BOC
and around 8 mk at a discharge burnup of 24,000 MWd/Te (EOC).
The swing in void reactivity is very high in the analysis presented here because the
absorption in end-product 165Ho and other dysprosium isotopes has not been
considered. However, the core averaged coolant void reactivity is always negative.
The void reactivity shows about 22% difference at the BOC and larger differences of
about 35% at EOC. The compositions of some of the isotopes of interest are given in
Table 2. There are small differences in the fuel isotopic compositions. Likewise, 164Dy
concentration at EOC is also within 5%. The void reactivity variations may therefore
be due to the difference in reaction rates of the individual nuclides.
Table 2. Isotopic concentrations in AHWR D5 cluster with different datasets at EOC
starting from the identical initial composition
113
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

The neutron energy spectrum for fresh fuel in the lattice is plotted in Fig. 3 for two
different coolant conditions, i.e. fully voided and unvoided. Similar behaviour is seen
at higher burnups. The comparison of cell-averaged flux profiles for the different
datasets has been made with respect to ENDF-B/VI and is given in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5
at a discharge burnup of 24,000 MWd/te (EOC). Smaller differences have been
observed at low burnups. The fluxes plotted have been normalised to total cell
absorption being unity.
Fig. 3. Comparison of relative cell fluxes during voiding in the AHWR-D5 cluster.
114
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Fig. 4. Comparison of relative cell fluxes for JENDL-3.2 and ENDF-B/VI at EOC for the
AHWR-D5 cluster.
Fig. 5. Comparison of relative cell fluxes for JEF-2.2 and ENDF-B/VI at EOC for the
AHWR-D5 cluster.
The relative cell fluxes are also plotted for the voided and non-voided conditions. The
differences in the relative cell fluxes between JEF-2.2 and ENDF-B/VI show a peak
around 0.3–0.4 eV. The differences in the flux profiles between JENDL-3.2 and
ENDF-B/VI are generally around 1% in thermal energy range (Fig. 4). But in the
voided case, the differences are low at lower energies and change sharply beyond
0.3 eV. At higher energies there are significant differences which come from the
difference in the basic data itself. Reaction rates of some important nuclides in the
AHWR D5 cluster have been studied with respect to several parameters like burnup
and coolant conditions.
In order to show the sensitivity to the different datasets, only 233U absorption
reaction rates for the innermost pins are plotted in Fig. 6 and Fig. 7.
115
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Fig. 6. Sensitivity of different datasets for absorption reaction rates of U-233 at BOC
in the inner (Th, U-233)MOX pins.
Fig. 7. Sensitivity of different datasets for absorption reaction rates of U-233 at EOC
in the inner (Th, U-233)MOX pins.
233
The JENDL-3.2 data for U show a large difference of 10% in thermal energy range
and at higher burnups.
116
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

In order to compare the performance of these datasets for a natural uranium fuelled
heavy water cluster, being used in PHWRs was studied. The results for this cluster
are tabulated in Table 3.
Table 3. Performance characteristics of PHWR cluster—19 rod natural UO2
The k-infinity, void reactivity and the cluster peaking factors have been tabulated in
Table 3. The scatter in k-infinity in the different datasets is within 0.4% which is
around 3.6 mk. The difference at the end-of-cycle is reduced still further. The void
reactivity too is calculated within a difference of 0.4%, with the JENDL-3.2 set
predicting consistently lower values. But in this cluster the void reactivity profile does
not change with burnup. This shows that the three different datasets agree well for a
uranium based heavy water lattice in spite of significant contributions coming from
plutonium isotopes.
5. Conclusions
The calculations for the AHWR cluster show that the integral parameters are very
sensitive to the thorium and 233U data. The processed multi-group data of relevant
isotopes itself differs by about 5% in the thermal energy range and by about 15% at
higher energies (Srivenkatesan and Kannan). A peturbation analysis of 232Th data
done using the Kyoto university critical assembly by Shiroya et al. (1999) shows a
reactivity difference of -1565 pcm if 232Th data alone is replaced from JENDL-3.2 to
ENDF-B/VI. They have also shown that a perturbation calculation for 233U results in a
reactivity difference of –0.5%∆k/k. The basic evaluated nuclear data for the Th-U
fuel cycles is obsolete and requires detailed reviewing so as to qualify to the current
accuracy standards (Pronyaev, 1999). These differences, depending on the
complexities of the lattice, lead to variations in fluxes and reaction rates resulting in
the significantly different integral parameters from different datasets. However, the
analysis of the natural uranium fuelled heavy water moderated lattice shows much
lower differences. It is thus imperative that more experimental data for the thorium
cycles is required to qualify the basic nuclear data.
References
117
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Askew et al., 1966. J.R. Askew, F.J. Fayers and P.B. Kemshell , A general description
of the lattice code WIMS. J. Br. Nucl. Energy Soc. (1966), pp. 564–585.
Balakrishnan et al., 1997. Balakrishnan, K., Kannan, U., Pushpam, N.P., Padala, Y.,
1997. Feasibility Report of AHWR, chapter 15, Physics Design.
Kakodkar, 1998. Kakodkar, A., 1998. Salient features of design of thorium fuelled
advanced heavy water reactor. Indo-Russian seminar on thorium utilisation, Russia.
Kannan, 2001. Kannan, U., 2001. Consultants Report on the Update of WIMSD
Library. IAEA, Vienna.
Kumar, 2000. Kumar, A., 2000. A new cluster design for the reduction of void
reactivity in AHWR. Proceedings of annual conference of Indian Nuclear Society on
power from thorium, status, strategies and directions, India.
Kumar et al., 1999. Kumar, A., Kannan, U., Padala, Y., Behera, G.M., Srivenkatesan,
R., Balakrishnan, K., 1999. Physics design of Advanced Heavy Water Reactor utilising
thorium. Technical Committee Meeting on Utilisation of Thorium Fuel Options, IAEA,
Vienna.
Pronyaev, 1999. Pronyaev, V.G., 1999. Summary Report of the Consultants' Meeting
on Assessment of Nuclear Data Needs for Thorium and other Advanced Nuclear
Cycles, INDC(NDS)-408, IAEA Vienna.
Sinha et al., 2000. Sinha, R.K., Kushwaha, H.S., Agarwal, R.G., Saha, D., Dhawan,
M.L., Vyas, H.P., Rupani, B.B., 2000. Design and development of AHWR—the Indian
thorium fuelled innovative nuclear reactor. Proceedings of annual conference of
Indian Nuclear Society on power from thorium, status, strategies and directions,
Mumbai, India.
Shiroya et al., 1999. Shiroya, S., Unesaki, H., Misawa, T., 1999. Assessment of Th-
232 nuclear data through critical experiments using the Kyoto university Critical
Assembly (KUCA). Technical Committee Meeting on Utilisation of Thorium Fuel
Options, IAEA, Vienna.
Srivenkatesan et al., 2000a. Srivenkatesan, R., Kumar, A., Kannan, U., Raina, V.K.,
Arora, M.K., Ganesan, S., Degwekar, S.B., 2000a. Physics considerations for
utilisation of thorium in power reactors and subcritical cores. Proceedings of annual
conference of Indian Nuclear Society on power from thorium, status, strategies and
directions, Mumbai, India.
Srivenkatesan et al., 2000b. Srivenkatesan, R., Kannan, U., Kumar, A., Ganesan, S.,
Degwekar, S.B. 2000b. Indian advanced heavy water reactor for thorium utilisation
and nuclear data requirements and status. AGM on Long Term Needs for Nuclear
Data Development, INDC(NDS)-428, IAEA, Vienna.
Trkov, 2000. Trkov, A. (Co-ordinator), 2000. WIMS-D Library Update Project,
International Atomic Energy Agency, http://www-rcp.ijs.si/ wlup/.
118
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Corresponding author. Tel.: +91-22-559-5014; fax: +91-22-550-5151; email:
arvind@magnum.barc.ernet.in
119
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Annex 19
Role of small and medium-sized reactors
Annals of Nuclear Energy
Volume 29, Issue 16, November 2002, Pages 1967-1975
http://www.world-nuclear.org/sym/1998/kupitz.htm
The Role of Small and Medium-Sized Reactors
Jürgen Kupitz & Victor M. Mourogov
In the second half of the twentieth century nuclear power has evolved from the
research and development environment to an industry that supplies 17% of the
world's electricity. In these 50 years of nuclear development a great deal has
been achieved and many lessons have been learned. By the end of 1997, over
8500 reactor-years of operating experience had been accumulated.
The past decade, however, has seen stagnation in nuclear power plant
construction in the Western industrialised world, slow nuclear power growth in
Eastern Europe and expansion only in East Asia. The prospects for nuclear
energy have been affected by a number of factors:
• slower economic development and general reductions in the rate of
increase in energy demand, coupled with oversupply in some countries;
• the Three Mile Island and Chernobyl accidents with their effect on public
confidence in nuclear power;
• slow progress in properly implementing nuclear waste disposal;
• difficulties for utilities in some countries in transforming from a rapidly
growing industry to routine operation of ageing facilities;
• electricity supply deregulation;
• increased competition from natural gas.
The turn of the century is potentially a turning point for nuclear power prospects
because of:
• increasing world energy consumption, with nuclear power's contribution
to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, nuclear fuel resources
sustainability, and improvements in operation of current nuclear power
plants;
• advanced reactor designs that will improve economics and availability,
and further enhance safety;
• continued strengthening of the nuclear power safeguards system.
This paper describes the potential of small and medium sized reactors (SMRs) in
addressing current and future nuclear power issues, and gives an overview of
SMR development programmes and SMR designs.
120
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Energy Supply and Nuclear Power
Today's global pattern of energy supply is not sustainable (Ref 1). The provision
of affordable energy services is a fundamental prerequisite for economic growth
and development. The plentiful energy resources in the past and the enormous
efforts in research, development and engineering have produced the high living
standards enjoyed today by the industrialised countries. For these countries
achieving economically, environmentally, and socially sustainable development is
a top priority.
Now and in the near future, better living standards and increased employment
opportunities for the developing countries are inevitably linked to the provision
of substantially more energy services. Taking into account the population
growth, the anticipated increase in energy services will require more than twice
as much energy production over the next half century. Over the next two
decades India plans to triple and China to double the combustion of coal for
electricity generation alone. Where transmission and distribution infrastructures
are already in place, natural gas will be the preferred fuel for electricity and heat
generation and for households. With the increase in the income per capita, and
with growing trade volumes in a global market place, the demand for oil product
fuelled transportation will expand rapidly.
There is an international consensus that heavy dependency on fossil fuels —
which today account for more than 85% of the total energy supply — must be
controlled. Their use adversely affects the atmosphere through emissions of
greenhouse gases along with other noxious gases and toxic pollutants, thus
becoming an obstacle to sustainable development both on a regional and on a
global scale. One specific feature of fossil resources is their uneven distribution
around the globe. For example, 60% of proven oil reserves are in the Middle
East, while 40% of gas resources are in the countries of the former Soviet Union
(FSU) and 40% are in the Middle East. Coal is also very unevenly distributed,
with more than 80% of the proven reserves being concentrated in three regions,
North America, the FSU and China. The uneven distribution of fossil fuel
resources and the high cost of transport systems and infrastructures will be
additional issues to be taken into account when deciding on future energy
supply.
While energy efficiency in generation, transmission and end use, and the new
renewable technologies, are an essential element of the sustainable energy
policy of the industrialised countries, they may be far from sufficient and in
many cases even inadequate to compensate for the expected increase in the
demand for energy in the rest of the world. The global challenge is to develop
strategies that foster a sustainable energy future, less dependent on fossil fuels.
Nuclear Power for Electricity Supply
Though it is not problem free, nuclear power is recognised as having an
advantage in contributing to the goals of sustainable development. It has been
deployed in the industrialised countries when energy supplies have been
insecure and has largely contributed to the stable and predictable energy supply
necessary for their economic growth.
From today's point of view of sustainability criteria, the entire energy chain from
121
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

nuclear fuel production to radioactive waste disposal has very limited emissions
of greenhouse gases and other pollutants and does practically no harm to the
environment. Furthermore, it is an established technology and commercially
available, with 473 nuclear plants currently operating or being built in 32
countries. It can also be reasonably competitive, the resources it uses are
plentiful and have no other useful application.
Nuclear power is unevenly used in the world. More than 95% of it is deployed in
the industrialised countries and the countries of Central and Eastern Europe and
Russia. But the contribution of nuclear energy in the energy mix of the rest of
the world, and in particular the developing countries, is very small. While nuclear
power has reached a level of saturation in several European countries and North
America, it continues to expand in Asia. At the same time countries in Eastern
Europe and the FSU, heavily dependent on nuclear power, are experiencing
serious difficulties due to a breakdown in the economies and the infrastructure
necessary to keep the nuclear power plants operational and to further expand
their nuclear power programmes.
The future will see a mix of energy sources. The makeup of this mix cannot be
precisely defined — it will depend not only on environmental considerations, but
also on technological, political and market factors. The experience to date shows
that in most of the countries which have reached a quasi-sustainable level of
development, nuclear energy has played an important role in supplying a part of
the required energy. Most of these countries will try to preserve their nuclear
energy generation and capability and probably will seek to renew it in the future
when the life of the current plants is exhausted. Inevitably, the countries whose
economies will continue to grow rapidly, will be better placed to include nuclear
power in their energy supply system for meeting their energy needs but also for
security of supply, environmental awareness and access to high technology.
Non-Electricity Applications of Nuclear
About 33% of total primary energy is used to produce electricity. Most of the
remaining amount is either used for transportation or converted into hot water,
steam and heat. Nuclear plants are now being used to produce about 17% of the
world's electricity, from 437 reactors with a total capacity of 352 GWe. Yet only
a few of these plants are being used to supply hot water and steam. The total
capacity of these few plants is about 5 GW of thermal power, and they are
operating in just a few countries, mostly in Canada, China, Kazakhstan, Russia,
Slovakia, Switzerland and Ukraine (Ref 2).
Specific temperature requirements vary greatly for heat applications. They range
from about room temperature, for use as hot water and steam for agro-industry,
district heating and seawater desalination, to up to 1000°C for process steam
and heat for the chemical industry and high pressure injection steam for
enhanced oil recovery, oil shale and oil sand processing, oil refinery processes,
and refinement of coal and lignite. Water splitting for the production of hydrogen
is at the upper end. Up to about 550°C, the heat can be supplied by steam;
above that, requirements must be served directly by process heat, since steam
pressures become much higher above 550°C. An upper limit of 1000°C for
nuclear-supplied process heat is set on the basis of the long term strength
capabilities of metallic reactor materials.
122
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Water-cooled reactors offer heat up to 300°C. These types of reactors include
pressurised water reactors (PWRs), boiling water reactors (BWRs), pressurised
heavy water reactors (PHWRs) and light water cooled, graphite-moderated
reactors (LWGRs). Liquid metal fast reactors (LMFRs) produce heat up to 540°C.
Gas-cooled reactors reach even higher temperatures, about 650°C for the
advanced gas-cooled, graphite-moderated reactor (AGR), and 950°C for the high
temperature gas-cooled, graphite-moderated reactor (HTGR).
The primary conversion process in a nuclear reactor is from nuclear energy into
heat. This heat can be used in a \"dedicated\" mode for direct heating purposes,
without production of electricity.
Another mode is co-generation of heat and electricity. Parallel co-generation is
achieved by the extraction of some of the steam from the secondary side of the
steam generator, before it enters the turbine. Series co-generation is achieved
by the extraction of steam at some point during its expansion in the turbine,
when it is at the right temperature for the intended application. During this
cycle, the extracted steam has also been used for electricity production. Series
co-generation is ideally suited to industrial processes related to district heating,
desalination and agriculture.
More than 80% of the world's energy use is based on fossil energy sources,
namely coal, oil and gas. Burning these fuels causes serious environmental
problems from emissions of sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides and carbon dioxide
into the atmosphere. One approach to contribute to solving such problems is to
use nuclear energy in integrated energy systems. A typical example for the
future is the application of nuclear heat to reform natural gas. Using what is
known as the HTGR-reforming process, synthesis gas, methanol, hydrogen, heat
and electricity are produced from natural gas and uranium. In the process,
natural gas is decomposed into mainly hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The
main products are methanol, a liquid carbohydron, and hydrogen. Side products
are heat and electricity.
Another example of this integrated approach is in the oil industry. Several
studies have been performed on the use of nuclear power as a heat source for
heavy oil exploitation. They show that under favourable oil market conditions,
the nuclear option presents economic and environmental benefits, as compared
to conventional methods.
A third example is the integration of coal and nuclear energy in the steel
industry. Technologically, this is the most ambitious integration, involving
gasification of hard coal heated by hot helium from an HTGR. The intermediate
products are synthesis gas and coke, which is used for iron ore reduction. The
final products are methanol and pig iron (Ref 1).
Key Nuclear Power Issues
In an increasingly competitive and international global energy market a number
of issues will affect not only the choice of nuclear power, but also the extent and
manner in which it will be used in a sustainable mix of energy sources:
123
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

