Learning styles and Disciplinary Differences:Testing the Predictive Value of Kolb’s Learning StyleInventory in the Confucian Heritage Culture,a Look at TaiwanStudent: Jacob ErlichAdvisor: Kevin P. HwangIn Memory of: Cary Wang

Taiwan’s Shifting Industry1950-present

Labor intensive

Capital intensive

Knowledge intensive

Knowledge Economy“an economy that creates, acquires, adapts, and uses knowledge effectively for its economic and social development”- World Bank 2001

Knowledge EconomyEconomic and Institutional RegimeInformation & Communication Technology (ICT)Innovation SystemsEducation & trainingKnowledge Economy Index (KEI)- World Bank

Why is a KE important?

Relationship between GDP & Knowledge Economy Index

2008 Knowledge Assessment

Ranked above…Innovation systems

Ranked above…Information & Communication

30thEducation Roomfor Improvement

Applyto

Learning how we learn

WarningLearning styles are points along a scale that help us to discover the different forms of cognitive processing known as learning styles. Learning style instruments are used to allocate a person on some point on a continuum.

The literature suggests learning styles as widely accepted, however, there is disagreement on how to best measure learning styles (Coeffield, et al., 2004)

Universal Applicability All people; utilize some combination of the 4 dimensions (concrete, reflective, abstract, active)may differ in their information-processing strategies

Brief review

“learning is by its very nature a tension and conflict filled process”(Kolb, 1984, p. 30)

Concrete ExperienceActive ExperimentationReflective ObservationAbstract ConceptualizationFigure 2-1. The Experiential Learning Model Source: Kolb & Kolb (2005, p. 3)

Concrete ExperienceActive ExperimentationReflective ObservationAbstract ConceptualizationFigure 2-1. The Experiential Learning Model Source: Kolb & Kolb (2005, p. 3)

Concrete ExperienceActive ExperimentationReflective ObservationAbstract ConceptualizationFigure 2-1. The Experiential Learning Model Source: Kolb & Kolb (2005, p. 3)

Learning Style Inventory (LSI)Describing the way you learn, deal with ideas and day-to-day situations12 sentence questionnaireFilling in incomplete sentences Ranking of: “4” best describes you“3” second best“2” less“1” least like you

Filling in incomplete sentences

“4” best describes you

“3” second best

“2” less

“1” least like you

1. When I learn: ___ I like to deal with my feelings.___ I like to think about ideas.___ I like to be doing things.___ I like to watch and listen.

1. When I learn: ___ I like to deal with my feelings.___ I like to think about ideas.___ I like to be doing things.___ I like to watch and listen.

1. When I learn: ___ I like to deal with my feelings.___ I like to think about ideas.___ I like to be doing things.___ I like to watch and listen.

1. When I learn: ___ I like to deal with my feelings.___ I like to think about ideas.___ I like to be doing things.___ I like to watch and listen.

1. When I learn: ___ I like to deal with my feelings.___ I like to think about ideas.___ I like to be doing things.___ I like to watch and listen.

Reactions feelings experience Intuition relationships hunches accepting involved open-minded doing practicepractical work-hardResponsibleactive try-thingsresultswatching quietListening carefullyreservedobservingTake-timecarefulideas theory evaluate rational analyze break-down reason think logical

Conceptual model

Diverging Learning StyleHumanities and Social SciencesH3Abstract Learning AbilityAbstract Learning StyleAssimilating Learning StyleNatural Sciences and MathematicsH1H4Converging Learning StyleScience-based ProfessionsReflectiveLearning AbilityReflectiveLearning StyleH5H2Social ProfessionsAccommodating Learning StyleH6

Development of Hypothesis H1H1 – Learners from a Confucian heritage culture, regardless of academic background, will favor a more abstract learning style.CHCLearnersH1

Development of Hypothesis H2H2 – Learners from a Confucian heritage culture, regardless of academic background, will favor a more reflective learning style.CHCLearnersH2

Abstract Learning AbilityH1Learners in a Confucian Heritage Culture(CHC)ReflectiveLearning AbilityH2

