Social Psychology Lecture 10 Review Semester 2, 2008 Lecturer: James Neill

Lecture 10

Review

Semester 2, 2008

Lecturer: James Neill

Lecture topics 01. Introduction 02. The Social Self 03. Social Thinking 04. Aggression 05. Prejudice 06. Relationships 07. Groups 08. Prosocial 09. Environmental 10. Review } What? } What can go wrong? } What can go right? } Where are we going?

01. Introduction

02. The Social Self

03. Social Thinking

04. Aggression

05. Prejudice

06. Relationships

07. Groups

08. Prosocial

09. Environmental

10. Review

} What?

} What can go wrong?

} What can go right?

} Where are we going?

01. Introduction

Human behaviour... in social context. What is social psychology?

Human behaviour...

in social context.

How the thoughts, feelings, and behaviours of individuals are influenced by the... actual, imagined, or implied presence of others (based on Allport, 1935) What is social psychology?

How the

thoughts, feelings, and behaviours

of individuals

are influenced by the...

actual, imagined, or implied

presence of others

(based on Allport, 1935)

Population bottleneck Why does social psychology matter?

Sociology vs. Social Psychology

Culture Info-based system of common ways of doing things and ideas shared via language Humans are social animals who need to manage tension between self-interest and collective interest. (Nature makes us selfish; Culture helps us to resist selfish impulses)

Info-based system of common ways of doing things and ideas shared via language

Humans are social animals who need to manage tension between self-interest and collective interest.

(Nature makes us selfish; Culture helps us to resist selfish impulses)

Culture Humans have evolved to participate in culture. Individuals generally need to work to gain social acceptance. Inner emotional and cognitive states help us to connect to others . People get most of what they need from other people.

Humans have evolved to participate in culture.

Individuals generally need to work to gain social acceptance.

Inner emotional and cognitive states help us to connect to others .

People get most of what they need from other people.

Social brain theory Larger brain is linked to complex social systems (Dunbar, 1993, 1996)

Larger brain is linked to complex social systems (Dunbar, 1993, 1996)

Social Relations

History Volkerpsychologie and Crowd Mind (mid-late 1800s) Social facilitation (Triplett, 1898) Attitudes (early 20 th C) Split from behaviourism and psychoanalysis. Gestalt theorists (1930s-50s) Post-WW2 studies e.g., Authoritarian personality (Allport), Obedience (Milgram), Roles (Zimbardo).

Volkerpsychologie and Crowd Mind (mid-late 1800s)

Social facilitation (Triplett, 1898)

Attitudes (early 20 th C)

Split from behaviourism and psychoanalysis.

Gestalt theorists (1930s-50s)

Post-WW2 studies e.g.,

Authoritarian personality (Allport), Obedience (Milgram), Roles (Zimbardo).

History Attribution theory, cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1960s) European developments e.g., Tajfel (social identity theory) Moscovici (minority influence) Crisis (Late 1960s - early 1970s) Rise of social cognitive perspectives (1970s to now) Alternatives e.g., social constructionism

Attribution theory, cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1960s)

European developments e.g.,

Tajfel (social identity theory)

Moscovici (minority influence)

Crisis (Late 1960s - early 1970s)

Rise of social cognitive perspectives (1970s to now)

Alternatives

e.g., social constructionism

02. Social Self

Domains / Units of Analysis

Note: Fuzzy boundaries Self Groups Culture Environ-ment

What is the “self”? “ The self is an important tool with which the human organism makes its way through human society and thereby manages to satisfy its needs.”

“ The self is an important tool with which the human organism makes its way through human society and thereby manages to satisfy its needs.”

What is the “self”? The psychological self includes: Attitudes Cognitions Emotions Group Memberships (Social Identity) Ideal / Imagined Selves Memories Possessions Self-Beliefs, Self-Concepts, Self-Images Social Roles

The psychological self includes:

Attitudes

Cognitions

Emotions

Group Memberships (Social Identity)

Ideal / Imagined Selves

Memories

Possessions

Self-Beliefs, Self-Concepts, Self-Images

Social Roles

What is the self? Self-knowledge Self-concept – info about self Interpersonal self Public self Agent self Decision-making, active responding

Self-knowledge

Self-concept – info about self

Interpersonal self

Public self

Agent self

Decision-making, active responding

What is the “social self”? Humans are gregarious, group-based creatures. A significant portion of our ‘self’ and its ‘behaviour’ is socially directed and influenced.