• enhancing reactor safety;
• improving nuclear power generation economics;
• minimising environmental impact;
• improving resource utilisation.
Enhancing Reactor Safety
With over 8500 reactor year of operation worldwide, nuclear power generally has
an excellent safety record. But the Chernobyl accident demonstrated that one
very severe nuclear accident has a potential to cause national and regional
radioactive contamination. Although safety and environmental impacts are
becoming a key issue for all energy sources, many in the general public perceive
nuclear power as particularly and intrinsically unsafe. In order to reduce the risk
of accidents a number of approaches are used:
• international collaboration to promote internationally accepted safety and
engineering standards;
• enhancement of the integrity of the reactor vessel and reactor systems
(such as double containment);
• development of advanced reactor designs with enhanced safety systems.
Unquestionably, the most convincing demonstration of safety will be through the
safe performance of existing plants and the avoidance of any major incident in
the future.
Improving Nuclear Power Economics
Success in meeting this challenge is critical to maintaining a role for nuclear
power as a viable energy option. Without getting the economics right, its
potential environmental benefits may well become irrelevant. Nuclear power
plants will increasingly have to compete directly, in an open energy market, with
other suppliers of electricity. This competitive environment has significant
implications for plant operations, including among others the need for efficient
use of all resources, including personnel; more effective management of plant
activities, such as outages and maintenance; and sharing of resources, facilities
and services among utilities. The ultimate objective is to provide electricity
services at competitive costs without compromising operational safety.
Nuclear energy also has the potential to provide an economic source of heat for
non-electricity applications, including district heating, desalination and high
temperature process heat, especially through development and application of
small and medium-sized reactors.
Minimising Environmental Impact
Although nuclear energy has distinct advantages over today's fossil burning
systems — in terms of fuel consumed, pollutants emitted and waste produced —
a further reduction in environmental concerns can positively influence public
attitudes. As the overall health and environmental impact of the reactor and
nuclear fuel cycle is small, attention is directed at techniques to deal with spent
fuel, accumulated plutonium and radioactive waste. Reprocessing of spent fuel
and recycling of most dangerous actinides in future fast reactors is being
analysed in some countries as a solution for the fuel cycle back-end issues.
Improving Resource Utilisation
124
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Known and likely resources of uranium should assure a sufficient nuclear fuel
supply in the short and medium term even with reactors operating primarily on
once-through cycles with disposal of spent fuel. However, as uranium demand
increases and reserves are decreased, to meet the requirements of increased
nuclear capacity, there will be economic pressure for the optimal use of uranium
in a manner that utilises its total potential energy content per unit quantity of
ore. Recycling of generated plutonium in thermal reactors and introduction of
fast reactors in the longer term is considered in some countries as a solution.
While the above issues are for nuclear power in general the following are specific
for small and medium reactors.
Nuclear Power in Developing Countries
Due to the ever increasing population in developing countries and the need to
raise their standard of living, developing countries have a high demand for
energy to support socio-economic development. But electricity grids in
developing countries are usually smaller than in industrialised countries, and the
large NPPs currently being offered (up to about 1400 MWe) on the international
market are unsuitable for such countries. New capacity additions should not
exceed 10—20% of the grid capacity, therefore many developing countries have
to consider plants of about 700 MWe or smaller.
Non-Electricity Applications
Non-electricity industrial application processes usually require much smaller
plant outputs than plants designed for electricity generation or co-generation of
heat and electricity. Heat from nuclear power plants cannot be transported over
long distances due to potential losses and high costs. Nuclear plants designed for
heat production should on the one hand be as close as possible to the point of
use, but on the other hand have to be a reasonable distance away due to safety
concerns.
Potential for SMRs to Address Nuclear Issues
Definition of SMRs
The choice of ranges is somewhat arbitrary but it has been the usual practice to
take the upper limit of the range of small and medium-sized reactors (SMRs) as
approximately half of the power of the largest reactors in operation. Accordingly,
reactors up to 700 MWe are currently considered as SMRs. Other limits are
defined by continuing to take similar reductions. The ranges adopted therefore
are:
• Very small reactors: <150 MWe.
• Small reactors: 150—300 MWe.
• Medium reactors: 300—700 MWe.
• Large reactors: >700 MWe.
For heat-only or co-generation reactors, the range limits are applied to the
electrical equivalencies of the thermal power. For very small heat-only reactors,
for example, the upper limit adopted is 500 MWth.
It is understood that very small, small, medium or large reactors are relative
125
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

concepts, related to the power level of the largest reactors in operation. That is,
at the time when the largest reactors in operation were of the order of 200 MWe,
the corresponding upper limit of the SMR range was 100 MWe, when 600 MWe
units came into operation, the SMR range increased to 300 MWe, and so on. As
there are no ongoing efforts to further increase the power level of the largest
units, the currently accepted SMR range is assumed to prevail for a considerable
period.
Applying the current definition of the SMR range, a third of the operating nuclear
power reactors would qualify as SMRs. However, it should be noted that at the
time when most of these plants were designed and built, they were considered
large reactors according to the then-prevailing definition of the term.
The above defined ranges for medium, small and very small reactors expressed
in power levels (MWe), are to be interpreted more as orders of magnitude and
less as precise numbers. The large variety of reactors with different
characteristics which are included in each of these ranges, are intended to
respond to different requirements and uses, which need to be taken into account
in order to facilitate the assessment of the potential market.
Medium size reactors are eminently power reactors whose objective is electricity
generation. They can also be applied as co-generation plants supplying both
electricity and heat, but the main product remains electricity. As such, they are
intended for introduction into interconnected electricity grid systems of suitable
size (at least six to 10 times the unit power) and operated as baseload plants. If
operated in the co-generation mode, the heat supply would be up to about 20%
of the energy produced. Economic competitiveness with equivalent alternative
fossil fuelled plants is expected to be achievable under most conditions.
Small reactors are either power or co-generation reactors which may have a
substantial share of heat supply. Due to the size effect, small reactors for
electricity generation only, or operated in the co-generation mode, are not
expected to be economically competitive with medium or large size nuclear
power plants. They are therefore intended for special situations where the
interconnected grid size does not admit larger (medium or large size) units and
where alternative energy options are relatively expensive.
Very small reactors are not intended for electricity production under
commercially competitive conditions as baseload units integrated into
interconnected electrical systems. Clearly, very small reactors of current designs
are not to be regarded as competitors of large, medium or even small power
reactors, of which they are not scaled-down versions. Very small reactors
address specific objectives such as the supply of heat and electricity or heat only
(at either high or low temperature) for industrial processes, oil extraction,
desalination, district heating, etc., propulsion of vessels or for energy supply of
concentrated loads in remote locations. They could also serve as focal projects
and a very effective stimulus for the development of nuclear infrastructures in
countries starting a nuclear power programme.
The consideration of the specific objectives of the reactors corresponding to each
power range has major relevance for the assessment of the respective markets
126
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

(Ref 3).
SMRs and Enhancing Reactor Safety
SMR designs are not downsized version of larger reactors. In all cases they are
taking new design approaches, which result into plants that are simpler, easier
to operate and maintain, and that make extensive use of passive and inherent
safety components and systems. These safety systems are usually built into the
design of SMRs to protect the plant against severe accidents; they can hardly be
compromised by malfunctioning equipment or human intervention. They
especially exclude mechanisms for reactor core damage and the associated
potential radioactivity release.
This approach, which places a maximum emphasis on prevention rather than
mitigation, is in fact a basic feature of the INSAG safety principles for future
reactors. Some SMRs prevent severe accidents by eliminating the need for
forced coolant flow for removing residual heat, while others reduce or even
eliminate the necessity for correct operator action to avert or control major
occurrences.
SMRs and Developing Countries
Due to their lower power output, their simplified designs and their high safety
margins, SMRs are prime candidates for deployment in developing countries with
small electricity grids or with a need to satisfy demand for non-electricity
applications, such a district heating or production of potable water (Ref 4).
Among the developing countries with ongoing nuclear power programmes, China
and India represent a substantial market for SMRs. In China, there is an
ambitious nuclear power programme firmly supported by the government. In
addition to some imported medium size units, a series of domestically designed
medium sized reactors, as well as some small and very small units (including
heat-only reactors), are expected to be put in place. In India, there is continuing
firm governmental support for the nuclear power programme, and a large
demand of new capacity. The country is expected to proceed with its programme
based on domestically designed SMRs. It is estimated that the market for SMRs
in the above two countries is of the order of 20 to 30 units, more than half of
which correspond to medium sized reactors.
Argentina, Iran, Korea and Pakistan have ongoing nuclear power programmes,
including reactors under construction. In Argentina, follow-up nuclear power
plants are expected to be in the medium sized range; the development of a very
small domestically designed reactor has been pursued, and there is a plan to
build a first unit. In Iran, the construction of two large power reactors has been
restarted, and there are plans to acquire some small units. In Pakistan, a further
small reactor is expected to be followed by a series of medium sized units.
Though large power reactors are the basis for the ongoing nuclear programme in
Korea, more units in the medium range are expected. Also, implementation of a
domestically designed very small reactor is expected. The estimate for these
four countries within the period considered is 10 to 15 units.
Among countries which have not yet initiated nuclear power projects, Turkey
and Indonesia are in the acquisition stage of their first units. Both have intended
to go nuclear for a long time. Malaysia and Thailand performed studies indicating
127
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

the convenience of the nuclear option. All four countries are potential markets
for medium sized reactors, and in addition Indonesia might implement a very
small unit at a remote site. The implementation of 5 to 10 SMRs is expected for
this group of countries.
The North African countries (Algeria, Egypt, the Libya, Morocco and Tunisia)
show a high degree of interest in initiating nuclear power programmes. All have
performed studies and preparations, including, in some cases, attempts to
acquire nuclear power reactors. It is expected that further attempts will finally
succeed, leading to the implementation of 5 to 10 SMRs, including very small,
small and medium sized units.
Several other countries which have not yet initiated nuclear power projects have
performed studies and indicated interest in launching nuclear programmes.
Belarus has persistent energy supply constraints and might acquire some
medium sized units. In Chile, nuclear power could contribute to energy supply
diversification in a fast growing economy with corresponding energy and
electricity demand growth. In Croatia, a follow-up unit to the 600 MWe plant
built in Slovenia was planned; new attempts could lead to a medium sized unit.
Israel has consistently indicated interest in nuclear power; it has a solid nuclear
technology infrastructure and could implement a nuclear project, subject to the
success of the Middle East peace process. This also applies to Syria, which
intends to proceed with medium sized units. Portugal was on the verge of
launching a nuclear power programme in the past, but has since desisted; new
attempts to implement medium sized units could succeed. Saudi Arabia has very
large oil and gas resources, but energy supply diversification seems advisable; a
nuclear power programme starting with a very small or small reactor might be
launched.
In addition, some other countries have indicated interest in nuclear power and in
SMRs in particular, performing studies and building infrastructures: Peru,
Uruguay and Bangladesh are examples. There are others, such as Cuba,
Romania and the Philippines, where the construction of SMRs was suspended. In
these countries, completing these projects would have priority over the initiation
of new plants. The estimated market for SMRs in the above group of countries is
5 to 10 units altogether.
These results indicate a market with the rather wide range 50 to 90 units to be
implemented up to 2015. The outcome will probably not evolve in all countries
according to either the high or the low estimates. It seems reasonable to
assume that there will be a certain compensatory effect. Also, it is recognised
that forecasts, just like national development plants, tend to err on the
optimistic side. Therefore, an overall market estimate of 60 to 70 units seems
reasonable.
SMRs and Nuclear Power Competitiveness
The overall trend in nuclear power plant design in most industralised countries
has been towards large units, with current power output of about 1400 MWe.
The main reason for this has been the economies of scale, which favour large
units. Currently there are considerations to go to a power output of 1800 MWe,
such as for the European Pressurised Water Reactor, being jointly developed by
128
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Siemens and Framatome. SMRs with their low power output are following the
opposite strategy. Although the economies of scale do not favour SMRs, there
are several reasons why these plant can be competitive with larger units. These
include simplified design, shorter construction time, lower overall investment
requirement and easier financing.
SMRs and Non-Electricity Applications
SMRs have a wide application potential for various industrial heat processes. This
includes SMRs that are designed for heat-only production or for co-generation of
heat and electricity. Due to their reduced power output, which meets the
requirements of developing countries with small electricity grids, SMRs have a
broad application potential. Prime candidates for near term industrial process
heat applications are mostly in the low temperature range, e.g. district heating,
desalination of seawater and process steam and heat supply for industry. In
particular, desalination of seawater with nuclear energy is receiving increasing
international attention to cope with current and future shortages of potable
water.
SMR Development Programmes
Several countries in East and South Asia believe strongly that nuclear power will
be a principle source of energy in years to come. Small and medium reactors
form a major part of this activity. The People's Republic of China has a well
developed nuclear capability, having designed, constructed and operated
reactors. In many cases, these reactors can be regarded as SMRs and the skills
needed to implement them are the same as those needed for terrestrial power
plants. China has some 10 000 nuclear engineers in three major centres in
different parts of the country, as well as other centres which make a major
contribution. There is a particular interest in district heating reactors to help
ease the current enormous logistical problems of distributing 11 billion tonnes of
coal around the country each year.
In the SMR range, a 300 MWe PWR is in operation in China, and two 600 MWe
reactors are under construction. All three reactors are of the evolutionary reactor
type. Longer term plans call for development of a 600 MWe passive system. A
5 MWth integrated water cooled reactor has been built and operated for several
winter seasons for district heating. A 200 MWth demonstration heating reactor
project has been started. A 10 MWth high temperature gas cooled modular
reactor for process application is under construction. Technical, safety and
economic objectives of the programme have been defined. The test module HTR
has been constructed and is expected to go critical by 1999. The system will be
used to accumulate experience in plant design, construction, and operation.
Several applications, such as electricity generation, steam and district heat
generation are planned for the first phase. A process heat application, \"methane
forming\", is planned for the second phase. China is also constructing a 300 MWe
LWR in Pakistan.
India has some early reactors of the CANDU type developed by Canada but has
adopted a prime policy target of self reliance in nuclear power development,
based on heavy water moderated reactors. Four units of the 220 MWe PHWR
type are under construction. Additional similar units and two units of a scaled up
500 MWe type are planned. The main objective is to make the most economical
129
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