Development of Hypothesis H3Diverging Learning StyleH3 – Learners studying in humanities and social sciences will favor a concrete and reflective learning style known as the Diverging styleHumanities and Social SciencesH3

Development of Hypothesis H4H4 – Learners studying in natural sciences and mathematics will favor an abstract and reflective learning style known as the Assimilating styleAssimilating Learning StyleNatural Sciences and MathematicsH4

H5 – Learners studying in science-based professions will favor an abstract and active learning style known as the Converging styleConverging Learning StyleScience-based ProfessionsH5Development of Hypothesis H5

H6 – Learners studying in social professions will favor a concrete and active learning style known as the Accommodating styleAccommodating Learning StyleSocial ProfessionsH6Development of Hypothesis H6

Diverging Learning StyleHumanities and Social SciencesH3Assimilating Learning StyleNatural Sciences and MathematicsH4Converging Learning StyleScience-based ProfessionsH5Social ProfessionsAccommodating Learning StyleH6

Diverging Learning StyleHumanities and Social SciencesH3Abstract Learning AbilityAbstract Learning StyleAssimilating Learning StyleNatural Sciences and MathematicsH1H4Converging Learning StyleScience-based ProfessionsReflectiveLearning AbilityReflectiveLearning StyleH5H2Social ProfessionsAccommodating Learning StyleH6

The study

Taiwanese students Chinese Lit.StatisticsNational Cheng Kung UniversityEngineeringBusiness Admin.Sampling Plan

Research results

Learning mode & combination scoresMost preferred modeAbstract Conceptualization AC = 32.73

Learning mode & combination scores

Learning mode & combination scoresAC – CE32.73 – 28.184.55

Learning mode & combination scoresAE – RO29.93 – 29.160.77

Concrete Experience (CE)ROAE4.55X=4.55X=4.55Abstract Conceptualization (AC)

CE0.77Reflective Observation (RO)Active Experimentation (AE)ROAEACX=4.55

(CE)(RO)(AE)X=4.55(AC)

Diverging Learning StyleHumanities and Social SciencesH3Abstract Learning AbilityAssimilating Learning StyleNatural Sciences and MathematicsH1H4Converging Learning StyleScience-based ProfessionsReflectiveLearning AbilityReflectiveLearning StyleH5H2Social ProfessionsAccommodating Learning StyleH6

Abstract Learning AbilityH1Learners in a Confucian Heritage Culture(CHC)ReflectiveLearning AbilityH2

Learning mode & combination scores

y-axisx-axis

(CE)AC-CE 6.83AE-RO 5.96(Kolb, 2005)(RO)(AE)X=4.55(AC)

(CE)AC-CE 8.57AE-RO 0.44(Yuen & Lee, 1994)(RO)(AE)X=4.55(AC)

(CE)AC-CE 4.22AE-RO 4.27(Katz, 1988)(RO)(AE)X=4.55(AC)

(CE)AC-CE 4.3AE-RO 5.9(Kolb, 1985)(RO)(AE)X=4.55(AC)

(CE)AC-CE 4.5AE-RO 2.9(Kolb, 1976)(RO)(AE)X=4.55(AC)

Abstract Learning AbilityH1

ReflectiveLearning AbilityH2

Diverging Learning StyleHumanities and Social SciencesH3Abstract Learning AbilityAssimilating Learning StyleNatural Sciences and MathematicsH1H4Converging Learning StyleScience-based ProfessionsReflectiveLearning AbilityReflectiveLearning StyleH5H2Social ProfessionsAccommodating Learning StyleH6

Diverging Learning StyleHumanities and Social SciencesH3Assimilating Learning StyleNatural Sciences and MathematicsH4Converging Learning StyleScience-based ProfessionsH5Social ProfessionsAccommodating Learning StyleH6