Humans are gregarious, group-based creatures.

A significant portion of our ‘self’ and its ‘behaviour’ is socially directed and influenced.

Purpose of the social self Gain social acceptance Play social roles

Gain social acceptance

Play social roles

Self-constructs Self-Esteem Self-Concept Self-Efficacy Self-Congruence illustrate how social psychologists study people’s selves, in cognitive, affective, and behavioural terms.

Social Self Evolutionary & adaptational functions Self-complexity Social comparison Social feedback Strategic self-presentation Self-monitoring Self-regulation

Evolutionary & adaptational functions

Self-complexity

Social comparison

Social feedback

Strategic self-presentation

Self-monitoring

Self-regulation

03. Social Thinking

Social thinking Social psychology was initially influenced by behaviourism . (1930’s-1950’s) By the 1970’s, cognitive psychology lead to greater investigation of social thinking and feeling .

Social psychology was initially influenced by behaviourism . (1930’s-1950’s)

By the 1970’s, cognitive psychology lead to greater investigation of social thinking and feeling .

Overview Social thinking Attribution theory Cognitive dissonance Self-regulation Social comparison Attitudes Influence & persuasion

Social thinking

Attribution theory

Cognitive dissonance

Self-regulation

Social comparison

Attitudes

Influence & persuasion

Social perception Refers to how people: form impressions of, & make inferences about other people.

Refers to how people:

form impressions of, &

make inferences about

other people.

Cognitive miser “ There is ample evidence that when people’s capacity for thinking is already preoccupied, they take even more shortcuts to reduce further need for thought” Bushman & Baumeister, 2008, p. 148) – Brief Version

“ There is ample evidence that when people’s capacity for thinking is already preoccupied, they take even more shortcuts to reduce further need for thought”

Bushman & Baumeister, 2008, p. 148) – Brief Version

Knowledge structures “ Automatic thinking requires little effort because it relies on knowledge structures”, e.g., Schemas Scripts Stereotypes

“ Automatic thinking requires little effort because it relies on knowledge structures”, e.g.,

Schemas

Scripts

Stereotypes

Framing Context influences interpretation. Changing the frame can change and even reverse interpretation.

Context influences interpretation.

Changing the frame can change and even reverse interpretation.

Attribution Theory “… deals with how the social perceiver uses information to arrive at causal explanations for events”

“… deals with how the social perceiver uses information to arrive at causal explanations for events”

Fundamental Attribution Error Tendency to attribute others’ behaviour to enduring dispositions because: Underestimation of the influence of situational factors. Overestimation of the influence of dispositional factors. Extent of the FAE varies by culture.

Tendency to attribute others’ behaviour to enduring dispositions because:

Underestimation of the influence of situational factors.

Overestimation of the influence of dispositional factors.

Extent of the FAE varies by culture.

Actor/Observer Bias “ there is a pervasive tendency for actors to attribute their actions to situational requirements, whereas observers tend to attribute the same actions to stable personal dispositions”

“ there is a pervasive tendency for actors to attribute their actions to situational requirements, whereas observers tend to attribute the same actions to stable personal dispositions”

Self-serving bias Taking credit for success = Self-enhancing bias Denying responsibility for failure = Self-protecting bias

Taking credit for success = Self-enhancing bias

Denying responsibility for failure = Self-protecting bias

Ultimate Attribution Error FAE applied to in- and out- groups, i.e., Bias towards internal attributions for in-group success and external attributions for in-group failures Opposite for out-groups

FAE applied to in- and out- groups, i.e., Bias towards

internal attributions for in-group success and external attributions for in-group failures

Opposite for out-groups

Why Have Attitudes? Help deal with complex world Initial evaluations are immediate and unconscious - helpful in making choices Implicit attitude : Automatic evaluative response Explicit attitude : Conscious evaluative response

Help deal with complex world

Initial evaluations are immediate and unconscious - helpful in making choices

Implicit attitude : Automatic evaluative response

Explicit attitude : Conscious evaluative response

Mere-exposure effect Tendency for people to come to like things simply because they see or encounter them repeatedly Exception - If you dislike something initially, repeated exposure will not change that attitude Attitudes are further influenced by classical and operant conditioning, social learning, and attitudinal polarisation