use of uranium natural resources in the first phase. In the second phase it is
planned to utilise fast breeder reactors fuelled by plutonium generated in phase
one. A 500 MWe prototype is in a detailed design stage. India also has large
reserves of thorium which exceed its reserves of uranium. The heavy water
reactor with its very good neutron economics is well suited to the thorium/U-233
cycle and a programme of R&D work for phase three, aiming at utilisation of the
this cycle in an advanced heavy water reactor, has been initiated.
Japan has a high population density and a shortage of suitable sites for nuclear
reactors due to the large fraction of the landmass covered by mountainous
terrain. This has led to a preference for large reactors on the available sites to
maximise the power output from them. In spite of this, there is a very strong
and diverse programme of reactor development supported by the big industrial
companies, by the national laboratory and by the universities. Three large
industrial companies have developed their own LWR designs in the SMR range
and the Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute (JAERI) has several more
innovative designs.
At the end of 1996 two large reactors were under construction in Japan. The
Monju fast breeder reactor (280 MWe), a prototype demonstration plant, is
currently undergoing a safety review as a follow up of the incident in 1995.
Several different designs are currently being worked on in the SMR range;
namely SPWR, MRX, MS-300/600, HSBWR, MDP, 4S and RAPID. SPWR and the
marine reactor MRX are integrated PWRs. The MS series are simplified PWRs.
HSBWR is a simplified BWR. MDP, 4S and RAPID are small sodium-cooled fast
reactors. Preliminary investigations have shown a high level of safety, operability
and maintenance. The economics of these systems have been promising. These
systems are expected to form part of Japan's next generation of reactors.
Japan has also a development programme for the gas cooled reactor of the small
and medium-sized range. A High Temperature Engineering Test Reactor (HTTR)
has been under construction since 1991 at O-arai. The 30 MWth reactor will be
the first of its kind to be connected to a high temperature process heat
utilisation system with an outlet temperature of 850°C. The system will be used
as a test and irradiation facility and also utilised to establish the basic technology
for advanced HTGRs for nuclear process heat applications. The system is
expected to go critical in 1998. However, the main trend in power generation is
still taking the line of larger (1000—1300 MWe) evolutionary light water
reactors. The guidelines of the programme put user-friendliness, improvement in
operability, and flexibility of core design as prime design objectives.
Korea has twelve nuclear power plants (10 PWRs, 2 PHWRs) in operation and
has an ambitious programme for the further deployment of nuclear power. The
country is not well blessed with indigenous sources of fossil fuel and has to rely
on imports. Furthermore, 80% of the countryside consists of mountainous
terrain which encourages the installation of large stations to make optimum use
of the available sites. Most of the existing plants are of the PWR type, but, since
April 1983, PHWRs (679 MWe each) have been added to the grid to give some
diversification in supply and operation. Six large PWRs (1000 MWe each) and
two medium-sized PHWRs (700 MWe each) are under construction. Large PWRs
are expected to form the main component of nuclear power installation in Korea
until well into the next century. The optimal combination of PWRs and PHWRs
130
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

will help to maximise the usage of uranium resources through the utilisation of
spent fuel in the future. This choice has been the first phase of a strategy of
reactor development in Korea.
The medium-sized PHWR plants form part of the Korean power source, but the
standard nuclear power plant, KSNP, with 1000 MWe rating, is expected to form
the main stream of the nuclear power generation industry in Korea. On the basis
of PWR technology, an advanced integral reactor, the System Integrated
Modular Advanced Reactor (SMART) is being conceptually developed. The power
output of the reactor will be in the range of 100—600 MWe depending on the
purpose of utilisation, such as desalination or power generation. It is expected
that the export of nuclear technology to the rest of the world will form part of
Korean trade. Streamlining of standardisation, modularisation, prefabrication,
and substantial reduction in the construction schedule of small and medium-
sized reactors will make Korea a potential nuclear power exporter in the twenty-
first century.
In the Russian Federation, there is substantial experience from the development,
design, construction and operation of several reactors in the small and medium-
sized category. These reactors have been used for electricity generation, heat
production and ship propulsion. Reactors that have been used for icebreaker and
submarine propulsion are planned to be made available for other applications,
not only within the Russia but also to other countries that are interested in their
application for electricity generation for remotely located areas or for non-
electricity applications.
Currently a project is being implemented that consists of two reactors (KLT-40)
mounted on a barge. These reactors have been earlier used for propulsion of
icebreakers. The barge is supposed to provide electricity to Pevek in Northern
Siberia. Barge mounted reactors may become a near term solution for other
countries that need energy, but do not yet have the infrastructure for the
introduction of large nuclear power plants. The barge mounted reactors could be
operated under the supervision of the vendor and be pulled back to the vendor's
location for maintenance and refuelling, thereby avoiding the need for on-site
refuelling. Besides KLT-40 (up to about 160 MWth) there are other small
reactors under design in Russia for mounting on barges, including the NIKA 75
(75 MWth), UNITHERM (15 MWth) and RUTA-TE (70 MWth).
The CAREM-25 reactor is under development in Argentina by the Atomic Energy
Commission (CNEA), which has subcontracted the design and development of
the reactor to INVAP SE. The design and development of the fuel elements is
carried out by CNEA. The power level of CAREM is 100 MWth, approximately
25 MWe. The intended uses of the reactor are electricity generation, industrial
steam production, seawater desalination or district heating. The reactor is also
intended to bridge the gap between a research reactor and a larger nuclear
power plant, by serving as a focal project for infrastructure development and the
transfer of technology, in order to facilitate the launching of a nuclear power
programme in a country with no previous nuclear power experience.
The main features of the reactor are light water cooling by natural circulation,
low enriched uranium fuel, an integrated and self-pressurised primary system,
and a passive heat removal system. The achievement of high levels of safety,
131
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

simplicity and reliability are the main design criteria. The basic design of CAREM-
25 has been completed. The detailed design of the reactor is being performed,
and there is a comprehensive research and development effort going on. This
consists of various relevant studies and of testing rigs and installations, such as
a critical facility, natural convection loop, full scale hydraulic control rod drives,
protection system simulator, etc. A preliminary safety analysis report has been
completed and presented to the national regulatory authority. It is intended to
construct a first project in Argentina.
Examples of SMR Designs
The AP-600
The Westinghouse Advanced Passive PWR (AP-600) is a 600 MWe design which
is conservatively based on proven technology, but with an emphasis on passive
safety features. It has been designed by Westinghouse of the United States,
under the sponsorship of the US Department of Energy (DOE) and the Electric
Power Research Institute (EPRI). The design team includes a number of US and
foreign companies and organisations. The AP-600 passive safety-related systems
include the passive core cooling system (PXS), the passive containment cooling
system (PCS), and the main control room habitability system.
The PXS protects the plant against reactor coolant system breaks, providing the
safety functions of core residual heat removal, safety injection, and
depressurisation. It uses three passive sources of water for safety injection: the
core makeup tanks, the accumulators, and the in-containment refuelling water
storage tank (IRWST). These injection sources are directly connected to nozzles
on the reactor vessel. Long term injection water is provided by gravity from the
IRWST, which is normally isolated from the reactor coolant system by check
valves.
The PXS includes a 100% capacity passive residual heat removal heat
exchanger, which is connected through inlet and outlet lines to one reactor
coolant system loop. The IRWST provides the heat sink for this heat exchanger.
Once boiling in the IRWST starts, steam passes to the containment. This steam
condenses on the steel containment vessel and, after collection, drains by
gravity back into the IRWST. The heat exchanger and the PCS provide indefinite
decay heat removal capability.
The PCS provides the ultimate heat sink for the plant. The steel containment
vessel provides the heat transfer surface that removes heat from inside the
containment and rejects it to the atmosphere. Heat is removed from the outer
surface of the containment vessel by natural circulation of air. During an
accident, the air cooling is supplemented by evaporation of water, which drains
by gravity from a tank located on top of the containment shield building.
The VVER-640
This design of the VVER-640 (V-407) is being developed in Russia by OKB
\"Gidropress\", the Russian National Research Centre \"Kurchatov Institute\", and
LIAEP. The VVER emergency core cooling system (ECCS) includes the following
automatically initiated subsystems:
• hydrotanks with nitrogen under pressure;
132
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

• hydrotanks under atmospheric pressure;
• deliberate emergency depressurisation.
The passive ECCS provides long term residual heat removal in loss of coolant
accidents (LOCAs) accompanied by a station blackout. In the first stage, the
nitrogen-pressurised hydrotanks will be actuated. When these are empty, the
tanks holding cooling water under atmospheric pressure begin to operate. Active
elements of the system needed for the function of emergency heat removal are
provided with electrical power from storage batteries.
The design basis for the passive residual heat removal system (PHRS) is also a
station blackout situation, including loss of emergency power supply. The PHRS
consists of four independent trains, each comprising a steam-water heat
exchanger, piping for steam supply and condensate return, and battery-operated
valves. The heat exchangers are installed in a tank of demineralised water. They
are connected to the secondary side of the steam generators in such a way that
the steam from the steam generator will flow to the heat exchanger where it
condenses, transferring its heat to the water. The condensate will flow back to
the steam generator. Coolant motion occurs by natural circulation.
The system for passive heat removal from the containment includes coolers,
storage tanks of cooling water and connecting pipelines. Steam released to the
containment condenses on the heat exchange surface of the cooler giving heat
to the water of a storage tank via natural circulation. Construction of a first pilot
plant at the Sosnovy Bor site, near the Leningrad nuclear power station site
outside St Petersburg, is under consideration.
The Indian AHWR
A 220 MWe Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) is being developed at the
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in India. The AHWR utilises heavy water
moderator and light water coolant with a fuel cycle based on thorium, and a
safety approach based on the incorporation of passive safety systems.
The top of the primary containment shell contains the gravity-driven water pool
(GDWP). The inventory in the GDWP is sufficient to cool the reactor for three
days following an accident. The GDWP inventory is connected to the core
through a series of rupture discs and does not involve the use of external power,
moving parts or instrumentation.
Isolation condensers (ICs) positioned in the GDWP will transfer decay heat to the
GDWP during short, planned reactor shutdowns or following a reactor trip. This
is achieved by diversion of the steam flow between the steam drums and the
turbine to the ICs. Another set of condensers in the GDWP will cool the primary
containment following a LOCA. Simple experiments have demonstrated the
feasibility of the passive containment cooling system and more detailed
experiments are in progress.
Emergency core cooling is provided from accumulators pressurised with
nitrogen, with separation from the PHT system achieved with rupture discs that
rupture when post LOCA depressurisation of the PHT system reaches a pre-set
133
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

level.
South African PBMR
Eskom, the state electricity utility of South Africa, has initiated a detailed
economic and technical evaluation of the Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR) as
a potential candidate for future additions to its electricity generation system. The
requirements set by Eskom for the installation of new generation capacity
include a capital and operation cost which must match (or improve upon) that
being achieved by their large coal stations. This currently represents a retail
power cost to the customer of approximately two US cents per kWh. Other
requirements for the plant include an availability approaching 90%, location and
plant size to match the load, public acceptance and environmental cleanliness.
High temperature gas cooled reactors (HTGRs) feature a high degree of safety
through reliance on passive safety features. All HTGRs incorporate ceramic
coated fuel capable of handling temperatures exceeding 1600°C with core
helium outlet temperatures approaching 950°C under normal operating
conditions. Consequently, the primary focus for this reactor type is to investigate
the generation of electricity via the direct coupling of a gas turbine to the HTGR
(resulting in a net plant thermal efficiency approaching 47%), and to evaluate
the application of this high temperature primary coolant for industrial
applications such as steam and CO2 reforming of methane for the production of
hydrogen and subsequent synthesis to other fuels such as methanol. The
conceptual design of the South African PBMR features a helium cooled pebble
bed reactor with a power output of 103 Mwe (228 MWth) coupled to a closed
cycle gas turbine power conversion system. The three turbo machines are
equipped with magnetic bearings. The overall net efficiency of this Brayton cycle
system is expected to be ~45%, based on a reactor outlet helium temperature
of 900°C and a maximum system pressure of 70 bars.
The PBMR reactor basically builds on German reactor designs utilising the
experience from the Thorium High Temperature Reactor and the AVR. These
plants utilise a steam cycle in contrast to the Eskom design for a direct cycle
helium turbine. The choice of a core design limited to 228 MWth with a diameter
of 3.5 m, and the use of graphite constrictions for nuclear control and shutdown
outside of the pebble bed, provide conservatism in maintaining the maximum
accident fuel temperature to 1600°C. Also, the PBMR is to use a multiple pass
regime for on-line constant fuelling of the reactor.
Activities of the IAEA
The IAEA has witnessed a considerable renewal of interest by its member states
in the development of SMRs. This is particularly evident in the developing
countries where large power plants are not a viable consideration due to the size
of the existing electrical grid. This interest was strongly expressed at the 1997
and 1998 IAEA General Conferences, and subsequently reaffirmed at meetings
of the Board of Governors.
Many member states have active programmes associated with nuclear power
development in the SMR size range. These programmes involve a wide variety of
reactor designs, and include plants whose status ranges from being in long term
134
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

operation to currently undergoing initial conceptual design. The vast majority of
these plants are for the production of electricity.
Although nuclear power seems to be focused predominantly on the generation of
electricity, the wide range of plant types provides the possibility for nuclear
power as an energy source for other applications, such as desalination, district
heating, and industrial processes such as hydrogen production through the
reforming of methane.
The IAEA has an extensive programme to help support member states in their
national SMR efforts. This programme has, as its basic objective, the
requirement to provide a venue for international exchange of information on the
development of technology and designs of SMRs, in order to enhance their
performance, safety and economics.
Restore Frames | Sym Home | Programme | Back | Forward
© copyright The Uranium Institute 1998 SYM9798
http://www.indembassyathens.gr/India-
nuclear%20energy/India_nuclear%20energy_thorium.htm
EMBASSY OF INDIA, ATHENS
135
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Annex 20
India's nuclear power programme moves ahead
2X1000MWE VVER reactors Inside view of Kamini reactor, AE
Tarapur units 3 and 4 -PHWR
under construction at critical in Sept 96, using U-233 Kak
540 MWE each
Koodankulam fuel
As the US Congress debates the Indo-US agreement on nuclear cooperation, a key
aspect from the American viewpoint is that India has certain inherent strengths in
the area of nuclear technology, which would enable India to forge ahead, albeit
slowly, even without US cooperation.
Central to this argument is the availability of huge reserves of thorium in India.
Thorium reserves have been estimated to be between 3,60,000 and 5,18,000
tonnes. The US estimates the “economically extractable” reserves to be 2,90,000
tonnes, one of the largest in the world. Our uranium reserves, by contrast, are
estimated to be at a maximum of around 70,000 tonnes.
India currently has 15 commercial power reactors in operation, most of which are
pressurised heavy water reactors (PHWR) which use natural uranium. Two Tarapur
reactors are boiling water reactors (BWR) which need enriched uranium, which has
to be imported.
Together they generate about 3300 MWe (Mega Watt Electrical) of power, about 4
per cent of that generated from all sources. Another six PHWRs are in construction,
and along with the two “VVER” Russian built 1000 MWe reactors which use enriched
uranium, they would add about 3960 MWe by 2008. The goal is to reach at least
20,000 MWe by 2020.
India's uranium reserves are low. Obtaining enriched uranium for the two Tarapur
reactors and VVER type reactors requires the consent of the Nuclear Suppliers
Groups countries, including Russia. This is where the agreement with the US is
expected to be beneficial to India.
Also central to India's success in achieving these goals, is the harnessing of thorium,
for which India has developed a three-stage nuclear programme. India has already
developed and tested the technologies needed to extract energy from Thorium, but
large scale execution has not yet been possible, mainly because of limited availability
of Plutonium.
Stage one is the use of PHWRs. Natural uranium is the primary fuel. Heavy water
136
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