Academic Specialization (mean scores) & Learning Style

(CE)(RO)(AE)(AC)X=4.55

Diverging Learning StyleHumanities and Social SciencesH3

Assimilating Learning StyleNatural Sciences and MathematicsH4

Converging Learning StyleScience-based ProfessionsH5

Accommodating Learning StyleSocial ProfessionsH6

Diverging Learning StyleHumanities and Social SciencesH3Abstract Learning AbilityAbstract Learning StyleAssimilating Learning StyleNatural Sciences and MathematicsH1H4Converging Learning StyleScience-based ProfessionsReflectiveLearning StyleH5ReflectiveLearning AbilityH2Social ProfessionsAccommodating Learning StyleH6

Learning modesAnalysis of variance (anova)

Note: 1=Humanities & Natural Science, 2=Natural Science & Mathematics, 3=Science-based Professions, 4=Social Professions

Significant between group differencesF>1.96P<0.05Abstract Conceptualization 10.1 0.000Reflective Observation 5.7 0.001ReflectiveLearning AbilityAbstract Learning Ability

Duncan groupingsAbstract Conceptualization ( 41, 32) Reflective Observation (23, 14) Humanities and Social SciencesNatural Sciences and MathematicsScience-based ProfessionsSocial ProfessionsHumanities and Social SciencesNatural Sciences and MathematicsScience-based ProfessionsSocial Professions

Statistical significance of relationships

Significance of Independent VariablesGenderAgeYear of StudyLevel of IncomeAcademic Specialization

Concrete Experience (CE)CEReflective Observation (RO)Active Experimentation (AE)ROAEACX=4.55Abstract Conceptualization (AC)

Humanities & Social SciencesCEROAEACX=4.55

Natural Sciences & MathematicsCEROAEACX=4.55

Science-based ProfessionsCEROAEACX=4.55

Social ProfessionsCEROAEACX=4.55

CEROAEACX=4.55

Significance of Independent VariablesGenderAgeYear of StudyLevel of IncomeAcademic Specialization

Humanities & Social Sciences

Natural Science & Mathematics

Science-based Professions

Social Professions

Significance of Independent Variables – Reevaluated GenderAgeYear of StudyLevel of IncomeAcademic Specialization

conclusion

Diverging Learning StyleHumanities and Social SciencesH3Abstract Learning AbilityAssimilating Learning StyleNatural Sciences and MathematicsH1H4Converging Learning StyleScience-based ProfessionsReflectiveLearning AbilityH5H2Social ProfessionsAccommodating Learning StyleH6

Diverging Learning StyleHumanities and Social SciencesH3Abstract Learning AbilityAbstract Learning StyleAssimilating Learning StyleNatural Sciences and MathematicsH1H4Converging Learning StyleScience-based ProfessionsReflectiveLearning StyleH5ReflectiveLearning AbilityH2Social ProfessionsAccommodating Learning StyleH6

Concrete Experience (CE)Learning styles byacademic backgrounds appear to split along the Concrete-Abstract dimension Humanities and Social SciencesSocial ProfessionsReflective Observation (RO)Active Experimentation (AE)Natural Sciences and MathematicsScience-based ProfessionsX=4.55Abstract Conceptualization (AC)

Significant between group differencesF>1.96P<0.05Abstract Conceptualization 10.1 0.000Reflective Observation 5.7 0.001ANOVA analysis shows preferred learning modes by academic background in factsplit at the Abstractand Reflectivedimensions ReflectiveLearning AbilityAbstract Learning Ability

Duncan groupingsAbstract Conceptualization ( 41, 32) Reflective Observation (23, 14) Duncan analysis supports that academic backgrounds group together in their preferences for theAbstractand Reflectivedimensions Humanities and Social SciencesNatural Sciences and MathematicsScience-based ProfessionsSocial ProfessionsHumanities and Social SciencesNatural Sciences and MathematicsScience-based ProfessionsSocial Professions

implications

Knowledge of own learning style“Self-awareness” resulting in a repertoire of learning techniques –Sadler-Smith (2001)Insight into “diverse approaches to creating, manipulating, and communicating knowledge” - Kolb (1984)Future career path

2. Offers a lexicon of learning“Intellectual catalog of words” – (Coffield, 2006)“Teaching and learning effectiveness” (Zualkernan et al., 2006)“Tool box of strategies” – (Adey, et al. 1999)

3. Life-long learningA step towards a society of learnerMore effective in communicating, team worker and resolving conflict – Kolb, 1999

limitations

LimitationsLimited sample sizeUncontrolled variablesConvenient sampleTranslation issues

Future research

Future ResearchFurthering Taiwanese normative sampleAcademic major level studyEffect of learning environmentMatching hypothesis

Learning Styles Disciplinary Differences CultureThank you!

