Psychology 102: Cognitive processes Dr James Neill Centre for Applied Psychology University of Canberra 2009

Reading Gerrig et al. (Chapter 8): Cognitive processes

The Brain: 1.5 kg of wet tissue

Cognitive Scenarios: A mysterious note At midnight, there's a knock on your door. When you answer, there is no one there, but you see an envelope on the floor. Inside the envelope is a handwritten message: “The cat is on the mat.” What do you make of this? Gerrig et al. (2008), p. 248

Cognitive Scenarios: Attention, Problem Solving, Memory... Kris is sitting at a desk reading some interesting papers to help with an assignment. Without removing her eyes from the paper she is reading, she reaches for a bag of sweets, unties a wrapper and pops a sweet into her mouth. Suddenly she stops and wonders: “What is happening here?” Gerrig et al. (2008), p. 248

Studying cognition Language use Concepts & their organisation Problem solving & reasoning Overview

Studying cognition

Language use

Concepts & their organisation

Problem solving & reasoning

Studying cognition Cognitive science Cognitive psychology Cognition Processes of attention

Cognitive science

Cognitive psychology

Cognition

Processes of attention

Framing decisions Consequences of decision making Decision aversion Decision making

Framing decisions

Consequences of decision making

Decision aversion

Cognitive Science

Cognitive Psychology

Processes of knowing Attending, Remembering Reasoning Content of the processes e.g., Concepts Memories Cognition

Processes of knowing

Attending,

Remembering

Reasoning

Content of the processes e.g.,

Concepts

Memories

Thinking Knowing Remembering Communicating Cognition

Thinking

Knowing

Remembering

Communicating

Discovering the process of mind F.C. Donders: Reaction time The amount of time it takes experimental participants to perform particular tasks Studying cognition

Discovering the process of mind

F.C. Donders: Reaction time

The amount of time it takes experimental participants to perform particular tasks

Serial processes Carried out in order, one after the other Parallel processes Carried out simultaneously Mental processes & resources

Serial processes

Carried out in order, one after the other

Parallel processes

Carried out simultaneously

Attentional processes Distribute the limited processing resources over different tasks Controlled processes Require attention Automatic processes Do not require attention Mental processes & resources

Attentional processes

Distribute the limited processing resources over different tasks

Controlled processes

Require attention

Automatic processes

Do not require attention

Language use Language production Audience design Speech execution & errors Language understanding Language & evolution Linguistic relativity Visual representations

Language production

Audience design

Speech execution & errors

Language understanding

Language & evolution

Linguistic relativity

Visual representations

What people say, sign, and write and the processes they go through to produce the message Speakers versus listeners Language production

Speakers versus listeners

Shaping a message depending on the audience H. Paul Grice Cooperative principle Speakers should produce utterances appropriate to the setting and meaning of the ongoing conversation Audience design

H. Paul Grice

Cooperative principle

Speakers should produce utterances appropriate to the setting and meaning of the ongoing conversation

Herbert Clark Common Ground Community membership Linguistic co presence Physical co presence Audience design

Herbert Clark

Common Ground

Community membership

Linguistic co presence

Physical co presence

Spoonerism “You have tasted the whole worm!” “Tips of the slung” Processes Representations Speech execution & speech errors

Spoonerism

“You have tasted the whole worm!”

“Tips of the slung”

Processes

Representations

Resolving ambiguity Lexical ambiguity Structural ambiguity Products of understanding Representations Propositions Language understanding

Resolving ambiguity

Lexical ambiguity

Structural ambiguity

Products of understanding

Representations

Propositions

Fully human speech anatomy first appears in the fossil record ~50,000 years ago. Language & evolution May have evolved with walking, running, tool making, & complex group organisation.

Fully human speech anatomy first appears in the fossil record ~50,000 years ago.

May have evolved with walking, running, tool making, & complex group organisation.