(deuterium oxide, D2O) is used as moderator and coolant. The composition of natural
uranium is 0.7 percent U-235, which is fissile, and the rest is U-238. This low fissile
component explains why certain other types of reactors require the uranium to be
“enriched” i.e. the fissile component increased.
In the second stage, the spent fuel from stage one is reprocessed in a reprocessing
facility, where Plutonium-239 is separated. Plutonium, of course, is a weapons
material, which goes towards creating India’s nuclear deterrent.
Pu-239 then becomes the main fissile element, the fuel core, in what are known as
fast breeder reactors (FBR). A test FBR is in operation in Kalpakkam, and the
construction for a 500 MWe prototype FBR was launched recently by Prime Minister
Dr Manmohan Singh.
These are known as breeder reactors because the U-238 “blanket” surrounding the
fuel core will undergo nuclear transmutation to produce more PU-239, which in turn
will be used to create energy.
The stage also envisages the use of Thorium (Th-232) as another blanket. Th-232
also undergoes neutron capture reactions, creating another uranium isotope, U-233.
It is this isotope which will be used in the third stage of the programme. Thorium by
itself is not a fissile material, and cannot be used directly to produce nuclear energy.
The Kamini 40 MWe reactor at Kalpakkam which became critical in Sept 1996, using
U-233 fuel, has demonstrated some of these technologies.
India is currently developing a prototype advanced heavy water reactor (AHWR) of
300 MWe capacity. The AHWRs, which use plutonium based fuel, are to be used to
shorten the period of reaching full scale utilisation of our thorium reserves. The
AHWR is thus the first element of the third stage. AHWR design is complete but
further R and D work is required, especially on safety. It is expected to be unveiled
soon and construction launched.
In the third phase, in addition to the U-233 created from the second phase, breeder
reactors fuelled by U-233, with Th-232 blankets, will be used to generate more U-
233.
The Bhabha Atomic Research Centre has estimated that India's thorium reserves can
amount to a staggering 3,58,000 GWe-yr (Giga Watt Electrical - Year) of energy,
enough for the next century and beyond
BARC scientists are also looking at other designs, like an advanced thorium breeder
reactor (ATBR) which requires plutonium only as a seed to start off the reaction, and
then use only thorium and U-233. Here the plutonium is completely consumed and
this reactor is thus considered “proliferation resistant”. A Compact High Temperature
Reactor also under development at BARC . This reactor is designed to work in closed
spaces and remote locations.
Success in harnessing thorium’s potential is thus critical for the India’s future energy
security.
India has put in place mechanisms for ensuring safety and security of nuclear
facilities. The regulatory and safety systems ensure that equipment at India's nuclear
facilities are designed to operate safely and even in the unlikely event of any failure
137
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

or accident, mechanisms like plant and site emergency response plans are in place to
ensure that the public is not affected in any manner. In addition, detailed plans,
which involve the local public authorities, are also in place to respond if the
consequences were to spill into the public domain. The emergency response system
is also in a position to handle any other radiation emergency in the public domain
that may occur at locations, which do not even have any nuclear facility.
Regulatory and safety functions of Atomic Energy in India are carried out by an
independent body, the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB). The AERB was
constituted on November 15, 1983 by the President of India under the Atomic
Energy Act, 1962 to carry out certain regulatory and safety functions under the Act.
The regulatory authority of AERB is derived from the rules and notifications
promulgated under the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 and the Environmental (Protection)
Act, 1986. The mission of the Board is to ensure that the use of ionizing radiation
and nuclear energy in India does not cause undue risk to health and the
environment.
(Source: The Tribune, Chandigarh; Deptt of Atomic Energy)
138
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Annex 21
Nuclear power using thorium
The strong correlation between per capita electricity generation and per capita gross
domestic product (GDP) is well known. Therefore, to realize the high growth rates
envisaged by the country, electricity generation has to increase in tandem.
Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) together with other institutions
under the DAE framework has a mature knowledge of the Pressurized Heavy Water
Reactor (PHWR) technology. The known reserves of uranium in the country can
support about 10 GWe of installed electricity capacity based on PHWRs for a life-time
of 40 years at 80% capacity factor. With 12 PHWRs under operation and 6 under
construction, about half the first stage of the nuclear power programme has been
realized. This phase of the programme has established a sound technological base
for nuclear power in the countryand the rest of the PHWR programme can be realized
with comparative ease. If the ongoing exploration2 efforts in the country locate
additional uranium reserves, PHWR programme can also be expanded beyond the
envisaged 10 GWe now considered feasible. The PHWR programme has also provided
the initial inventory of plutonium needed to seed the Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR)
programme.
NPCIL must finalize the design of 700 MWe PHWR3 at the earliest and all PHWR units
to be constructed hereafter should be of this size. In addition to the PHWR
programme, two Pressurized Water Reactors (PWRs) of 1 GWe each are being set up
at Kudankulam in technical cooperation with Russian Federation. The present plan is
to set up 6 additional PWRs of 1 GWe size and 4 additional FBRs of 500 MWe size by
the year 2020. It was proposed to immediately initiate design of 1 GWe FBR and
complete it at the earliest. R&D for deployment of metal alloy fuels4 having high
breeding ratio must be completed in the next 10-15 years and all the FBRs to be
constructed after the year 2020 should be based on such a fuel and should be of 1
GWe size.
The design of a mainly thorium fuelled 300 MWe Advanced Heavy Water Reactor
(AHWR) is nearing completion. This reactor will provide a platform for the timely
development, demonstration and optimization of several technologies for the
utilization of thorium, needed for the third stage of the Indian nuclear programme.
AHWR has several innovative design features, including passive safety systems,
making it a front-runner among the recent international initiatives for the
development of innovative nuclear energy systems. Continued technological
developments, facilitated by the experience with the construction and operation of
the AHWR, should be pursued to further enhance the safety and economics of Indian
advanced water cooled thermal reactor systems, and thorium based fuel cycles.
Why Thorium?
-India has 1/3 of the world's reserves of Thorium
http://www.abc.net.au/quantum/scripts98/9820/thoriumscpt.htm
139
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

This is one reactor that ain't ever gonna meltdown. If it tries to overheat,
you simply switch off the accelerator ... and the reaction just fizzles out.
And it produces zero plutonium -- so no bombs. The thorium core is so
efficient it can even burn old plutonium, as well as nuclear waste, cooking
the whole lot into oblivion.
http://www.cavendishscience.org/bks/nuc/thrupdat.htm
What is special about thorium?
(1) Weapons-grade fissionable material (uranium233) is harder to retrieve
safely and clandestinely from the thorium reactor than plutonium is from
the uranium breeder reactor.
(2) Thorium produces 10 to 10,000 times less long-lived radioactive waste
than uranium or plutonium reactors.
(3) Thorium comes out of the ground as a 100% pure, usable isotope,
which does not require enrichment, whereas natural uranium contains only
0.7% fissionable U235.
(4) Because thorium does not sustain chain reaction, fission stops by
default if we stop priming it, and a runaway chain reaction accident is
improbable.
Besides, the priming process is extremely efficient: the nuclear process
puts out 60 times the energy required to keep it primed. Because of this,
the device is also called, (quite inappropriately) an \"Energy Amplifier.\"
The radioactive waste from the thorium reactor contains vastly less long-
lived radioactive material than that from conventional reactors. In
particular, plutonium is completely absent absent from the thorium
reactor's waste. While the radioactivity during the first few days is likely to
be similar to that in conventional reactors, there is at least a ten-fold
reduction of radioactivity in the waste products after 100 years, and a
10,000 fold reduction after 500 years. From a waste storage point of view,
this is a significant advantage.
140
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

BARC scientists are also looking at other designs, like an advanced thorium breeder
reactor (ATBR) which requires plutonium only as a seed to start off the reaction, and
then use only thorium and U-233. Here the plutonium is completely consumed and
this reactor is thus considered “proliferation resistant”. A Compact High Temperature
Reactor also under development at BARC . This reactor is designed to work in closed
spaces and remote locations.
Success in harnessing thorium’s potential is thus critical for the India’s future energy
security.
India has put in place mechanisms for ensuring safety and security of nuclear
facilities. The regulatory and safety systems ensure that equipment at India's nuclear
facilities are designed to operate safely and even in the unlikely event of any failure
or accident, mechanisms like plant and site emergency response plans are in place to
ensure that the public is not affected in any manner. In addition, detailed plans,
which involve the local public authorities, are also in place to respond if the
consequences were to spill into the public domain. The emergency response system
is also in a position to handle any other radiation emergency in the public domain
that may occur at locations, which do not even have any nuclear facility.
Regulatory and safety functions of Atomic Energy in India are carried out by an
independent body, the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB). The AERB was
constituted on November 15, 1983 by the President of India under the Atomic
Energy Act, 1962 to carry out certain regulatory and safety functions under the Act.
The regulatory authority of AERB is derived from the rules and notifications
promulgated under the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 and the Environmental (Protection)
Act, 1986. The mission of the Board is to ensure that the use of ionizing radiation
and nuclear energy in India does not cause undue risk to health and the
environment.
(Source: The Tribune, Chandigarh; Deptt of Atomic Energy)
http://www.igcar.ernet.in/press_releases/press11.htm
THE HINDU dated 24.11.2004
The Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) now being designed in Bhabha Atomic
Research Centre (BARC) aims to meet the objectives of utilisation of thorium for
commercial power generation,
India to begin construction of Advanced Heavy Water reactor
\"We will start the construction on the AHWR sometime this year,\" Atomic Energy
Commission Chairman Anil Kakodkar said in a presentation at a theme session on
Energy Security at the Indian Science Congress in Chidambaram.
He said the thorium-based AHWR was currently undergoing pre-licensing review by
141
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

the Atomic Energry Regulatory Board.
The AHWR, a 300 MW technology demonstrator reactor, will take about five to six
years to complete and cost between Rs five and six crore per mega watt.
Unit- Capacity Date of Commercial
Type
Location (MWe) Operation
TAPS-1 Tarapur, 28-Oct-
1. BWR 160
Maharashtra 1969
TAPS-2 Tarapur, 28-Oct-
2. BWR 160
Maharashtra 1969
RAPS-1 Rawatbhata, 16-Dec-
3. PHWR 100
Rajasthan 1973
RAPS-2 Rawatbhata, 01-Apr-
4. PHWR 200
Rajasthan 1981
MAPS-1 Kalpakkam, 27-Jan-
5. PHWR 220
Tamilnadu 1984
MAPS-2 Kalpakkam, 21-Mar-
6. PHWR 220
Tamilnadu 1986
NAPS-1 Narora, Uttar 01-Jan-
7. PHWR 220
Pradesh 1991
NAPS-2 Narora, Uttar
8. PHWR 220 01-Jul-1992
Pradesh
KAPS-1 Kakrapar, 06-May-
9. PHWR 220
Gujarat 1993
KAPS-2 Kakrapar, 01-Sep-
10. PHWR 220
Gujarat 1995
KAIGA-1 Kaiga, 16-Nov-
11. PHWR 220
Karnataka 2000
KAIGA-2 Kaiga, 16-Mar-
12. PHWR 220
Karnataka 2000
RAPS-3 Rawatbhata, 01-Jun-
13. PHWR 220
Rajasthan 2000
14. RAPS-4 Rawatbhata, PHWR 220 23-Dec-
142
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Rajasthan 2000
TAPS-4 Tarapur, 12-Sept-
15. PHWR 540
Maharashtra 2005
TAPS-3 Tarapur, 18-August-
16. PHWR 540
Maharashtra 2006
KAIGA-3 Kaiga, 06-May-
17. PHWR 220
Karnataka 2007
Total 4120
Project Capacity MWe Scheduled Commercial Operation
Kaiga - 4 1 X 220 U4 – Sep 07
U1 – Dec 07
KK - 1 & 2 2 X 1000
U2 – Dec 08
U5 – Aug 07
RAPP - 5 & 6 2 X 220
U6 – Feb 08
Pre project activities for expansion programme at the existing sites of kakrapar,
Rawatbhata are in progress for the launching of 700 MWe units. Preparations are
also in progress at a green coastal site of Jaitapur & existing site at Kudankulam for
1000 MWe LWR units. All these proposals have already been approved by
Government of India. A memorandum of Intent for construction of Kudankulam
units 3-6 was signed between Governement of India & Russian Federation.
A target capacity addition of 1300 MWE in the X plan (2002-2007) was achieved with
the commissioning of 2X540 MWe units Tarapur & a 22o MWe unit at Kaiga 3&4.
The sites for 4 PHWRs of 700 MWe & 4 LWRs of 1000 Mwe have been approved by
GOI.
The Xith plan envisages commencement of work on 4x700 mwe PHWRs & 6 x1000
MWe LWRs
http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf62.htm
Thorium (May 2007)
• Thorium is much more abundant in nature than uranium.
• Thorium can also be used as a nuclear fuel through breeding to uranium-233
(U-233).
• When this thorium fuel cycle is used, much less plutonium and other
transuranic elements are produced, compared with uranium fuel cycles.
• Several reactor concepts based on thorium fuel cycles are under
consideration.
Thorium is a naturally-occurring, slightly radioactive metal discovered in 1828 by the
Swedish chemist Jons Jakob Berzelius, who named it after Thor, the Norse god of
thunder. It is found in small amounts in most rocks and soils, where it is about three
143
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

times more abundant than uranium. Soil commonly contains an average of around 6
parts per million (ppm) of thorium.
Thorium occurs in several minerals, the most common being the rare earth-thorium-
phosphate mineral, monazite, which contains up to about 12% thorium oxide, but
average 6-7%. There are substantial deposits in several countries (see table).
Thorium-232 decays very slowly (its half-life is about three times the age of the
earth) but other thorium isotopes occur in its and in uranium's decay chains. Most of
these are short-lived and hence much more radioactive than Th-232, though on a
mass basis they are negligible.
World thorium resources
(economically extractable):
Country Reserves (tonnes)
Australia 300 000
India 290 000
Norway 170 000
USA 160 000
Canada 100 000
South Africa 35 000
Brazil 16 000
Other countries 95 000
World total 1 200 000
source: US Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 1999.
The 2005 IAEA-NEA \"Red Book\" gives a figure of 4.5 million tonnes of reserves and
additional resources, but points out that this excludes data from much of the world.
Geoscience Australia confirms the above 300,000 tonne figure for Australia, but
stresses that this is based on assumptions, not direct geological data in the same
way as most mineral rsources.
When pure, thorium is a silvery white metal that retains its lustre for several months.
However, when it is contaminated with the oxide, thorium slowly tarnishes in air,
becoming grey and eventually black. Thorium oxide (ThO2), also called thoria, has
one of the highest melting points of all oxides (3300°C). When heated in air, thorium
metal turnings ignite and burn brilliantly with a white light. Because of these
properties, thorium has found applications in light bulb elements, lantern mantles,
arc-light lamps, welding electrodes and heat-resistant ceramics. Glass containing
thorium oxide has a high refractive index and dispersion and is used in high quality
lenses for cameras and scientific instruments.
Thorium as a nuclear fuel
Thorium, as well as uranium, can be used as a nuclear fuel. Although not fissile
itself, thorium-232 (Th-232) will absorb slow neutrons to produce uranium-233 (U-
233), which is fissile. Hence like uranium-238 (U-238) it is fertile.
144
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