Questions

ReferencesAdey, P., Fairbrother, R., & William, D. (1999). Learning styles and strategies: a review of research. London: King's College of London, School of Education.Alatas, S. F. (2000). Academic dependency in the social sciences: Reflections on India and Malaysia. . American Studies International, 38(2), 80-96.Ali, A. (1988). A cross-national perspective of managerial work value systems. In R. N. Farmer, N. Richard & E. G. McGoun (Eds.), Advances in International Comparative Management (Vol. 3, pp. 151-170). Greenwich CT: JAI Press.Allert, J. (2004). Learning Style and Factors Contributing to Success in an Introductory Computer Science Course. Paper presented at the 4th IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT2004).Allinson, C., & Hayes, J. (1996). The Cognitive Style Index. Journal of Management Studies, 33, 119-135.Altmeyer, R. (1966). Education in the arts and sciences: Divergent paths. Carnegie Institute of Technology.Apter, M. (2001). Motivational styles in everyday life: a guide to reversal theory. Paper presented at the American Psychology Association. Auyeung, P., & Sands, J. (1996). A cross cultural study of the learning style of accounting students. Accounting and Finance, 36, 261-274.

Bandler, R., & Grinder, J. (1979). Frogs into Pricnces: neuro linguistic programming. Utah: Real People Press.Barker, M. (1997). The purpose of study, attitudes to study and staff-student relationships. In D. MacNamara & R. Harris (Eds.), Overseas students in higer education (pp. 92-108). London: Routledge.Barmeyer, C. I. (2004). Learning styles and their impact on cross-cultural training: An international comparison in France, Germany and Quebec. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 28(6), 577.Barron, H. (1996). Strengths and limitations of ipsative measurement. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 69, 49-56.Biglan, A. (1973). The characteristics of subject matter in different academic areas. Journal of Applied Psychology(57), 195-203.Bokoros, M., Goldstein, M., & Sweeney, M. (1992). Common factors in five measures of cognitive style. Current Psychology: Research & Reviews, 11(2), 99-109.Bond, M. H. (1996). Chinese values. In M. H. Bond (Ed.), The handbook of Chinese psychology (pp. 208-226). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.Brand, D. (1987, August 31). The new whiz kids: Why Asian Americans are doing well, and what it costs them. Time, 9, 42-50.Brennan, L., & Durovic, J. (2005). "Plagiarism" and the Confucian Heritage culture (CHC) student. Paper presented at the Asia-Pacific Educational Integrity Conference (APEIC) 2005 Bruner, J. S. (1966). Toward Theory of Instruction. New York: John Wiley.Bruner, J. S., & others, a. (1966). Studies in Cognitive Growth. New York: Wiley.Bush, T., & Qiang, H. (2000). Leadership and culture in Chinese education. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 20(2), 58-67.