Tendency for people to come to like things simply because they see or encounter them repeatedly

Exception - If you dislike something initially, repeated exposure will not change that attitude

Attitudes are further influenced by classical and operant conditioning, social learning, and attitudinal polarisation

Cognitive Dissonance Unpleasant state when attitude and behaviour are inconsistent  people desire consistency i.e., try to bring their attitude into line with their actions (or their actions into line with their attitudes) There is an even stronger desire to be viewed as consistent by others

Unpleasant state when attitude and behaviour are inconsistent

 people desire consistency i.e., try to bring their attitude into line with their actions (or their actions into line with their attitudes)

There is an even stronger desire to be viewed as consistent by others

Attitudes & Behaviour Predictions of behaviour based on attitudes is best when Attitudes are specific Behaviours are aggregated Attitudes are conscious and come to mind easil y

Predictions of behaviour based on attitudes is best when

Attitudes are specific

Behaviours are aggregated

Attitudes are conscious and come to mind easil y

Social Influence Normative vs. informational influence Influence/persuastion techniques Minority influence Resisting persuasion

Normative vs. informational influence

Influence/persuastion techniques

Minority influence

Resisting persuasion

04. Prejudice

Prejudice Categorisation Natural human tendency to group objects Social categorisation Sorting people into groups on common characteristics

Categorisation

Natural human tendency to group objects

Social categorisation

Sorting people into groups on common characteristics

Why Prejudice Exists Tendency to hold stereotypes and prejudices may be innate Content of stereotypes is learned though socialisation People have to work to override stereotyes and prejudice Extra effort leaves people less able to self regulate

Tendency to hold stereotypes and prejudices may be innate

Content of stereotypes is learned though socialisation

People have to work to override stereotyes and prejudice

Extra effort leaves people less able to self regulate

Why Prejudice Exists Minimal group effect Ingroup favouritism Rationalisation for oppression Self-esteem (through social comparison)

Minimal group effect

Ingroup favouritism

Rationalisation for oppression

Self-esteem (through social comparison)

Accuracy of Stereotypes Many stereotypes may be based on genuine difference, but then become overgeneralised Heuristics may be fairly accurate, but stereotypes become exaggerated with little factual basis Used to boost self-esteem, oppression, or rationalise status quo

Many stereotypes may be based on genuine difference, but then become overgeneralised

Heuristics may be fairly accurate, but stereotypes become exaggerated with little factual basis

Used to boost self-esteem, oppression, or rationalise status quo

Overcoming Stereotypes, Reducing Prejudices Conscious override Increase available information Positive, equal contact Superordinate goals

Conscious override

Increase available information

Positive, equal contact

Superordinate goals

05. Aggression

Aggression “ The intentional infliction of some form of harm on others” (Baron & Byrne, 2000) Expression of aggression is culturally influenced. (Culture offers nonviolent ways of resolving conflicts and problems)

“ The intentional infliction of some form of harm on others”

(Baron & Byrne, 2000)

Expression of aggression is culturally influenced.

(Culture offers nonviolent ways of resolving conflicts and problems)

Types of aggression Hostile Instrumental Passive Active

Hostile

Instrumental

Passive

Active

Theories & Factors of Aggression Inner causes e.g., excitation-transfer, cognitive theories, testosterone Interpersonal causes e.g., social-learning theory External / situational causes e.g., frustration-aggression, relative deprivation, crowd behaviour, intergroup conflict

Inner causes e.g., excitation-transfer, cognitive theories, testosterone

Interpersonal causes e.g., social-learning theory

External / situational causes e.g., frustration-aggression, relative deprivation, crowd behaviour, intergroup conflict

06. Relationships

Relationships Overview Affiliation (the need to belong) Attraction Rejection / exclusion Types Maintaining & ending Sexuality Jealousy

Affiliation (the need to belong)

Attraction

Rejection / exclusion

Types

Maintaining & ending

Sexuality

Jealousy

The Need to Belong (Affiliation) Intrinsic need for affiliation Harlow’s experiments Affiliation & stress/health (not belonging is bad for you)

Intrinsic need for affiliation

Harlow’s experiments

Affiliation & stress/health (not belonging is bad for you)