Language structure Washoe & ASL Sue Savage-Rumbaugh Bonobos Audience design Dorothy Cheny & Robert Seyfarth Veret monkeys Cross-species comparisons Language structure Washoe & ASL Sue Savage-Rumbaugh Bonobos Audience design Dorothy Cheny & Robert Seyfarth Veret monkeys Language structure Washoe & ASL Sue Savage-Rumbaugh Bonobos Audience design Dorothy Cheny & Robert Seyfarth Veret monkeys

Language structure

Washoe & ASL

Sue Savage-Rumbaugh

Bonobos

Audience design

Dorothy Cheny & Robert Seyfarth

Veret monkeys

Language structure

Washoe & ASL

Sue Savage-Rumbaugh

Bonobos

Audience design

Dorothy Cheny & Robert Seyfarth

Veret monkeys

Language structure

Washoe & ASL

Sue Savage-Rumbaugh

Bonobos

Audience design

Dorothy Cheny & Robert Seyfarth

Veret monkeys

Language development Babbling stage : 4 months, sounds like “ah-goo” One-word stage : ~1 year old. Telegraphic speech : Before 2nd birthday, “want juice” Complete sentences : 2+ years

Babbling stage : 4 months, sounds like “ah-goo”

One-word stage : ~1 year old.

Telegraphic speech : Before 2nd birthday, “want juice”

Complete sentences : 2+ years

Language development We learn language before learning numbers Between 1 and 18, we learn on ~10 words/day or 3,500 per year. Vocab of ~60,000 by end of high school Time Life Pictures/ Getty Images

We learn language before learning numbers

Between 1 and 18, we learn on ~10 words/day or 3,500 per year.

Vocab of ~60,000 by end of high school

Language development Operant Learning (Skinner) - language development can be explained on the basis of learning principles such as association, imitation, and reinforcement. Inborn Universal Grammar (Chomsky) - the rate of language acquisition is so fast that it cannot be explained through learning principles, so most of it is inborn.

Operant Learning (Skinner) - language development can be explained on the basis of learning principles such as association, imitation, and reinforcement.

Inborn Universal Grammar (Chomsky) - the rate of language acquisition is so fast that it cannot be explained through learning principles, so most of it is inborn.

Phonemes The smallest, distinctive sound unit bat, has three phonemes b · a · t chat, has three phonemes ch · a · t

The smallest, distinctive sound unit

bat, has three phonemes b · a · t

chat, has three phonemes ch · a · t

Morpheme Smallest unit of language that conveys meaning Bat Pre Un Undesirables – 4 morphemes Un-desir-able-s

Bat

Pre

Un

Undesirables – 4 morphemes

Un-desir-able-s

Grammar - the rules Semantics – how we get meaning from the sentence, e.g., add “ed” and it happened in the past Syntax – rules for making a grammatically correct sentence http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mr._Ed

Semantics – how we get meaning from the sentence, e.g.,

add “ed” and it happened in the past

Syntax – rules for making a grammatically correct sentence

Semantics & syntax They are hunting dogs. They are hunting dogs. They are hunting dogs .

They are hunting dogs.

They are hunting dogs.

They are hunting dogs .

What are the relations between language, thought, and culture? Linguistic relativity proposes that the structure of language has an impact on the way in which an individual and culture perceives, thinks, and acts in the world e.g., temporality (past, present, future), gender, taxonomies; i.e., language precedes and shapes thought Linguistic relativity (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis)

What are the relations between language, thought, and culture?

Linguistic relativity proposes that the structure of language has an impact on the way in which an individual and culture perceives, thinks, and acts in the world e.g., temporality (past, present, future), gender, taxonomies; i.e., language precedes and shapes thought

Visual representations Perception Imagery Frontal cortex Temporal cortex Parietal Cortex Occipital cortex Perception-Imagery

Spatial Mental Model Combining verbal & visual representations

5 minute break – have a stretch

Concepts & their organisation Concepts Categories & hierarchies Prototypes Category boundary members

Concepts

Categories & hierarchies

Prototypes

Category boundary members

Concepts Group similar “things” together in our mind Concept of “chair”:

Group similar “things” together in our mind

Concept of “chair”:

Concept categories are hierarchically organised Hierarchies help to organise items in categories Animals Domesticated Wild Dogs Cats Mixed breed Pure breed Heeler x Husky “ mad dog Holly”

Hierarchies help to organise items in categories

Prototypes Mental image or best example of a category Closer something is to the prototype of a category, the easier it is to recognise as being in the category

Mental image or best example of a category

Closer something is to the prototype of a category, the easier it is to recognise as being in the category

Prototypes When an item is placed in a category, our memory of it later shifts towards the category prototype! Categories can have blurry boundaries

When an item is placed in a category, our memory of it later shifts towards the category prototype!