In one significant respect U-233 is better than uranium-235 and plutonium-239,
because of its higher neutron yield per neutron absorbed. Given a start with some
other fissile material (U-235 or Pu-239), a breeding cycle similar to but more
efficient than that with U-238 and plutonium (in slow-neutron reactors) can be set
up. The Th-232 absorbs a neutron to become Th-233 which normally decays to
protactinium-233 and then U-233. The irradiated fuel can then be unloaded from the
reactor, the U-233 separated from the thorium, and fed back into another reactor as
part of a closed fuel cycle.
Over the last 30 years there has been interest in utilising thorium as a nuclear fuel
since it is more abundant in the Earth's crust than uranium. Also, all of the mined
thorium is potentially useable in a reactor, compared with the 0.7% of natural
uranium, so some 40 times the amount of energy per unit mass might theoretically
be available (withouit recourse to fast breeder reactors).
A major potential application for conventional PWRs involves fuel assemblies
arranged so that a blanket of mainly thorium fuel rods surrounds a more-enriched
seed element containing U-235 which supplies neutrons to the subcritical blanket.
As U-233 is produced in the blanket it is burned there. This is the Light Water
Breeder Reactor concept which was successfully demonstrated in the USA in the
1970s.
It is currently being developed in a more deliberately proliferation-resistant way. The
central seed region of each fuel assembly will have uranium enriched to 20% U-235.
The blanket will be thorium with some U-238, which means that any uranium
chemically separated from it (for the U-233 ) is not useable for weapons. Spent
blanket fuel also contains U-232, which decays rapidly and has very gamma-active
daughters creating significant problems in handling the bred U-233 and hence
conferring proliferation resistance. Plutonium produced in the seed will have a high
proportion of Pu-238, generating a lot of heat and making it even more unsuitable
for weapons than normal reactor-grade Pu.
A variation of this is the use of whole homogeneous assembles arranged so that a
set of them makes up a seed and blanket arrangement. If the seed fuel is metal
uranium alloy instead of oxide, there is better heat conduction to cope with its higher
temperatures. Seed fuel remains three years in the reactor, blanket fuel for up to 14
years.
Since the early 1990s Russia has had a program to develop a thorium-uranium fuel,
which more recently has moved to have a particular emphasis on utilisation of
weapons-grade plutonium in a thorium-plutonium fuel.
The program is based at Moscow's Kurchatov Institute and involves the US company
Thorium Power and US government funding to design fuel for Russian VVER-1000
reactors. Whereas normal fuel uses enriched uranium oxide, the new design has a
demountable centre portion and blanket arrangement, with the plutonium in the
centre and the thorium (with uranium) around it (More precisely: A normal VVER-
1000 fuel assembly has 331 rods each 9 mm diameter forming a hexagonal
assembly 235 mm wide. Here, the centre portion of each assembly is 155 mm across
and holds the seed material consisting of metallic Pu-Zr alloy (Pu is about 10% of
alloy, and isotopically over 90% Pu-239) as 108 twisted tricorn-section rods 12.75
mm across with Zr-1%Nb cladding. The sub-critical blanket consists of U-Th oxide
145
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

fuel pellets (1:9 U:Th, the U enriched up to almost 20%) in 228 Zr-1%Nb cladding
tubes 8.4 mm diameter - four layers around the centre portion. The blanket material
achieves 100 GWd/t burn-up. Together as one fuel assembly the seed and blanket
have the same geometry as a normal VVER-100 fuel assembly). The Th-232
becomes U-233, which is fissile - as is the core Pu-239. Blanket material remains in
the reactor for 9 years but the centre portion is burned for only three years (as in a
normal VVER). Design of the seed fuel rods in the centre portion draws on extensive
experience of Russian navy reactors.
The thorium-plutonium fuel claims four advantages over MOX: proliferation
resistance, compatibility with existing reactors - which will need minimal modification
to be able to burn it, and the fuel can be made in existing plants in Russia. In
addition, a lot more plutonium can be put into a single fuel assembly than with MOX,
so that three times as much can be disposed of as when using MOX. The spent fuel
amounts to about half the volume of MOX and is even less likely to allow recovery of
weapons-useable material than spent MOX fuel, since less fissile plutonium remains
in it. With an estimated 150 tonnes of weapons plutonium in Russia, the thorium-
plutonium project would not necessarily cut across existing plans to make MOX fuel.
In 2007 Thorium Power formed an alliance with Red Star nuclear design bureau in
Russia which will take forward the program to demonstrate the technology in lead-
test fuel assemblies in full-sized commercial reactors.
R&D History
The use of thorium-based fuel cycles has been studied for about 30 years, but on a
much smaller scale than uranium or uranium/plutonium cycles. Basic research and
development has been conducted in Germany, India, Japan, Russia, the UK and the
USA. Test reactor irradiation of thorium fuel to high burnups has also been
conducted and several test reactors have either been partially or completely loaded
with thorium-based fuel.
Noteworthy experiments involving thorium fuel include the following, the first three
being high-temperature gas-cooled reactors:
• Between 1967 and 1988, the AVR experimental pebble bed reactor at Julich,
Germany, operated for over 750 weeks at 15 MWe, about 95% of the time
with thorium-based fuel. The fuel used consisted of about 100 000 billiard
ball-sized fuel elements. Overall a total of 1360 kg of thorium was used,
mixed with high-enriched uranium (HEU). Maximum burnups of 150,000
MWd/t were achieved.
• Thorium fuel elements with a 10:1 Th/U (HEU) ratio were irradiated in the 20
MWth Dragon reactor at Winfrith, UK, for 741 full power days. Dragon was
run as an OECD/Euratom cooperation project, involving Austria, Denmark,
Sweden, Norway and Switzerland in addition to the UK, from 1964 to 1973.
The Th/U fuel was used to 'breed and feed', so that the U-233 formed
replaced the U-235 at about the same rate, and fuel could be left in the
reactor for about six years.
• General Atomics' Peach Bottom high-temperature, graphite-moderated,
helium-cooled reactor (HTGR) in the USA operated between 1967 and 1974 at
110 MWth, using high-enriched uranium with thorium.
146
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

• In India, the Kamini 30 kWth experimental neutron-source research reactor
using U-233, recovered from ThO2 fuel irradiated in another reactor, started
up in 1996 near Kalpakkam. The reactor was built adjacent to the 40 MWt
Fast Breeder Test Reactor, in which the ThO2 is irradiated.
• In the Netherlands, an aqueous homogenous suspension reactor has operated
at 1MWth for three years. The HEU/Th fuel is circulated in solution and
reprocessing occurs continuously to remove fission products, resulting in a
high conversion rate to U-233.
• There have been several experiments with fast neutron reactors.
Power reactors
Much experience has been gained in thorium-based fuel in power reactors around the
world, some using high-enriched uranium (HEU) as the main fuel:
• The 300 MWe THTR reactor in Germany was developed from the AVR and
operated between 1983 and 1989 with 674,000 pebbles, over half containing
Th/HEU fuel (the rest graphite moderator and some neutron absorbers).
These were continuously recycled on load and on average the fuel passed six
times through the core. Fuel fabrication was on an industrial scale.
• The Fort St Vrain reactor was the only commercial thorium-fuelled nuclear
plant in the USA, also developed from the AVR in Germany, and operated
1976 - 1989. It was a high-temperature (700°C), graphite-moderated,
helium-cooled reactor with a Th/HEU fuel designed to operate at 842 MWth
(330 MWe). The fuel was in microspheres of thorium carbide and Th/U-235
carbide coated with silicon oxide and pyrolytic carbon to retain fission
products. It was arranged in hexagonal columns ('prisms') rather than as
pebbles. Almost 25 tonnes of thorium was used in fuel for the reactor, and
this achieved 170,000 MWd/t burn-up.
• Thorium-based fuel for Pressurised Water Reactors (PWRs) was investigated
at the Shippingport reactor in the USA using both U-235 and plutonium as the
initial fissile material. It was concluded that thorium would not significantly
affect operating strategies or core margins. The light water breeder reactor
(LWBR) concept was also successfully tested here from 1977 to 1982 with
thorium and U-233 fuel clad with Zircaloy using the 'seed/blanket' concept.
• The 60 MWe Lingen Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) in Germany utilised Th/Pu-
based fuel test elements.
India
In India, both Kakrapar-1 and -2 units are loaded with 500 kg of thorium fuel in
order to improve their operation when newly-started. Kakrapar-1 was the first
reactor in the world to use thorium, rather than depleted uranium, to achieve power
flattening across the reactor core. In 1995, Kakrapar-1 achieved about 300 days of
full power operation and Kakrapar-2 about 100 days utilising thorium fuel. The use of
thorium-based fuel was planned in Kaiga-1 and -2 and Rajasthan-3 and -4
(Rawatbhata) reactors.
With about six times more thorium than uranium, India has made utilisation of
thorium for large-scale energy production a major goal in its nuclear power program,
utilising a three-stage concept:
147
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

• Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs, elsewhere known as CANDUs)
fuelled by natural uranium, plus light water reactors, produce plutonium.
• Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs) use this plutonium-based fuel to breed U-233
from thorium. The blanket around the core will have uranium as well as
thorium, so that further plutonium (ideally high-fissile Pu) is produced as well
as the U-233. Then
• Advanced Heavy Water Reactors burn the U-233 and this plutonium with
thorium, getting about 75% of their power from the thorium.
The spent fuel will then be reprocessed to recover fissile materials for recycling.
This Indian program has moved from aiming to be sustained simply with thorium to
one \"driven\" with the addition of further fissile uranium and plutonium, to give
greater efficiency.
Another option for the third stage, while continuing with the PHWR and FBR
programs, is the subcritical Accelerator-Driven Systems (ADS), - see below.
Emerging advanced reactor concepts
Concepts for advanced reactors based on thorium-fuel cycles include:
• Light Water Reactors - With fuel based on plutonium oxide (PuO2), thorium
oxide (ThO2) and/or uranium oxide (UO2) particles arranged in fuel rods.
• High-Temperature Gas-cooled Reactors (HTGR) of two kinds: pebble bed and
with prismatic fuel elements.
Gas Turbine-Modular Helium Reactor (GT-MHR) - Research on HTGRs in the
USA led to a concept using a prismatic fuel. The use of helium as a coolant at
high temperature, and the relatively small power output per module (600
MWth), permit direct coupling of the MHR to a gas turbine (a Brayton cycle),
resulting in generation at almost 50% thermal efficiency. The GT-MHR core
can accommodate a wide range of fuel options, including HEU/Th, U-233/Th
and Pu/Th. The use of HEU/Th fuel was demonstrated in the Fort St Vrain
reactor (see above).
Pebble-Bed Modular reactor (PBMR) - Arising from German work the PBMR
was conceived in South Africa and is now being developed by a multinational
consortium. It can potentially use thorium in its fuel pebbles.
• Molten salt reactors - This is an advanced breeder concept, in which the fuel
is circulated in molten salt, without any external coolant in the core. The
primary circuit runs through a heat exchanger, which transfers the heat from
fission to a secondary salt circuit for steam generation. It was studied in
depth in the 1960s, but is now being revived because of the availability of
advanced technology for the materials and components.
• Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) - India is working on this, and like
the Canadian CANDU-NG the 250 MWe design is light water cooled. The main
part of the core is subcritical with Th/U-233 oxide, mixed so that the system
is self-sustaining in U-233. A few seed regions with conventional MOX fuel will
drive the reaction and give a negative void coefficient overall.
• CANDU-type reactors - AECL is researching the thorium fuel cycle application
to enhanced CANDU-6 and ACR-1000 reactors. With 5% plutonium (reactor
grade) plus thorium high burn-up and low power costs are indicated.
148
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

• Plutonium disposition - Today MOX (U,Pu) fuels are used in some
conventional reactors, with Pu-239 providing the main fissile ingredient. An
alternative is to use Th/Pu fuel, with plutonium being consumed and fissile U-
233 bred. The remaining U-233 after separation could be used in a Th/U fuel
cycle.
Use of thorium in Accelerator Driven Systems (ADS)
In an ADS system, high-energy neutrons are produced through the spallation
reaction of high-energy protons from an accelerator striking heavy target nuclei
(lead, lead-bismuth or other material). These neutrons can be directed to a
subcritical reactor containing thorium, where the neutrons breed U-233 and promote
the fission of it. There is therefore the possibility of sustaining a fission reaction
which can readily be turned off, and used either for power generation or destruction
of actinides resulting from the U/Pu fuel cycle. The use of thorium instead of uranium
means that less actinides are produced in the ADS itself. (see paper on Accelerator-
Driven Nuclear Energy).
Developing a thorium-based fuel cycle
Despite the thorium fuel cycle having a number of attractive features, development
even on the scale of India's has always run into difficulties. Problems include:
• the high cost of fuel fabrication, due partly to the high radioactivity of U-233
chemically separated from the irradiated thorium fuel. Separated U-233 is
always contaminated with traces of U-232 (69 year half life but whose
daughter products such as thallium-208 are strong gamma emitters with very
short half lives);
• the similar problems in recycling thorium itself due to highly radioactive Th-
228 (an alpha emitter with 2 year half life) present;
• some weapons proliferation risk of U-233 (if it could be separated on its
own); and
• the technical problems (not yet satisfactorily solved) in reprocessing.
Much development work is still required before the thorium fuel cycle can be
commercialised, and the effort required seems unlikely while (or where) abundant
uranium is available. In this respect international moves to bring India into the ambit
of international trade will be critical. If India has ready access to traded uranium and
conventional reactor designs, it may not persist with the thorium cycle.
Nevertheless, the thorium fuel cycle, with its potential for breeding fuel without the
need for fast-neutron reactors, holds considerable potential long-term. It is a
significant factor in the long-term sustainability of nuclear energy.
Sources:
Thorium based fuel options for the generation of electricity: Developments in the
1990s, IAEA-TECDOC-1155, International Atomic Energy Agency, May 2000.
The role of thorium in nuclear energy, Energy Information Administration/Uranium
Industry Annual, 1996, p.ix-xvii.
Nuclear Chemical Engineering (2nd Ed.), Chapter 6: Thorium, M Benedict, T H
Pigford and H W Levi, 1981, McGraw-Hill, p.283-317, ISBN: 0-07-004531-3.
See also: lead paper in Indian Nuclear Society 2001 conference proceedings, vol 2.
149
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Kazimi M.S. 2003, Thorium Fuel for Nuclear Energy, American Scientist Sept-Oct
2003.
Morozov et al 2005, Thorium fuel as a superior approach to disposing of excess
weapons-grade plutonium in Russian VVER-1000 reactors. Nuclear Future?
OECD NEA & IAEA, 2006, Uranium 2005: Resources, Production and Demand.
150
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Annex 22
SLN ship under siege off Pulmoddai coast
[TamilNet, August 01, 2006 15:13 GMT]
The Jetliner ship, which escaped Trincomalee attack Tuesday afternoon with 854 Sri
Lanka Army (SLA) soldiers on board, bound for north, has come under attack again
in the Pulmoddai sea from 6:00 p.m. Tuesday, military sources in Colombo said.
Pulmoddai is located 49 km northwest of Trincomalee and 41 km southwest of
Mullaithivu.
Kfir jets took off from Colombo towards Pulmoddai in support of the ship under
siege.
Villagers of Kokilai, Pulmoddai and other areas close to the Pulmoddai Sea are fleeing
from their houses.
http://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=13&artid=19014
Pulmoddai battle on but Sri Lankan ship `safe'
B. Muralidhar Reddy
COLOMBO: The Sri Lanka Navy has denied reports that the Jetliner ship, which
escaped a Tiger attack in Trincomalee on Tuesday afternoon, came under attack
again in the Pulmoddai sea.
The ship had 854 Sri Lanka Army soldiers on board. However, a spokesperson of the
SLA told The Hindu that a confrontation was on between the Liberation Tigers of
Tamil Eelam (LTTE) and the Navy in the Pulmoddai sea.
\"[The] Jetliner is safe and the passengers on board disembarked in the afternoon.
The claim by the LTTE about a second attack on the Jetliner is false and is a sign of
desperation after its cadres suffered heavily in the Trincomalee as well as Pulmoddai
confrontation,\" the spokesperson said.
Earlier, TamilNet claimed that the Jetliner, bound for the north, came under a second
attack from the Tigers at 6 p.m. Pulmoddai is located 49 km northwest of
Trincomalee and 41 km southwest of Mullaithivu. \"Villagers of Kokilai, Pulmoddai and
other areas close to the Pulmoddai sea are fleeing their houses,\" it said.
Rajapakse calls up Manmohan
Sri Lankan President Mahinda Rajapakse telephoned Prime Minist er Manmohan
Singh on Tuesday and exchanged views on the latest developments.
He also thanked Dr. Singh for help in the evacuation of stranded Sri Lankans from
Lebanon.
http://www.hindu.com/2006/08/02/stories/2006080220261400.htm
Pulmoddai mineral shipments to resume
Shipments of mineral sands from the Pulmoddai beach deposit on the northeast
coast, disrupted after Tamil Tiger rebels sank a bulk carrier, look set to resume now
that the guerrillas and government forces are observing a truce and preparing for
peace talks.
Mineral sands at the Pulmoddai mine run by the Lanka Mineral Sands Ltd are known
to be rich in ilmenite, monazite, rutile and zircon.
Bulk shipments from Pulmoddai were suspended in September 1997 after Sea Tiger
rebels blew up and sank a bulk carrier. Since then, small quantities of rutile and
crude zircon brought by road have been exported in 40-kg bags through Colombo
port mostly to China, India and the United Kingdom.
\"Now, there is a lot of demand for our mineral sands,\" said Muhammad Nassar,
chairman of Lanka Mineral Sands. \"We hope to resume production shortly. The
factory has been out of production for five years so a fair amount of maintenance is
needed.\" For bulk shipments to resume, the wreck of the bulk carrier lying in 75 feet
151
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