Attraction Ingratiation Social rewards Reciprocity Playing hard to get Self-monitoring Similarity Propinquity Matching hypothesis Beauty Evolutionary perspectives

Ingratiation

Social rewards

Reciprocity

Playing hard to get

Self-monitoring

Similarity

Propinquity

Matching hypothesis

Beauty

Evolutionary perspectives

Love Types of love Passionate vs companionate Sternberg’s triangle of love Passion, Intimacy, Commitment Types of relationships exchange vs. communal attachment styles Schacter’s 2-factor theory (Arousal-Cognition) Hatfield & Walster's 3-factor theory (Culture-Arousal-Cognition)

Types of love

Passionate vs companionate

Sternberg’s triangle of love Passion, Intimacy, Commitment

Types of relationships

exchange vs. communal

attachment styles

Schacter’s 2-factor theory (Arousal-Cognition)

Hatfield & Walster's 3-factor theory (Culture-Arousal-Cognition)

Ending relationships Levinger’s 4 factors (new life, alternative partners, expectation of failure, lack of comittment) Rusult & Zembrodt – 4 stages to failing relationship (loyalty, neglect, voice behaviour, exit behaviour) Duck’s relationship dissolution (intrapsychic, dyadic, social, grave-dressing)

Levinger’s 4 factors (new life, alternative partners, expectation of failure, lack of comittment)

Rusult & Zembrodt – 4 stages to failing relationship (loyalty, neglect, voice behaviour, exit behaviour)

Duck’s relationship dissolution (intrapsychic, dyadic, social, grave-dressing)

07. Groups & Leadership

Groups Overview What is a group? Social facilitation Social loafing Effects of groups on individuals Intergroup conflict Co-operation between groups

What is a group?

Social facilitation

Social loafing

Effects of groups on individuals

Intergroup conflict

Co-operation between groups

Leadership Overview Leader? Follower? Power? Leadership theories Genetic Great man theory Trait theory Situational theory – Leadership styles Task- vs. people-oriented Transformational theory Alternatives to leadership Bad bosses

Leader? Follower? Power?

Leadership theories

Genetic

Great man theory

Trait theory

Situational theory – Leadership styles

Task- vs. people-oriented

Transformational theory

Alternatives to leadership

Bad bosses

08. Prosocial Behaviour

Pro-social Behaviour Overview Pro-social / anti-social behaviour Altruism Cooperation - Dilemmas Forgiveness Who helps? When? Why? Bystander help Impact of receiving help Increasing helping

Pro-social / anti-social behaviour

Altruism

Cooperation - Dilemmas

Forgiveness

Who helps? When? Why?

Bystander help

Impact of receiving help

Increasing helping

Pro-social Behaviour Theories Genetic/evolutionary e.g., survival, social exchange, egoism Social norms e.g., altruism, principalism, collectivism Learning theory e.g., social exchange, social learning

Genetic/evolutionary e.g., survival, social exchange, egoism

Social norms e.g., altruism, principalism, collectivism

Learning theory e.g., social exchange, social learning

Bystander intervention Cognitive Model - 5 steps (Latane & Darley) Bystander-Calculus Model - 3 stages (Pilliavin et al.) - weigh up costs of helping & not helping Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis (Batson)

Cognitive Model - 5 steps (Latane & Darley)

Bystander-Calculus Model - 3 stages (Pilliavin et al.) - weigh up costs of helping & not helping

Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis (Batson)

Personal determinants of helping Personality Competence Gender Attributions Personal norms Mood

Personality

Competence

Gender

Attributions

Personal norms

Mood

Interpersonal determinants of helping Attractiveness Similarity Closeness Deservingness Gender

Attractiveness

Similarity

Closeness

Deservingness

Gender

09. Environmental Psychology

Environmental Psychology What is it? Negative environmental influences Environmental design Natural environment Evolutionary psychology Biophilia Changing environmental attitudes and behaviour

What is it?

Negative environmental influences

Environmental design

Natural environment

Evolutionary psychology

Biophilia

Changing environmental attitudes and behaviour

Conclusion

Final thoughts What have we explored and learnt? Is it worth knowing? How have we been limited by theory and method? How worthwhile has it been? Feedback

What have we explored and learnt?

Is it worth knowing?

How have we been limited by theory and method?

How worthwhile has it been? Feedback