Carson, J., & Nelson, G. (1996). Chinese students' perception of ESL peer response group interaction. JOurnal of Second Language Writing, 5(1), 1-19.Carver, C., R., H., & Lane, W. (1999). Enhancing Student Learning Through Hypermedia Courseware and Incorporation of Student Learning Styles. IEEE Transactions on Education, 42(2), 33-38.Chan, S. (1999). The Chinese learner - a question of style. Education + Training, 41(6/7), 294-304.Cheng, K., & Wong, K. (1996). School effectiveness in East Asia. Journal of Educational Administration, 34(5), 32-49.Claxton, C., & Ralston, Y. (1978). Learning styles. In C. C. a. Y. Ralston (Ed.), Learning styles: their impact on teaching and administration. Washington: American Association for Higher Education.Cocroft, B. A. K., & Ting-Toomey, S. (1994). Face-work in Japan and in the United States. Intercultural Journal of Intercultural Relation, 18, 469-506.Coffield, F., Moseley, D., Hall, E., & Ecclestone, K. (2004a). Learning styles and pedagogy in post-16 learning: A systematic and critical review. London: Learning and Skills Research Centre.Coffield, F., Moseley, D., Hall, E., & Ecclestone, K. (2004b). Should we be using learning styles?: What research has to say to practice. London: Learning and Skills Research Centre.Cortazzi, M. (1990). Cultural and educational expectations in the language classroom. In Cultural and the Language Classroom, 132, 54-65.Cortazzi, M., & Jin, L. (1997). Communication for learning across cultures. In D. MacNamara & D. Harris (Eds.), Overseas students in higher education (pp. 79-90). London: Routledge.Curry, L. (1983). An organization of learning styles theory and constructs. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association.

De Bello, T. (1990). Comparison of eleven major learning styles models: variables, appropriate populations, validity of instrumentation, and research behind them. Reading, Writing, and Learning Disabilities, 6, 203-222.De Vita, G. (2001). Learning styles, culture and inclusive instruction in the multicultural classroom: A business and managment perspective. Innovations in Education and Teaching International 38(2), 165-174.Dewey, J. (1938). Logic, the theory of inquiry. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.Dixon, N. (1982). Incorporating learning style into training design. Training Development Journal(36), 62-64.Donald, J. (2007). Approaches to learning accounting: a cross-cultural study. Asian Review of Accounting, 15(2), 100-121.Economist, T. (2003, 25 January ). Roll over, Confucius. The Economist.Ford, N. (1985). Learning styles and strategies of postgraduate students. British Journal of Educational Technology, 16, 65-79.Ford, N. (1995). Levels and types of mediation in instructional systems: an individual differences approach. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 43, 241-259.Ford, N., & Chen, S. (2001). Matching/mismatching revisitied: an empirical study of learning and teaching styles. British Journal of Educational Technology, 32(1), 5-22.Freire, P. (1974). Education for critical consciousness (M. B. Ramos, L. Bigwood & M. Marshall, Trans.). London: Sheed-Ward.Fridland, G. H. (2002). Adult learning styles and cultural background: A comparison of the learning style preferences of American teachers of English as a second language and Chinese teachers of English as a foreign language. . University of Memphis, TN.Friedman, T. L. (2006). The world is flat: A brief history of the twenty-first century. N.Y. : Farrar Straus and Giroux.

Gao, L., & Watkins, D. A. (2002). Conceptions of teaching held by school science teachers in P. R. China: Identification and cross-cultural comparisons. International Journal of Science Education, 24(1), 61-79.Gardner, H. (1989). To open minds. New York: Basic Books.Grochow, J. (1973). Cognitive syle as a factor in the design of interactive decision-support systems. Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.Hayes, J., & Allinson, C. (1988). Cultural differences in the learning styles of managers. Management International Review, 28, 75-80.Hickcox, L. K. (1990). An historical review of Kolb's formulation of experiential learning theory. University of Oregon, Corvallis.Ho, D. Y. F. (1991). Cognitive socialization in Confucian heritage cultures. Paper presented at the Workshop on Continuities and Discontinuities in the Cognitive Socialisation of Minority Children. Ho, I., Salili, F., Biggs, J., & Hau, K. (1999). The relationship among casual attributions, learning strategies and level of achievement: A Hong Kong case study Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 19(1), 44-58.Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's consequences. International differences in work-related values. Beverly Hills.Hofstede, G. (1986). Cultural differences in teaching and learning International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 10, 301-320.Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. Maindenhead, UK: McGraw-Hill.Hofstede, G. (1997). Cultures and organizations: software of the mind. London: Mc Graw Hill.