of water needs to be removed, the pier repaired and a conveyor installed.
The Tigers had taken care not to damage the plant, which is in the region they claim
as their homeland, but cut off the water supply required to process the mineral
sands and disrupted bulk shipments.
Big stocks of minerals have accumulated over the years, including 180,000 tonnes of
ilmenite and 200,000 tonnes of crude zircon. The company processed about 300,000
tonnes of mineral sands a year.
The Pulmoddai beach mine is known to have high concentrations of minerals and is a
renewable deposit with sand being washed up by the sea. Shipments are not
possible during the northeast monsoon from October to February because there is no
sheltered anchorage at the site.
http://lakdiva.org/suntimes/020519/bus.html#3 (Sunday Times, Colombo,19 May,
2002)
Mineral processing was set to resume at Lanka Mineral Sands Ltd.’s Pulmoddai Beach
Mine in northern Sri Lanka. The company planned to restart large-scale processing of
200,000 metric tons (t) of crude zircon, 180,000 t of ilmenite, and deposits of rutile
and monazite that are present in the sand. Small-scale operations continued, with
small quantities of crude zircon and rutile being exported through the port of
Colombo to China, India, and the United Kingdom. The company processed 300,000
metric tons per year of mined sands (Industrial Minerals, 2002). The Mineral
Industry of Sri Lanka in 2002
Historically, the Ceylon Mineral Sands Corporation was established in 1957 under the
State Industrial Corporations Act of 1957. The Corporation located its plant for
processing Ilmenite at Pulmoddai and the first export of Ilmenite to Japan took place
in 1962.
A new plant was commissioned in 1967 at China Bay, to process the more valuable
minerals – Rutile, Zircon and monazite using the tailings of the Pulmoddai Ilmenite
plant. In 1976, the Corporation established an integrated Ilmenite, Zircon and Rutile
processing plant at Pulmoddai.
In 1992, the Corporation was converted into a Government Owned Company under
Act No. 23 of 1987 and re-named Lanka Mineral Sands Ltd., the company also
established a facility for bulk loading into ships Pulmoddai. Cod Bay, in the
Trincomalee Harbour is the station for its floating craft of tugs and barges. The sales
and marketing office is in Colombo…
Reserves
In 1971 the company with the assistance of the Geological Survey Department
carried out a survey of the present beach which revealed a heavy mineral content of
3.7 million tons with a cut off grade of 30%.
Preussag AG of West Germany carried out a vibro coring programme in 1979 in the
near shore area off Pulmoddai directly adjacent to the actual beach deposit covering
an area of 12 km x 1.7 km. the data collected revealed the deposit extends for a
distance of approximately 0.8km parallel to the beach line; in thickness varying from
several centimeters to 100 cm in certain places.
In 1987 Simec Ltd. a joint venture company of State Mining & Mineral Development
Company of Sri Lanka and Intersit BV of Netherland surveyed an area of 45 miles
between Mullativu and Nilaveli including the Pulmoddai beach.
Table 4 – Mineral Sands Deposits in Pulmoddai
Name of Deposit
Surface Area
Volume of Raw Sand
Value
152
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Pudaviakaddu
South of Pulmoddai
1500 acres
30.9 million cubic meters
US $ 5.65 – 7.55
Per cub meter
Thavikallu
South of Pulmoddai
1500 acres
8.9 million cubic meters
US $ 3.6 – 5.20
Per cub meter
Kokilai
North of Pulmoddai
1500 acres
16.4 million cubic meters
US $ 4.33 – 5.49
Per cub. meter
Nayaru
North of Pulmoddai
900 acres
7.9 million cubic meters
US $ 8.65 – 10.54
Per cub. meter
LMSL is 100% export-oriented with its products reaching counties such as Japan,
China, Australia etc. (Page 38)
The company has to-date only mined the Pulmoddai area and other untouched
deposits in Kokilai, Nayaru etc., are in excess of 400% of the Pulmoddai deposit,
ensuring a supply of raw material for several decades to come.
Prior to the stoppage of production in 2004, the production figures of LMSL are in
Annexure 6. (Page 40)
Fuel can be supplied by road or transport via Trincomalee by sea. (Page 41).
• Market Access
LMSL is a 100% export oriented venture. Market access is therefore a prime
consideration and any scheme of divestiture has to recognize this fact. Such a
scheme would therefore have to ensure that marketability of mineral products is
assured.
• Security
Since this enterprise is located close to the conflict zone and attempts have been
made to disrupt production e.g., by damaging the water supply installation, the
strategy should ensure attempts to disrupt production for political reasons is
prevented. (Page 42).
ANNEXURE - 3
UTILIZING THE FOUR MAIN MINERALS
153
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Ilmenite
It is used to manufacture Titanium Dixoide white Pigment which has its own peculiar
characteristics such as pure whiteness and brightness than any other pigments can
achieve, non-toxic in contrast to lead pigments, non corrosive, stand high
temperature, does not change its colour when continuously exposed to sunlight and
high hiding power. Therefore the ultimate use of this mineral is in paper, paint,
plastic, rubber, textile industries and to make printing ink.
Zircon
Main properties of Zircon sand are resistant to corrosion and withstand high
temperatures. Therefore, it is extensively used in furnaces as retractive liners and in
foundry casings. Another major use is as an opacifier in glazing material in ceramic
industry which is widely expanding today. Zirconium compounds extracted from
Zircon are commonly used in television sets, leather, water proofing of fabrics,
lacquers, drugs as catalysts in chemical processes and also in high temperature
work.
Monazite
Monazite even though is a radio-active mineral due to the presence of thorium its
main use is as a good source of rare-earth compounds. Monazite is therefore
important for the electronic and computer industry. It is also used in glass
manufacture and polishing lighter flints, high strength permanent magnets and in
television sets as red phosphors.
Rutile
This mineral is the raw material for the manufacture of world’s “present and future”
metal Titanium. Titanium metal is very light (as light as aluminum) very strong (as
strong as steel), highly resistant to corrosion, withstand very high temperatures.
Rutile is exclusively used in the mineral sand form itself as a flux in welding rod
industry.
(Page 48)
Annex 6 :
Year 1986 Production in Mt
Ilmenite 129907
Rutile 8443
Zircon 910
Hi.Ti.Ilmenite 3996
Monazite 17
Crude Zircon –
Total 143273 (1986) 47892 (1998)
Monazite in 2004: 29 Mt
(page 51)
http://books.smenet.org/Surf_Min_2ndEd/sm-ch02-sc10-ss25-bod.cfm
Industrial Minerals
Richard H. Olson, Edwin H. Bentzen, III, and Gordon C. Presley, Editors
2.10.25. TitaniumFootnote 01
Elemental titanium has become famous as a space age metal, because of its high
strength/weight ratio and resistance to corrosion. However, the major use is in the
form of titanium dioxide pigment, which because of its whiteness, high refractive
index, and resulting light-scattering ability, is unequaled for whitening paints, paper,
rubber, plastics, and other materials. A relatively minor use is in welding rod
coatings, in the form of the mineral rutile. The only commercially important titanium
154
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

ore minerals at the present time are ilmenite and its alteration products, and rutile.
Titanium was discovered by Gregor in 1790, as a white oxide which he discovered
from menaccanite, a variety of ilmenite occurring as a black sand near Falmouth,
Cornwall. Barksdale (1966) stated that the fundamental chemical reactions on which
the present-day titanium industry is based were known before 1800, although it was
not until 1918 that these pigments were available commercially on the American
market. ..
The beginning of the modern titanium metal industry was in 1948, when Du Pont
produced the first metal. U.S. Bureau of Mines reports, which gave details of the
Kroll process, together with the attractive properties of the metal for military aircraft,
led to a concerted effort by industry and government to develop a large-scale
titanium metal industry, which reached a peak capacity of over 36,000 stpy from six
producers by 1958 (Pings, 1972a)…
Although titanium is the ninth most abundant element of the lithosphere, comprising
an estimated 0.62% of the earth’s crust, there are only a few minerals in which it
occurs in major amounts: rutile, anatase, and brookite (which are polymorphs of
TiO2), ilmenite and its alteration products, including leucoxene, perovskite (CaTiO3),
and sphene (CaTiSiO5). Anatase may be emerging as a significant ore mineral of the
future, but ilmenite, altered ilmenite, leucoxene, and rutile have been the only large
volume ore minerals through 1980.
Sand deposits in which rutile is the only economically important titanium mineral
occur along the eastern shore of Australia. Ilmenite, altered ilmenite, and rutile form
inland elevated strand-line deposits in Western Australia and in older sands of the
Atlantic Coastal Plain of the United States. Ilmenite and altered ilmenite are the
principal titanium ore minerals in other Western Australian districts; in Kerala, India;
in deposits north of the Black Sea in the USSR; and in Florida and Georgia. Relatively
unaltered ilmenite is found in large beach and dune occurrences along the
northeastern coast of South Africa, in the Nile Delta of Egypt, and in still other
Western Australian deposits, those closest to the present coast. Sand deposits of
titaniferous iron ores occur as dune and beach deposits in many volcanic areas, of
which those in New Zealand are the outstanding examples…
Sand Deposits: Titanium-bearing black sands are found mainly in ancient or modern
ocean and sea beaches around and occasionally within continental land masses. They
frequently form highly visible surficial layers between the high and low water marks
which may extend intermittently along coasts for miles, but such concentrations,
containing perhaps 80% heavy minerals, are not mined on a large scale because
they are usually too shallow and narrow to represent major reserves. Minable bodies
are multilayered occurrences of a similar nature left behind by retreating seas, or
coastal dunes formed when heavy minerals from black sand beaches were being
transported inland by wind action. Heavy minerals tend to be disseminated within
such dunes rather than layered as in beach-type deposits.
The history of a black sand ore body may be simple or complex. The essential
elements are: (1) a “hinterland” of crystalline rocks in which the heavy minerals
were accessory constituents, (2) a period of deep weathering, (3) uplift with rapid
erosion and quick dumping into the sea of the products of stream erosion, and (4)
emergence of the coastline with longshore drift and high-energy waves acting during
the process of shoreline straightening. There may be intermediate stages such as
partial concentration of the heavy minerals in a coastal plain sediment and
subsequent elevation, erosion, and reconcentration. The sand brought to the sea by
rivers is picked up and carried away from their mouths by longshore currents,
forming offshore bars and filling in bays between headlands, particularly during
storms. Where bars are formed, the sand-carrying waves drag bottom and lose their
energy so that the heavy minerals fall on the seaward side while the light minerals
155
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

are cast over the bar and into the quieter water beyond. Layer upon layer of varying
concentrations of heavy minerals accumulates on the growing bar in this way. Where
bays are being filled with sand, both heavy and light minerals are churned from the
bottom by landward-rushing waves and are hurled up the beach slope. The
smoother, slower retreat of each wave mobilizes the uppermost layer of sand
deposited there, and draws away the light minerals, to be picked up again and again
by waves as currents move them along the coast, while leaving the heavy minerals
behind. Alternating periods of stormy and calm weather leave alternating layers of
high and low concentrations of heavy minerals in the beach sand as it advances
toward the sea..…
India: At one time India was a leading producer of ilmenite from the state of Kerala
(formerly Travancore-Cochin). The beach sands were mined in the Manavalakurichi
(M.K.) area and later the Quilon deposit of ilmenite near Chavra was put into
production. These deposits supplied the bulk of the titanium ore used by the U.S.
prior to World War II.
The two deposits have more differences than similarities. The ilmenite in the M.K.
deposit analyzed only 54% TiO2 and the sand was rich in garnet and monazite. The
ilmenite in the Quilon deposit analyzes about 60% TiO2. The sand carried almost no
garnet and is high in monazite in only two places. ..
Sri Lanka: Sri Lanka contains extensive beach deposits of titanium-bearing sands at
Pulmoddai, Tirukkovil, Kelani River, Kalu River, Modoragam River, Kudremalai Point,
Negombo, and Induruwa.
The Pulmoddai area contains 5.6 million st of titaniferous material with 2.451 million
st of contained TiO2. The deposit extends for a distance of 7 km (42 miles), has a
maximum width of about 91 m (300 ft), and a thickness of about 2.4 m (8 ft) There
is no overburden. The deposit contains about 80% ilmenite and rutile
The separation of rutile has been adversely affected by the presence of excessive
amounts of residual ilmenite and quartz in the tailings. The separation of zircon has
been hampered by inadequate water and insufficient wet tabling equipment to
handle the extremely fine-grained Pulmoddai ore…
Sand Deposits
Exploration: There are only a few large areas of the world where the granite-clan
rocks and high-grade metamorphic gneisses which are likely to contain ilmenite (not
titaniferous-magnetite) and rutile are close enough to continental margins to have
contributed their erosion products to the sediments of coastal plains. Well-sorted
sands are much more likely hosts than unsorted sands. These are the areas on which
exploration efforts should be focused. Since the alteration of ilmenite to remove iron
is aided by humic acid developed by the decomposition of organic material near the
water table in hot and humid climates, it follows that the highest TiO2 ilmenites are
more likely to be found in the tropical and temperate regions of the world.
Titanium minerals are dark-colored and their concentration, as in black beach sands,
tends to be fairly readily noticeable against the light brown or white quartz. Many
sand ore bodies, therefore, have been discovered through surface observation of
high-grade placer zones formed on beaches and along the courses of streams, and
by following their traces into the larger, lower grade concentrations which constitute
economic ore bodies.
There are areas in which potential heavy mineral concentrations in ancient beach
sands may be masked by younger sand, gravel, or soil. Exploration under these
circumstances then involves interpretation of geomorphic and subsurface geologic
data to define areas which could have been beaches or dunes in the past, and then
drilling to obtain samples. ..
Evaluation of Deposits: An economic titanium mineral deposit must have reserves
156
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