Categories can have blurry boundaries

Category boundary members Give your neighbour the name of an object that you think is very unrepresentative of its category. Can your neighbour guess the category you are thinking of?

Give your neighbour the name of an object that you think is very unrepresentative of its category.

Can your neighbour guess the category you are thinking of?

Problem solving & reasoning Problem solving methods Obstacles to problem solving Reasoning Deductive Inductive Judging and deciding

Problem solving methods

Obstacles to problem solving

Reasoning

Deductive

Inductive

Judging and deciding

Thinking that is directed toward solving specific problems Moves from initial state to a goal Problem solving

Thinking that is directed toward solving specific problems

Moves from initial state to a goal

Problem solving

Problem space Initial state Goal state Set of operations Well-defined problem Ill-defined problem Problem solving

Problem space

Initial state

Goal state

Set of operations

Well-defined problem

Ill-defined problem

Problem solving: Trial & error Just keep going until you get it right! Can be inefficient – and no guarantee it will work, but some element of trial and error persistence is often key to solving problems.

Just keep going until you get it right!

Can be inefficient – and no guarantee it will work, but some element of trial and error persistence is often key to solving problems.

Problem solving: Algorithms Step-by-step procedures that always provides the right answer Follow a series of pre-defined steps guaranteed to work

Step-by-step procedures that always provides the right answer

Follow a series of pre-defined steps guaranteed to work

Problem solving: Heuristics Cognitive strategies / Mental shortcuts (“rules of thumb”) Shortcuts to solving complex inferential tasks May or may not provide the right solution

Cognitive strategies / Mental shortcuts (“rules of thumb”)

Shortcuts to solving complex inferential tasks

May or may not provide the right solution

Availability heuristic : Judgment based on information readily available in memory Representative heuristic : Assigns an object to a category on the basis of a few characteristics Anchoring heuristic : Insufficient adjustment up or down from an original starting value when judging the probable value of an outcome Problem solving: Heuristics

Availability heuristic : Judgment based on information readily available in memory

Representative heuristic : Assigns an object to a category on the basis of a few characteristics

Anchoring heuristic : Insufficient adjustment up or down from an original starting value when judging the probable value of an outcome

Problem solving: Insight Insight – a flash of inspiration!

Insight – a flash of inspiration!

Problem solving Think-aloud protocols Verbalising ongoing thoughts while working on a task Functional fixedness The inability to perceive a new use for an object previously associated with some other purpose

Think-aloud protocols

Verbalising ongoing thoughts while working on a task

Functional fixedness

The inability to perceive a new use for an object previously associated with some other purpose

Obstacles to problem solving Confirmation bias – eagerness to search for ideas that confirm what we think Fixation – inability to see a problem from a different perspective

Confirmation bias – eagerness to search for ideas that confirm what we think

Fixation – inability to see a problem from a different perspective

Obstacles to problem solving Functional fixedness – think only of what an item is usually used for Mental set – use the mindset that has worked before

Functional fixedness – think only of what an item is usually used for

Mental set – use the mindset that has worked before

Reasoning Process of thinking in which conclusions are drawn from a set of facts Directed toward a given goal

Process of thinking in which conclusions are drawn from a set of facts

Directed toward a given goal

Deductive reasoning Drawing conclusions by logically following two or more statements 1. All men are mortal 2. Socrates is a man 3. (Therefore,) Socrates is mortal

Drawing conclusions by logically following two or more statements

Belief bias Prior knowledge, attitudes, or values distort (pre-existing beliefs) can distort logical reasoning and lead to invalid conclusions

Prior knowledge, attitudes, or values distort (pre-existing beliefs) can distort logical reasoning and lead to invalid conclusions

Belief bias: Examples Students like to drink Lecturers are not students Lecturers do not like to drink Lecturers like to study Students are not lecturers Students do not like to study

Students like to drink

Lecturers are not students

Lecturers do not like to drink

Lecturers like to study

Students are not lecturers

Students do not like to study

Goes beyond the confines of current evidence; makes conclusions about the unknown based on probability estimates derived from available evidence and past experience. e.g., All parties I ever been to are boring, therefore Jim's upcoming party will be boring too. Inductive reasoning

Goes beyond the confines of current evidence; makes conclusions about the unknown based on probability estimates derived from available evidence and past experience.

e.g., All parties I ever been to are boring, therefore Jim's upcoming party will be boring too.