Hofstede, G. (2001). Cultures consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations (2nd Ed.). London: Sage.Hofstede, G., & Hofstede, J. (2005). Cultures and organisation-software of the minds. London: Profile Books LTD.Honey, P., & Mumford, A. (2000). The learning styles helper's guide.Hoppe, M. H. (1990). A comparative study of country elites: International differences in work related values and learning and their implications for managerial training and development. University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.House, R., Hanges, P., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P., & Gupta, V. (2004). Culture, seadership and 0rganizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies: Sage Publications, Inc. .Hsu, F. L. K. (1985). The self in cross-cultural perspective. In A. J. Marsella, G. DeVos & F. L. K. Hsu (Eds.), Culture and self: Asian and western perspectives. New York: Tavistock Publications.Hudson, L. (1966). Contrary Imaginations. Middlesex, England: Penguin Books.Iliff, C. H. (1994). Kolb's Learning Style Inventory: A meta-analysis. Boston University.Jin, L., & Cortazzi, M. (1998). Dimensions of dialogue: large classes in China. International Journal of Educational Research(29), 739-761.Joy, S., & Kolb, D. (2007). Are there cultural differences in learning style? Case Western Reserve University.Katz, N. (1988). Individual learning style: Israeli norms and cross-cultural equvalence of Kolb's learning style inventory. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology(19), 361.Keefe, J. (1989). Learning Style: an overview NASSP's Student Learning Styles: Diagnosing and Prescribing Programs. Reston, VA: National Association of Secondary Principals.

Kember, D. (1996). The intention to both memorise and understand: Another approach to learning? . Higher Education, 31, 341-354.Kennedy, P. (2002). Learning cultures and learning styles: myth-understandings about adult Hong Kong - Chinese learners. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 21(5), 430-445.Kolb, D. (1976a). Learning Style Inventory Boston, MA: Hay Group , Hay Resources Direct.Kolb, D. (1976b). Management and Learning Processes. California Management Review, 18(3), 21-31.Kolb, D. (1981). Learning styles and disciplinary differences: Diverse pathways. In A. W. Chickering (Ed.), The Modern American College: Responding to the New Realities of Diverse Students and a Changing Society (pp. 232-255). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.Kolb, D. (1984). The experiential learning: Experience as a source of learning and development. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.Kolb, D. (1985). Learning Style Inventory. Boston, MA: Hay Group, Hay Resources Direct.Kolb, D. (1999). Learning Style Inventory. Boston, MA: Hay Group, Hay Resources Direct.Kolb, D. (2000). Facilitator's guide to learning. Boston: Hay/McBer.Kolb, D., & Fry, R. (1975). Towards an applied theory of experiential learning. In C. L. C. (Ed.) (Ed.), Theories of group process. London: Wiley.Kolb, D., & Goldman, M. (1973). Toward a typology of learning styles and learning environments: An investigation of the impact of learning styles and discipline demands on the academic performance, social adaptation, and career choices of M.I.T. seniors. M.I.T. Sloan School of Management.

Kolb, D., & Kolb, A. (2005). The Kolb learning style inventory-version 3.1 2005 technical specifications Available from www.learningfromexperience.comKolb, D., Rubin, I., & McIntyre, J. (1971). Organizational psychology: An experiential approach. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.Larkin-Hein, T., & Buddy, D. (2001). Research on Learning Style: Applications in the Physics and Engineering Classrooms. IEEE Transactions on Education, 44(3), 276-281.Lashley, C., & Barron, P. (2006). The learning style preferences of hospitality and tourism students: Observations from an international and cross-cultural study Hospitality Management, 25, 552-569.Lee, W. O. (1996). The cultural context for Chinese learners: Conceptions of learning in the Confucian tradition. In D. W. J. Biggs (Ed.), The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological and contextual influences (pp. pp. 25-41). Hong Kong/ Australia.Lessor, J. (1976). Cultural differences in learning and thinking. In S. M. a. Associates (Ed.), Individuality in learning: Implications of cognitive styles and creativity for human development. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Lewin, K. (1951). Field Theory in Social Sciences. New York: Harper & Row.Lewis, A. (Ed.) (2008) WordWeb 5.52. Princeton University.Mainemelis, C., Boyatzis, R., & Kolb, D. (2002). Learning styles and adaptive flexibility: Testing experiential learning theory. Management Learning, 33(1), 5-33.Malfroy, J., & Daruwalla, P. (2000). Culture and communication in a postgraduate hospitality program. . Australian Journal of Hospitality Management, 7(1), 27-34.