large enough to support depreciation over a period of at least 10 to 20 or more
years. The capital investment in 1980 was in the range of $75 to $80 million in the
U.S. for a mine and mill plant with an output of 100 to 200 thousand stpy of ilmenite
(or equivalent rutile) with given “normal” geologic parameters. Significant
contributions can be made by zircon and other byproducts. Another general rule is
that a new and separate ore body, if its production is to be all ilmenite which cannot
be treated in an existing mill, should have a minimum reserve of about 1 million tons
of recoverable TiO2 in the titanium minerals. Small, high-grade concentrations are
uneconomic under the present conditions.
The definition of economic reserves depends, of course, upon many factors, among
them:
Cost of mining and milling, as influenced by depth of overburden (if any); cost of
surface and mineral rights; and availability of water, power, labor, and transportation
facilities for bulk shipments.
Recoverability in mining and milling.
Cost of treatment and disposal of waste slimes.
Cost of waste water treatment and land reclamation.
Distance to markets and cost of transport.
Ability of markets to absorb the type of titanium minerals to be produced, and
prevailing prices for titanium minerals and byproducts.
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES
Anon., 1972, “Brazilian Titanium,” Mining Journal, Vol. 278, No. 7121, Feb. 11, pp.
118–119.
Anon., 1974, “Pulmoddai’s Mineral Sands,” Industrial Minerals, No. 77, Feb., p. 27.
Anon., 1974a, “U.S. TiO2 Mine on Stream,” Mining Magazine, Vol. 130, No. 1, Jan.,
p. 7.
Anon., 1977, “RBM Progress Report,” Sep., Richards Bay Minerals, 4 pp.
Anon., 1978a, “Titania: The Largest Producer of Titanium Minerals in Europe,” Mining
Magazine, Vol. 139, No. 4, Oct., pp. 365–371.
Anon., 1978b, “Rautaurunklci—A Major Force in World Vanadium Supplies Is Still
Expanding,” World Mining, Mar., pp. 44–46.
Anon., 1980a, “Titanio, Anuário Mineral Brasileiro,” Brasilia, Vol. IX, p. 358.
Anon., 1980b, “Australia’s Mineral Resources: Mineral Sands,” Australian Department
of Trade and Resources, 10 pp.
Anon., 1980c, “Australian Mineral Sands Processing Industry—Potential for
Expansion,” Commonwealth/State Joint Study Group on Raw Materials Processing,
Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, pp. 17–18.
Anon., 1980d, “South Africa—Mining at Richards Bay,” Mining Journal, Vol. 295, No.
7579, Nov. 21, pp. 411–413.
Anon., 1981, “Sierra Rutile,” Mining Magazine, Vol. 144, No. 6, June, pp. 458–465.
Bachman, F.E., 1914, “The Use of Titaniferous Ores in the Blast Furnace,” Iron and
Steel Industry Yearbook, pp. 370–419.
Balsley, J.R., Jr., 1943, “Vanadium-Bearing Magnetite-Ilmenite Deposits Near Lake
Sanford, Essex County, New York,” Bulletin 940-D, U.S. Geological Survey, pp. 99–
123.
Barksdale, J., 1966, Titanium, Its Occurrence, Chemistry, and Technology, 2nd ed.,
Ronald Press, New York, 691 pp.
Bateman, A.M., et al., 1951, “Formation of Late Magmatic Oxide Ores,” Economic
Geology, Vol. 46, No. 4, June-July, pp. 404–426.
Beals, M.D., and Merker, L., 1960, “Three New Single Crystal Materials,” Materials in
Design Engineering, Jan., pp. 12–13.
Bishop, E.W., 1956, “Geology and Ground-Water Resources of Highlands County,
Florida,” Report of Investigation 15, Florida Geological Survey, 115 pp.
157
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Brady, E.S., 1981, “China’s Strategic Minerals and Metals—Titanium,” The China
Business Review, Vol. 8, No. 5, Sep.-Oct., pp. 62–65.
Broadhurst, S.D., 1955, “The Mining Industry in North Carolina from 1946 through
1953,” Economic Paper No. 66, North Carolina Dept. of Conservation and
Development, Div. of Min. Resources, pp. 26–27.
Broderick, T.M., 1917, “The Relation of the Titaniferous Magnetites of Northeastern
Minnesota to the Duluth Gabbro,” Economic Geology, Vol. 12, No. 8, Dec., pp. 663–
696.
Brooks, H.K., 1966, “Geological History of the Suwanee River,” Geology of the
Miocene and Pliocene Series in the North Florida-South Georgia Area, N.K. Olson,
ed., Guidebook for Atlantic Coastal Plain Geological Assn., 7th Field Trip and
Southeastern Geological Society, 12th Field Trip, pp. 37–45.
Brun, R.M., 1957, “The Tellnes Story,” Ilmeniten, TITANIA, A/S. Norway, Summer
issue.
Buddington, A.F., 1939, “Adirondack Igneous Rocks and Their Metamorphism,”
Geological Society of America Memoir 7, pp. 19–48.
Carstens, H., 1957, “Investigations of Titaniferous Iron Ore Deposits, Part I Gabbros
and Associated Titaniferous Iron Ore in West-Norwegian Gneisses,” K Norske Vidensk
Selsk Skr., No. 3, 67 pp.
Cooke, C.W., 1941, “Two Shore Lines or Seven?” American Journal of Science, Vol.
239, No. 6, pp. 457–458.
Cooke, C.W., 1945, “Geology of Florida,” Bulletin 29, Florida Geological Survey, 339
pp.
Davidson, D.M., et al., 1946, “Notes on the Ilmenite Deposit at Piney River, Virginia,”
Economic Geology, Vol. 41, No. 7, Nov., pp. 738–748.
Diemer, R.A., 1941, “Titaniferous Magnetite Deposits of the Laramie Range,
Wyoming,” Bulletin No. 31, Geological Survey of Wyoming, 23 pp.
Evrard, P., 1949, “Differentiation of Titaniferous Magmas,” Economic Geology, Vol.
44, No. 3, May, pp. 210–232.
Fine, M.M., and Frommer, D.W., 1952, “Mineral Dressing Investigation of Titanium
Ore from the Christy Property, Hot Spring County, Arkansas,” Report of
Investigations 4851, U.S. Bureau of Mines, 7 pp.
Fine, M.M., et al., 1949, “Titanium Investigations … The Laboratory Development of
Mineral Dressing Methods for Arkansas Rutile,” Mining Engineering, Vol. 1, No. 12,
pp. 447–452.
Fish, G.E., Jr., 1962, “Titanium Resources of Nelson and Amherst Counties, Virginia
(In Two Parts) 1. Saprolite Ores,” Report of Investigations 6094, U.S. Bureau of
Mines, 44 pp.
Fish, G.E., Jr., and Swanson, V.F., 1964, “Titanium Resources of Nelson and Amherst
Counties, Virginia (In Two Parts) 2. Nelsonite,” Report of Investigations 6429, U.S.
Bureau of Mines, 25 pp.
Flint, R.F., 1940, “Pleistocene Features of the Atlantic Coastal Plain,” American
Journal of Science, Vol. 238, No. 11, pp. 757–787.
Flint, R.F., 1942, “Atlantic Coastal ‘Terraces’,” Washington Academy of Sciences
Journal, Vol. 32, No. 8, pp. 235–237.
Flint, R.F., 1947, Glacial Geology and the Pleistocene Epoch, John Wiley, New York,
589 pp.
Force, E.R., 1980, “Is the United States Geologically Dependent on Imported Rutile?”
Presented at 4th Industrial Minerals International Congress, Atlanta, GA, 4 pp.
Force, E.R., et al., 1976, “Geology and Resources of Titanium,” Professional Paper
959-A through F, U.S. Geological Survey.
Frey, E., 1946, “Exploration of Iron Mountain Titaniferous Magnetite Deposits, Albany
County, Wyoming,” Report of Investigations 3968, U.S. Bureau of Mines, 37 pp.
158
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Fryklund, V.C., Jr., and Holbrook, D.F., 1950, “Titanium Ore Deposits of Hot Spring
County, Arkansas,” Bulletin No. 16, Arkansas Research and Development Comm.,
Arkansas Div. Geology, 173 pp.
Fryklund, V.C., Jr., et al., 1954, “Niobium and Titanium at Magnet Cove and Potash
Sulphur Springs, Arkansas,” Bulletin 1015-B, U.S. Geological Survey, pp. 23–57.
Garnar, T.E., Jr., 1980, “Heavy Minerals Industry of North America,” Presented at
4th Industrial Minerals International Congress, Atlanta, GA, 13 pp.
Geis, H.P., 1971, “A Short Description of the Iron-Titanium Provinces of Norway, with
Special Reference to Those in Production,” Minerals Science Engineering, Vol. 3, No.
3, pp. 13–24.
Gillson, J.L., 1959, “Sand Deposits of Titanium Minerals,” Trans. SME-AIME, Vol. 214,
pp. 421–429; Mining Engineering, Vol. 11, No. 4.
Grogan, R.M., et al., 1964, “Milling at Du Pont’s Heavy Mineral Mines in Florida,”
Milling Methods in the Americas, N. Arbiter, ed., Gordon and Breach, New York, pp.
205–229.
Gross, S.O., 1968, “Titaniferous Ores of the Sanford Lake District, New York,” Ore
Deposits in the United States, 1963/1967, John D. Ridge, ed., AIME, New York, Vol.
1, pp. 140–153.
Guimond, R., 1964, “Quebec Iron and Titanium Corporation, A Study in Growth,”
Canadian Mining Journal, Vol. 85, No. 11, pp. 47–53.
Guise, F.P., et al., 1964, “Titanium in the Southeastern United States,” Information
Circular 8223, U.S. Bureau of Mines, 30 pp.
Hammond, P., 1949, “Allard Lake Ilmenite Deposits,” Canadian Mining &
Metallurgical Bulletin, Vol. 42, pp. 117–121.
Hammond, P., 1952, “Allard Lake Ilmenite Deposits,” Economic Geology, Vol. 47, No.
6, Sep.-Oct., pp. 634–649.
Hargraves, R.B., 1959, “Petrology of the Allard Lake Anorthosite Suite and
Paleomagnetism of the Ilmenite Deposits (Quebec),” Ph.D. Thesis, Princeton
University, Princeton, NJ, May, 193 pp.
Harki, I., et al., 1956, “Discovery and Mining Methods at Finland’s Largest Fe-Ti-V
Mine,” Mining World, Vol. 18, Aug., p. 62.
Heyburn, M.M., 1960, “Geological and Geophysical Investigation of the Sanford Hill
Ore Body Extension, Tahawus, New York,” Unpublished M.S. Thesis, Syracuse
University, Syracuse, NY, 48 pp
Hillhouse, D.M., 1960, “Geology of the Piney River-Roseland Titanium Area, Nelson
and Amherst Counties, Virginia,” Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute, Blacksburg, VA, 169 pp.
Hoyt, J.H., 1967, “Pleistocene Shore Lines: Guide to Tectonic Movements, Northern
Florida and Southern Georgia,” Abstracts, 1967 Annual Meeting, Geological Society
of America, New Orleans, LA, p. 104.
Hubaux, A., 1956, “Various Types of Black Ores of the Egersund Norway Region,”
Bulletin 79, Ann. Soc. Geol. Belg., pp. 203–215.
Jennings, E.P., 1913, “A Titaniferous Iron Ore Deposit in Boulder County, Colorado,”
AIME Trans, Vol. 44, pp. 14–25.
Kays, M.A., 1965, “Petrographic and Modal Relations, Sanford Hill Titaniferous
Magnetite Deposit,” Economic Geology, Vol. 60, No. 6, Sep.-Oct., pp. 1261–1297.
Kish, L., 1972, “Vanadium in the Titaniferous Deposits of Quebec,” CIM Bulletin,
Mar., pp. 117–123.
Li, T.M., 1973, “Startup of Manchester Mine and Mill Boosts U.S. Production of
Primary Ilmenite,” Engineering & Mining Journal, Dec., pp. 71–75.
Lissiman, J.C., and Oxenford, R.J., 1973, “The Allied Mineral N.L. Heavy Mineral
Deposit in Eneabba, W.A.,” Conference Volume, Australasian Institute of Mining &
Metallurgy, pp. 153–161.
159
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Lister, F.G., 1966, “The Composition and Origin of Selected Iron-Titanium Deposits,”
Economic Geology, Vol. 61, No. 2, Mar.-Apr., pp. 275–310.
Llewellyn T.O., and Sullivan, G.V., 1980, “Recovery of Rutile from a Porphyry Copper
Tailings Sample,” Report of Investigations 8462, U.S. Bureau of Mines, 18 pp.
Lynd, L.E., 1983, “Titanium,” Mineral Commodity Profile, U.S. Bureau of Mines, 17
pp.
MacNeil, F.S., 1949, “Pleistocene Shore Lines in Florida and Georgia,” Shorter
Contributions to General Geology, Professional Paper 221-F, U.S. Geological Survey,
pp. 93–106.
Markewicz, F.J., 1969, “Ilmenite Deposits of the New Jersey Coastal Plain,” Geology
of Selected Areas of New Jersey and Eastern Pennsylvania and Guidebook of
Excursions, S. Subitzky, ed., Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NJ, pp. 363–
382.
Martens, J.C.H., 1928, “Beach Deposits of Ilmenite, Zircon, and Rutile in Florida,”
19th Annual Report, Florida Geological Survey, pp. 124–154.
Masten, A.H., 1923, The Story of Adirondac, Princeton Press, Princeton, NJ, 199 pp.
McMurray, L.L., 1944, “Froth Flotation of North Carolina Ilmenite,” Trans. AIME, Vol.
173, 1947; Mining Technology, Jan. 1944.
Merritt, C.A., 1939, “Iron Ores of the Wichita Mountains, Oklahoma,” Economic
Geology, Vol. 34, No. 3, May, pp. 268–286.
Michot, P., 1956, “The Deposits of Black Ores of the Egersund Region,” Bulletin 79,
Ann. Soc. Geol. Belg., pp. 183–201.
Moore, C.H., Jr., 1940, “Origin of the Nelsonite Dikes of Amherst County, Virginia,”
Economic Geology, Vol. 35, No. 5, Aug., pp. 629–645.
Nicholls, G.D., 1955, “The Mineralogy of Rock Magnetism,” Advances in Physics
(Supplement to Philosophical Magazine), Vol. 4, p. 113.
Nilsen, A.E., 1972, “Extraction of Iron from Titaniferous Ores,” U.S. Patent
3,647,414, Mar. 7.
Osborne, F.F., 1928, “Certain Magmatic Titaniferous Ores and Their Origin,”
Economic Geology, Pt. 1, Vol. 23, No. 7, Nov., pp. 724–761; Pt. 2, Vol. 23, No. 8,
Dec., pp. 895–922.
Parker, G.G., and Cooke, C.W., 1944, “Late Cenozoic Geology of Southern Florida,”
Bulletin 27, Florida Geological Survey, 119 pp.
Paulson, E.G., 1964, “Mineralogy and Origin of the Titaniferous Deposit at Pluma
Hidalgo, Oaxaca, Mexico,” Economic Geology, Vol. 59, No. 5, Aug., pp. 753–767.
Pings, W.B., 1972, “Titanium, Pt. 1,” Colorado School of Mines Industries Bulletin,
Vol. 15, No. 4, July, 13 p.
Pings, W.B., 1972a, “Titanium, Pt. 2,” Colorado School of Mines Industries Bulletin,
Vol. 15, No. 5, Sep., 17 pp.
Pinnell, D.B., and Marsh, J.A., 1954, “Summary Geological Report on the Titaniferous
Iron Ore Deposits of the Laramie Range, Albany County, Wyoming,” Mines Magazine,
Vol. 44, No. 5, p. 30.
Pirkle, E.C., and Yoho, W.H., 1970, “The Heavy Mineral Ore Body of Trail Ridge,
Florida,” Economic Geology, Vol. 65, No. 1, Jan.-Feb., pp. 17–30.
Pirkle, E.C., et al., 1974, “The Green Cove Springs and Boulougne Heavy Mineral
Sand Deposits of Florida,” Economic Geology, Vol. 69, No. 7, Nov., pp. 1129–1137.
Pirkle, F.L., 1975, “Evaluation of Possible Source Regions of Trail Ridge Sands,”
Southeastern Geology, Vol. 17, No. 2, Dec., pp. 93–114.
Ramdohr, P., 1956, “Die Beziehungen von Fe-Ti Erzen und Magmatischen
Gesteinen,” Bulletin No. 173, Comm. Geol. Finlande, pp. 1–18.
Reed, D.F., 1949, “Investigation of Christy Titanium Deposits, Hot Spring County,
Arkansas,” Report of Investigations 4592, U.S. Bureau of Mines, 10 pp.
Reed, D.F., 1949a, “Investigation of Magnet Cove Rutile Deposits, Hot Spring
160
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