We make numerous judgments and decisions based on our intuition, seldom using systematic thinking. Judgment : Forming opinions, reaching conclusions, and making critical evaluations Decision making : Choosing between alternatives Judging & deciding

We make numerous judgments and decisions based on our intuition, seldom using systematic thinking.

Judgment : Forming opinions, reaching conclusions, and making critical evaluations

Decision making : Choosing between alternatives

Judging & deciding: Heuristics Representative heuristic – judge the likelihood of something in terms of how well it matches our prototype Availability heuristic – we base our judgements on how available the information is to us mentally.

Representative heuristic – judge the likelihood of something in terms of how well it matches our prototype

Availability heuristic – we base our judgements on how available the information is to us mentally.

Overconfidence Tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements e.g., on the stock market, both the seller and the buyer may be confident about their decisions on a stock.

Tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements

e.g., on the stock market, both the seller and the buyer may be confident about their decisions on a stock.

Exaggerated fear Opposite of overconfidence: exaggerated fear about what might happen The 9/11 attacks saw a decline in air travel due to fear AP/ Wide World Photos

Opposite of overconfidence: exaggerated fear about what might happen

The 9/11 attacks saw a decline in air travel due to fear

Framing decisions How information is presented affects decisions and judgements, e.g., Which is most fear-inducing? A disease will kill 1 person per million. The fatality risk is .000001% What's a better way to market beef? 25% fat 75% lean

Which is most fear-inducing?

A disease will kill 1 person per million.

The fatality risk is .000001%

What's a better way to market beef?

25% fat

75% lean

Belief perseverance Clinging to initial conceptions after the information on which they were based has been discredited. If you see that a country is hostile, you are likely to interpret their ambiguous actions as a sign of hostility (Jervis, 1985).

Clinging to initial conceptions after the information on which they were based has been discredited.

If you see that a country is hostile, you are likely to interpret their ambiguous actions as a sign of hostility (Jervis, 1985).

Review questions

What is cognition? The process and content of “knowing”, including thinking, remembering, and communicating.

How do we mentally organise information? We mentally organise information using concepts which are stored in hierarchically organised categories.

We mentally organise information using concepts which are stored in hierarchically organised categories.

What are the components of language? Language is made up of phonemes, morphemes, syntax and semantics

Language is made up of phonemes, morphemes, syntax and semantics

What are 4 techniques we use for problem solving? We use trial-and-error, algorithms, heuristics and insight to solve problems

We use trial-and-error, algorithms, heuristics and insight to solve problems

What are the obstacles to problem solving? Our problem solving is impaired by the confirmation bias, fixation, functional fixedness, and mental set.

Our problem solving is impaired by the confirmation bias, fixation, functional fixedness, and mental set.

What errors do we make in judgment and decision making due to cognitive bias? Our judgment and decision making is affected by heuristics, overconfidence, exaggerated fear, and belief perseverance.

Our judgment and decision making is affected by heuristics, overconfidence, exaggerated fear, and belief perseverance.

Next week Lecture – No lecture Tutorials – No tutorials Essay – Time to get going!

Lecture – No lecture

Tutorials – No tutorials

Essay – Time to get going!

Gerrig, R. J., Zimbardo, P. G., Campbell, A. J., Cumming, S. R., & Wilkes, F. J. (2008). Psychology and life (Australian edition). Sydney: Pearson Education Australia. Jervis, R. (1985, April 2). Quoted in D. Goleman, Political forces come under new scrutiny of psychology. The New York Times , pp. C1, C4. (p. 396) Lieberman, P. (2007). The evolution of human speech: Its anatomical and neural bases. Current Anthropology , 48 (1), 39-66. References

Gerrig, R. J., Zimbardo, P. G., Campbell, A. J., Cumming, S. R., & Wilkes, F. J. (2008). Psychology and life (Australian edition). Sydney: Pearson Education Australia.

Jervis, R. (1985, April 2). Quoted in D. Goleman, Political forces come under new scrutiny of psychology. The New York Times , pp. C1, C4. (p. 396)

Lieberman, P. (2007). The evolution of human speech: Its anatomical and neural bases. Current Anthropology , 48 (1), 39-66.