Marton, F., Dall'alba, G., & Tse, L. K. (1996). Memorizing and understanding: The keys to the paradox? In D. A. Watkins & J. B. Biggs (Eds.), The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological and contextual influences (pp. 69-83). Hong Kong/Australia: Comparative Education Research Centre/Australian Council for Educational Research.McCarthy, B. (1990). Using the 4MAT System to bring learning to schools. Educational Leadership, 48(2), 31-37.Munro-Smith, N. (2003). A culturally aware course design. Paper presented at the Interact, integrate, impact: Proceedings of the 20th Annual conference of the Australian Society for Computer in learning in Tertiary Education. Murphy, D. (1987). Offshore education: a Hong Kong perspective. Australian Universities Review, 30(2), 43-44.Nguyen, P.-M. (2008). Culture and cooperation: Cooperative learning in Asian Confucian heritage cultures - The case of Viet Nam. IVLOS-series, Nguyen, P.-M., Terlouw, C., & Pilot, A. (2006). Culturally appropriate pedagogy: the case of group learning in a Confucian Heritage Culture context. Intercultural Education, 17(1), 1-19.Nicholson, J. D. (1991). The relationships between cultural values, work beleifs and attitudes toward socioeconomic issues: a cross-cultural study. UMI.On, L. W. (1996). The cultural context for Chinese learners: conceptions of learning in the Confucian tradition. In D. A. Watkins & J. B. Biggs (Eds.), The Chinese Learner: Cultural, Psychological and Contextual Influences (pp. 25-41). Hong Kong/Melbourne: University of Hong Kong, Comparative Education Research Centre/Australian Council for Educational Research.

Piaget, J. (1978). The Development of Thought: Equilibration of Congnitive Structures: Blackwell.Plovnick, M. (1974). Individual learning styles and the process of career choice in medical students. M.I.T. Sloan School of Management.Pratt, D. D. (1991). Conceptions of self within China and the United States. International Journal of Intercultural Relations(15), 285-310.Pratt, D. D., Kelly, M., & Wong, W. S. S. (1999). Chinese conceptions of 'effective teaching' in Hong Kong: Towards culturally sensitive evaluation of teaching. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 18(4), 241-258.Reiff, J. (1992). Learning styles. Washington, DC: National Education Association.Reynolds, M. (1997). Learning styles: a critique. Management Learning, 28(2), 115-133.Riding, R., & Cheema, I. (1991). Cognitive styles - an overview and integration. Educational Psychology, 11, 193-216.Romero, J., Tepper, B., & Tertrault, L. (1992). Development and validation of new scales to measure Kolb's (1985) learning style dimensions. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 52, 171-180.Sadler-Smith, E. (2001). The relationship between learning style and cognitive style. Personality and Individual Differences, 30(609-616).Säljö, R. (1979). Learning in the learner's perspective I: Some common-sense conceptions: University of Goteborg.

Simon, L. (2000). Examination orientation and the opportunity structure in chinese education: Case studies of Kunming high schools. The Australian National University.Snow, C. (1963). The Two Cultures: On a Second Look. England: Cambridge University Press.Stabel, C. (1973). The impact of a conversational computer system on human problem solving behavior. Sloan School of Managment, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.Sternberg, R., & Grigorenko, E. (2001). A capsule history of theory and research on styles. In R. S. a. L.-F. Zhang (Ed.), Perspectives on thinking, learning and cognitive styles. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.Stewart, K., & Felicetti, L. (1992). Learning styles of marketing majors. Educational Research Quarterly, 15(2), 15-23.Strasmore, M. (1973). The strategic function re-evaluated from the organization development perspective. Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.Su, Z., & Su, J. (1994). Teaching and learning science in American and Chinese high schools: A comparative study. Comparative Education, 30(3), 255-270.Sugarman, L. (1985). Kolb's model of experiential learning: touchstone for trainers, students, counselors and clients. Journal of Counseling and Development(64), 264-268.Svinicki, M., & Dixon, N. (1987). The Kolb Model modified for classroom activities. College Teaching(35), 141-146.Thomas, E. (1997). Developing a culture-sensitive pedagogy: tackling a problem of melding 'global culture' within existing cultural context. International Journal of Educational Development, 17(1), 13-26.