County, Arkansas,” Report of Investigations 4593, U.S. Bureau of Mines, 9 pp.
Retty, J.A., 1944, “Lower Romaine River Area, Saguenay County, Quebec,” Report
19, Quebec Dept. of Mines & Geology, pp. 3–29.
Rose, E.R., 1969, “Geology of Titanium and Titaniferous Deposits of Canada,”
Economic Geology Report No. 25, Geological Survey of Canada,
Nuke deal and thorium as Bharatam's vanishing strategic mineral Let us look at the
deal from Uncle Sam's perspective: Aim: desiccate Bharatam energy independence
programme using thorium. Steps taken: 1. privatize mining operations including
mining of monazite, ilmenite placer sands which yield thorium (the private greed will
take over and allow the loot of the strategic mineral). 2. declare the sea-lane close to
the placer deposits (Manavalakurichi - Tamilnadu, Aluva, Chavara -- Kerala,
Pulmoddai -- Srilanka area, 30 kms. from Trincomalee under LTTE control) as
international waters (disregarding historic waters status under the UN Law of the Sea
1958; follow-up with operational assertions by sending US naval vessels into the Gulf
of Mannarto assert the international waters claim. 3. effectively create an
international waters boundary between India and Srilanka by the alignmen chosen –
a mid-ocean channel passage disregarding Sir A Ramaswamy Mudaliar Committee
report of 1958 which said that such an idea should be abandoned for specific
reasons. 4. by creating a channel, allow the next tsunami and cyclones to devastate
the coastline south and west of Rama Setu so that the thorium reserves will get lost
into the mid-ocean making it difficult and expensive to retrieve the strategic mineral.
This is geopolitics in action with the world's supercop calling the shots. Deal? What
deal? Read Dr. Prasad's views on how the much-publicised thorium as the sheet
anchor of Bharatam's nuclear strategy has been given the short shrift. Is there
someone out there caring about preserving nation's wealth and not allow it to be
looted or desiccated? Will the nation's energy independence goal by fast-tracking
thorium-based reactors which have been highlighted by the brilliant work of scientist
Jagannathan, by Dr. Baldev Raj of DAE and by Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam be facilitated by
the nuke deal? Govt. of India has to answer the question. Of course, the policy
makers and legislators have to raise the question, in the first place and enforce an
answer. Who will bell the cat? I don't think the Communit legislators will do it
because they will find a Hegelian dialectic to support the deal. I suppose it has to be
done by the likes of Dr. Prasad who have contributed so much to the nation's nuke
power status. kalyan Nuclear deal: India has no leverage *A N Prasad | *August 06,
2007 | 18:53 IST Ever since it was released on August 3, the much-awaited text of
the India-United States nuclear deal has been profusely commented upon and
covered in the media. It is obvious the text has tried to accommodate diverging
interests and constraints of both the parties by clever use of language -- to give an
illusory impression that the concerns are duly reflected. For the sake of public
comfort, both parties are saying loudly that they are free to hold on to their
respective rights and legal positions. It means hardly anything as far as India is
concerned. Up against the Hyde Act standing like a Rock of Gibraltar, India has no
leverage to force any of the issues during the innumerable consultations suggested
in the text. In fact, our case was compromised to a large extent when this American
act was passed, our prime minister's assurances to the contrary notwithstanding. We
are now in effect reduced to a mere recipient State mandated by the Hyde Act to
carry out a set of dos and don'ts and to strive to earn a good behaviour report card
to become eligible to continue receiving what the Americans can offer. In the
process, slowly but surely, they can gain control and remotely drive our nuclear
programmes in the long run. This deal, through the Hyde Act, gives far too many
opportunities to penetrate deep into and interfere even in our three-stage
programme to slow down the realisation of our goal of harnessing our vast resources
161
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

of thorium for long-term energy security. Two points in support of this, which have
largely missed notice: *One*, the revelation by Nicholas Burns, US under secretary
of state during his interview to the Council on Foreign Relations: 'It had been an easy
\"strategic\" choice for Washington when faced with the question -- should we isolate
India for the next 35 years or bring it in partially now (*under safeguards
inspection*) and nearly totally in the future.' *Two*, Article 16.2 of the text says the
123 Agreement shall remain in force for a period of 40 years and at the end of this
initial period each party may terminate by giving six month's notice. There is no in-
built provision for terminating before 40 years even if we were to suffer for any
reason in the implementation of the deal. These 40 years are expected to cover the
period by which we intend to take thorium utilisation to a commercial reality. A
coincidence? It is naive to judge the merits of the deal based purely on the language
of the text. The underlying undercurrents and intentions of the controlling party are
important and cannot be wished away as hypothetical or as their internal matter
when they do actually have serious repercussions on our long-term interests. There
has been a careful balancing of US commercial interests with the goal of bringing
India into the non-proliferation hold, an American obsession ever since the nuclear
Non-Proliferation Treaty came into existence in 1970. There have been overt
suggestions in the Hyde Act to the American administration to not only attempt to
cap but also try to eventually roll back our strategic programme and report to the US
Congress. Try they will; but whether we are smart enough to thwart their designs or
they manage to succeed -- given the tremendous access they get through this deal is
something time will tell. Let me turn to some of the most contentious issues that
have not been satisfactorily resolved. *Reprocessing* This has been stated to be the
most hotly debated issue. Let me therefore deal with it in some detail in simple
terms to put things in perspective. Reprocessing is at the core of our three-stage
nuclear power programme. It is the interface between the first and the second stage
and again between the second and the third stage. In the first step, it facilitates
extracting plutonium from the spent uranium fuel and feeding to the fast breeder
reactors in the second stage as fuel -- where thorium fuel is also introduced. When
thorium is converted into fissile uranium in the fast reactors, the same is extracted
by reprocessing to be fed into third stage reactors where large-scale thorium
utilisation occurs. It was once estimated that with the limited resources of uranium in
the country more than 350,000 MW of electricity could be produced through thorium
utilisation, ensuring long-term energy security. The steady progress India is making
with starting the construction of the first 500 Mwe prototype fast breeder reactor is
an envy of many in the advanced world. Recognising the key role of reprocessing,
development activities were started as early as 1959 -- much before even the first
nuclear power reactor became operational at Tarapur in 1969. While the first power
reactor was imported from the US, the first reprocessing facility was built entirely
through indigenous efforts and went into operation in 1965. The irony is, the US --
knowing fully well our four decades of experience in reprocessing and aware of its
importance in our three-stage programme -- has sought to create impediments and
make us beg for reprocessing consent, that too after accepting us as strategic
partner. What hypocrisy! Should we call this nuclear cooperation or non-cooperation?
Is it not obvious that their intention is to place hurdles on our thorium-utilisation
programme right from the beginning? In fact, even though there is what is called a
fast reactor nuclear fuel cycle, not a word is mentioned in the Agreement on fast-
reactor cooperation. The text calls for all future fast breeder reactors to be put under
the civilian list for applying safeguards in perpetuity -- just because plutonium
extracted from imported uranium spent fuel is fed into these reactors. It is a pity our
negotiators have chosen not to pursue extending the cooperation into the area of
fast reactors at least to the extent that we should be able to access the international
162
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

market for equipment and components which otherwise have to be produced by
Indian industry with considerable effort The way the reprocessing issue has been
resolved certainly does not give any comfort. What has been agreed to is consent in
principle, with the arrangements and procedures to be agreed in the future. Having
offered a dedicated facility for reprocessing imported fuel, we should have got
unconditional upfront consent to be made effective on satisfactory conclusion of
safeguards. The intent of the American legislation is to deny reprocessing rights to
NPT countries that don't already have this technology. We cannot be equated with
Japan, which Burns reportedly said has been used as a model for resolving this issue.
I can say from personal knowledge that Japan was totally unhappy in dealing with
the US while negotiating procedures and arrangements in the late 1970s for their
reprocess.
163
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Annex 23
An overview of world thorium resources, incentives for further exploration and
forecast for thorium requirements in the near future
Jayaram, K.M.V. (Department of Atomic Energy, Hyderabad (India). Atomic Minerals
Div.)
Abstract
Thorium occurs in association with uranium and rare earth elements in diverse rock
types. It occurs as veins of thorite, uranothorite and monazite in granites, syenites
and pegmatites. Monazite also occurs in quartz-pebble conglomerates, sandstones
and fluviatile and beach placers. Thorium occurs along with REE in bastnaesite, in
the carbonatites. Present knowledge of the thorium resources in the world is poor
because of inadequate exploration efforts arising out of insignificant demand. But,
with the increased interest shown by several countries in the development of Fast
Breeder Reactors using thorium, it is expected that the demand will increase
considerably by the turn of the century. The total known world reserves of Th in RAR
category are estimated at about 1.16 million tonnes. About 31% of this (0.36 mt) is
known to be available in the beach and inland placers of India. The possibility of
finding primary occurrences in the alkaline and other acidic rocks is good, in India.
The other countries having sizeable reserves are Brazil, Canada, China, Norway,
U.S.S.R., U.S.A., Burma, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Turkey and Sri Lanka.
Considering that the demand for thorium is likely to increase by the turn of this
century, it is necessary that data collected so far, globally, is pooled and analysed to
identify areas that hold good promise.
Reference:
Proceedings of a technical committee meeting on utilization of thorium-based
nuclear fuel: current status and perspectives held in Vienna, 2-4 December
1985
International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna (Austria)
IAEA-TECDOC--412, pp:8-21
http://hinduthought.googlepages.com/thoriumdeposits.pdf
The accumulation of thorium reserves of India is party attributed to the reworking of
beachsands by seawaves (almost like a cyclotron or sieving operation to remove
small stones from fresh husked paddy by women in India) given the nature of the
ocean currents and the Rama Setu (Adam’s bridge) acting as a barrier to the ocean
currents inducing countercurrents. Views of Prof. Rajamanickam, geomorphologist
and mineralogist: “The coast between Nagapattinam to Nagore, Nagore to
Poompuhar, Colachal and Madras were the places where the strong impact from the
Tsunami was noticed. These were also the places where a high order of ilmenites
was found soon after the Tsunami. For example in the Nagore coast, the pre-
Tsunami heavy mineral content of 14 per cent jumped to 70 per cent of ilmenites
after the Tsunami.”
http://soma-fish.net/stories.php?story=05/08/14/4004215
Monazite, a radioactive material, contains 3 to 7% thorium by weight. Ilmenite less
radioactive, contains .05% thorium.
http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=3186552
164
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Chavara mineral division, India Rare Earths Limited. Corporate office:
Plot No.1207,Veer Savakar Marg, Near Siddhi Vinayak Temple, Prabhadevi,Mumbai -
400 028 +91 22 24382042/ 24211630/ 24211851, 24220230 FAX +91 22
24220236 Major Activity : Mining and separation of Heavy Minerals like, Ilmenite,
Rutile, Zircon, Sillimanite, Garnet and Monazite from beach sand. Also engaged in
chemical processing of Monazite to yield Thorium compounds, Rare Earth Chlorides
and Tri-Sodium Phosphate.
Dr. S. Suresh Kumar, Head Tel. No: (0476) 268 0701 – 05 Located 10 Km north of
Kollam, 85 Km from Thiruvananthapuram capital of Kerala and 135 Km by road from
Kochi is perhaps blessed with the best mineral sand deposit of the country.The plant
operates on a mining area containing as high as 40% heavy minerals and extending
over a length of 23 Km in the belt of Neendakara and Kayamkulam. The deposit is
quite rich with respect to ilmenite, rutile and zircon and the mineral-ilmenite happens
to be of weathered variety analyzing 60% TiO2. The present annual production
capacity of Chavara unit engaged in dry as well as wet (dredging/ up-gradation)
mining and mineral separation stands at 1,54,000t of ilmenite, 9,500t of rutile,
14,000t of zircon and 7,000t of sillimanite. In addition the plant has facilities for
annual production of ground zircon called zirflor (-45 micron) and microzir (1-3
micron) of the order of 6,000t and 500t respectively.
http://irel.gov.in/companydetails/Unit.htm
MANAVALAKURICHI (MK) MINERAL DIVISION:
Plant is situated 25 Kms north of Kanyakumari (Cape Comorin), the southern most
tip of the Indian sub-continent. All weather major seaport Tuticorin and the nearest
airport at Thiruvananthapuram are equidistant, about 65 kms from the plant site.
Nagercoil at a distance of about 18 kms from the plant, is the closest major Railway
station. MK plant annually produces about 90,000t ilmenite of 55%. TiO2 grade,
3500t rutile and 10,000t zircon in addition to 3000t monazite and 10,000t garnet
based primarily on beach washing supplied by fishermen of surrounding five villages.
IREL has also mining lease of mineral rich areas wherein raw sand can be made
available in large quantities through dredging operation. In addition to mining and
minerals separation, the unit has a chemical plant to add value to zircon in the form
of zircon frit and other zirconium based chemicals in limited quantities.
RARE EARTHS DIVISION (RED) Aluva:
Unlike the three units of IREL as described earlier, RED is an exclusively value adding
chemical plant wherein the mineral monazite produced by MK, is chemically treated
to separate thorium as hydroxide upgrade and rare earths in its composite chloride
form. It is located on the banks of river Periyar at a distance of 12 Km by road from
Kochi. This plant was made operational way back in 1952 to take on processing of
1400t of monazite every year. However over the years, the capacity of the plant was
gradually augmented to treat about 3600t of monazite. Elaborate solvent extraction
and ion exchange facilities were built up to produce individual R.E. oxides, like oxides
of Ce, Nd, Pr and La in adequate purities. Today RED has built up large stock pile of
impure thorium hydroxide upgrade associated with rare earths and unreacted
materials. Henceforth, RED proposes to treat this hydroxide upgrade rather than
fresh monazite to convert thorium into pure oxalate and rare earth as two major
fractions namely Ce oxide and Ce oxide free rare earth chloride.
165
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

http://irel.gov.in/companydetails/Unit.htm#MK
The total known world reservesof Thi nRA R category are estimated at about 1.16
million tonnes. About 31% of this (0.36 mt) is known to be available in the beach
and inland placers of India…Prior to the second world war thorium was used widely in
the manufacture of gas mantles, welding rods, refractories andin magnesium based
alloys .Its use as fuel in nuclear energy, in spite of its limited demand as of now and
low forecast, is gaining importance because of its transmutation to 233 u. Several
countries like India, Russia, France and U.K. have shown considerable interest in the
development of fast breeder reactors (FBR) anditisexpected thatbytheturnof this
century someofthe countries would have started commissioning large capacity units…
Beach sands: Although monazite occurs associated with ilmenite and beach sands,
skirting the entire Peninsular India, its economic concentration is confined to only
some areas where suitable physiographic conditions exist.The west coast placers are
essentially beachorbarrier deposits with development of dunes where aeolin action is
prominent in dry months…
Origin of West Coast deposits: …The deposits are formed in four successive
stages:(i) lateritisation of gneissic complexes, (ii) successive mountain uplift and
simultaneous seaward shift of strand line., (iii) reworking
of the beach sands by sea waves, which rise often to a height of 3m.in 12s.period
and (iv) littoral drift caused by the breaking of thewaves faraway from the shore and
consequent northerly movement of lighter minerals along the reflected waves…
In Manavalakurchi, Tamil Nadu, the depositis formed by the \"southerly tilt of the tip
of the peninsula [9] aided by seasonal variation of sea currents, both in direction and
magnitude [Udas, G.R.,Jayaram, K.M.V., Ramachandran, M and Sankaran,R.,Beach
sand placer deposits of the world vs.
Indian deposits. Plant maintenance and import substitution.1978.35.] …
The reasonably assured resources of thorium in India, form about 31% of the
world's estimated deposits.The reserves could have been several times more if
systematic surveys are carried out…
http://www.iaea.org/inis/aws/fnss/fulltext/0412_1.pdf
Indian ocean currents both east to west and counter currents result in a churning
operation and consequent deposition of heavy minerals such as thorium or titanium.
166
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

+This is a colour version of Figure 11.3 of Regional Oceanography: an Introduction
by M. Tomczak and S. J. Godfrey (Pergamon Press, New York 1994, 422 p.).
http://www.lei.furg.br/ocfis/mattom/regoc/text/11circ.html
http://maritime.haifa.ac.il/departm/lessons/ocean/wwr205.gif This map shows the
unique phenomenon of two ocean currents in two opposing direcions operating like a
cyclotron/sieve to isolate heavier minerals with heavy atomic weights such as
Thorium 232 and Titanium.
167
PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com