Tikly, L. (2004). Education and the new imperialism. Comparative Education, 40(2), 173-198.Ting-Toomey, S. (1988). Intercultural conflict styles: A face-negotiation theory. In Y. Y. K. W. Gudykunst (Ed.), Theories of intercultural communication (pp. 213-235). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Ting-Toomey, S., & Kurogi, A. (1998). Facework competence in intercultural conflict: an updated face-negotiation theory. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 22(2), 187-225.Torrealba, D. (1972). Convergent and divergent learning styles. Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.Triandis, H. (1989). The self and social behaviour in differing cultural contexts. Psychological Review, 96, 506-520.Tsui, A. (1996). Reticence and anxiety in second language teaching. In K. B. D. Nunan (Ed.), Voices from the language classroom (pp. 145-167). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Veres, J. G., Sims, R. R., & Locklear, T. S. (1991). Improving the reliability of Kolb's revised learning style inventory. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 51, 143-150.Vermunt, J. (1998). The regulation of constructive learning processes. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 68, 149-171.Vermunt, J. (1998). The regulation of constructive learning processes. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 68, 149-171.Walker, A., & Dimmock, C. (2000). One size fits all? Teacher Appraisal in a Chinese Culture. Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education, 14(2), 155-178.

Wang, J., & Mao, S. (1996). Culture and the kindergarten curriculum in the People's Republic of China. Early Child Development and Care(123), 143-156.Watkins, D. A. (2000). Learning and teaching: A cross-cultural perspective School Leadership & Management, 20(2), 161-173.Watkins, D. A., & Biggs, J. B. (2001). The paradox of the Chinese learner and beyond. In D. A. W. J. B. Biggs (Ed.), Teaching the Chinese learner: Psychological and pedagogical perspectives. Hong Kong/ Melbourne: Comparative Education Research Centre/Australian Council for Educational Research.Weirstra, R., & DeJong, J. (2002). A scaling theoretical evaluation of Kolb's learning style inventory-2. Paper presented at the European learning styles information network, Ghent, Belgium: University of Ghent.Willcoxson, L., & Prosser, M. T. (1996). Kolb's Learning Style Inventory (1985): Review and further study of validity and reliability. . The British Journal of Educational Psychology(66), 247-257.Witkin, H. (1967). A cognitive style approach to cross-cultural research. International Journal of Psychology(2), 233-250.Witty, G., Power, S., & Halpin, D. (1998). Devolution and choice in education. Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research.Wong, K.-C. (2001). Culture and educational leadership. In K.-C. W. C. W. Evers (Ed.), Leadership for quality schooling: International perspectives. London and New York: RoutledgeFalmer.Xiao, Z., & Dyson, J. (1999). Chinese students' perceptions of good accounting teaching. Accounting Education: An International Journal, 8(4), 341-36.

Yamazaki, Y. (2005). Learning styles and typologies of cultural differences: A theoretical and empirical comparison. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29, 521-548.Yeung, I., & Tung, R. (1996). Achieving business success in Confucian societies: the importance of guanxi. Organisational Dynamics, Autumn, 54-65.Yuen, C.-C., & Lee, S. N. (1994). Applicability of the learning style inventory in an Asian context and its predictive value. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 54, 541.Zhou, N. (1988). Historical context of educational reforms in present-day China. Interchange, 19(3/4), 8-18.Zualkernan, I. A., Allert, J., & Qadah, G. Z. (2006). Learning styles of computer programming students: A Middle Eastern and American comparison. IEEE Transactions on Education, 49(4), 443-450.