Social Psychology Lecture 2, Week 2 The Social Self Semester 2, 2008 Lecturer: James Neill

Lecture 2, Week 2

The Social Self

Semester 2, 2008

Lecturer: James Neill

Overview What is the “self”? What is the “social self”? Self-constructs Evolutionary functions Adaptational functions Self-complexity Social comparison Social feedback Strategic self-presentation Self-monitoring Self-regulation

What is the “self”?

What is the “social self”?

Self-constructs

Evolutionary functions

Adaptational functions

Self-complexity

Social comparison

Social feedback

Strategic self-presentation

Self-monitoring

Self-regulation

What is the self?

What is “self”? Describe yourself e.g., “ I am…” statements What do I promote? What do I defend? Usually includes social roles e.g., Gender, ethnicity Social identity Group memberships

Describe yourself e.g.,

“ I am…” statements

What do I promote?

What do I defend?

Usually includes social roles e.g.,

Gender, ethnicity

Social identity

Group memberships

Note: Fuzzy boundaries Self Groups Culture Environ-ment

What is the “self”? Many, varied theories about the purpose and function of the ‘self’ – e.g., in arts, philosophy, science, culture, religion, and through history.

Many, varied theories about the purpose and function of the ‘self’ –

e.g., in arts, philosophy, science, culture, religion, and through history.

What is the “self”? Psychologically... collection of cognitively-held beliefs that a person possesses about themselves.

Psychologically...

collection of cognitively-held beliefs that a person possesses about themselves.

What is the “self”? However… “ Self” seems to extend beyond the physical self (body), to include psychologically meaningful personal possessions and personal space.

However…

“ Self” seems to extend beyond the physical self (body), to include psychologically meaningful personal possessions and personal space.

What kinds of impressions are these people trying to make, using their clothing?

What is the “self”? “ The self is an important tool with which the human organism makes its way through human society and thereby manages to satisfy its needs.”

“ The self is an important tool with which the human organism makes its way through human society and thereby manages to satisfy its needs.”

What is the “self”? Traditionally, “self” was seen as representing stable, genetically determined “character” – or later, “personality”.

Traditionally, “self” was seen as representing stable, genetically determined “character” – or later, “personality”.

What is the “self”? More recently, “self” was understood to evolve during a lifetime, i.e. Partly stable, partly changing.

More recently, “self” was understood to evolve during a lifetime,

i.e.

Partly stable, partly changing.

What is the “self”? Most recently, “self” has been further complexified and increasingly seen as: Dynamic & changeable Multiple / Plural Hierarchical Situationally & cognitively influenced Culturally constructed

Most recently, “self” has been further complexified and increasingly seen as:

Dynamic & changeable

Multiple / Plural

Hierarchical

Situationally & cognitively influenced

Culturally constructed

What is the “self”? The psychological self includes: Attitudes Cognitions Emotions Group Memberships (Social Identity) Ideal / Imagined Selves Memories Possessions Self-Beliefs Self-Concepts Self-Images Social Roles

The psychological self includes:

Attitudes

Cognitions

Emotions

Group Memberships (Social Identity)

Ideal / Imagined Selves

Memories

Possessions

Self-Beliefs

Self-Concepts

Self-Images

Social Roles

What is the “self”? To determine “What is self”, use diagnostic clues: Who am I? What are you prepared to defend?

To determine “What is self”, use diagnostic clues:

Who am I?

What are you prepared to defend?

Fluctuating Image(s) of Self Phenomenal self (Working self-concept) Unusual aspects about you become prominent Being lone member of some category Heightens self-awareness Can impair performance

Phenomenal self (Working self-concept)

Unusual aspects about you become prominent

Being lone member of some category

Heightens self-awareness

Can impair performance

Which ones are most aware of their own race?

What is the “social self”? Humans are gregarious, group-based creatures. A significant portion of our ‘self’ and its ‘behaviour’ is socially directed and influenced.

Humans are gregarious, group-based creatures.

A significant portion of our ‘self’ and its ‘behaviour’ is socially directed and influenced.

What is the “social self”? Some argue that ‘self’ is entirely a function of the environment. e.g., “Self” as a construct of post-industrial, capitalist society and political systems which promote self-identity and choice-making, and then markets to the “self”.

Some argue that ‘self’ is entirely a function of the environment. e.g., “Self” as a construct of post-industrial, capitalist society and political systems which promote self-identity and choice-making, and then markets to the “self”.

What is the “social self”? Interpersonal self or s ocial self part of self that engages face-to-face, in relation with others. Social roles -> Social identity or Societal self can include ethnicity, gender, age, place of residence or any other social categorization that helps characterize a person’s identity.

Interpersonal self or s ocial self part of self that engages face-to-face, in relation with others.

Social roles -> Social identity or Societal self can include ethnicity, gender, age, place of residence or any other social categorization that helps characterize a person’s identity.

Purpose of the self Gain social acceptance Play social roles Society creates and defines roles Individual seeks and adopts them

Gain social acceptance

Play social roles

Society creates and defines roles

Individual seeks and adopts them

Self-Constructs (Operationalization) Self-Esteem Self-Concept Self-Efficacy Self-Congruence illustrate how social psychologists study people’s selves, in cognitive, affective, and behavioral terms.

Self-esteem Global feelings of self-worth Value placed in & degree of liking of self. Often based on and closely related to social comparisons. (e.g., too thin, too fat) People are motivated to see their self as worthy/worthwhile (Fiske, 2004).

Global feelings of self-worth

Value placed in & degree of liking of self.

Often based on and closely related to social comparisons. (e.g., too thin, too fat)

People are motivated to see their self as worthy/worthwhile (Fiske, 2004).

Self-esteem High Self-Esteem Positive views Low Self-Esteem Absence of strong positive views

High Self-Esteem

Positive views

Low Self-Esteem

Absence of strong positive views

Self-esteem Healthy to have a slightly inflated sense of self value (Taylor). Self-esteem serves as a sociometer for one’s standing in a group (Fiske, 2004). Self-esteem has been overemphasized in Western society, to the detriment of actual skill (Baumeister)

Healthy to have a slightly inflated sense of self value (Taylor).

Self-esteem serves as a sociometer for one’s standing in a group (Fiske, 2004).

Self-esteem has been overemphasized in Western society, to the detriment of actual skill (Baumeister)

Basking and blasting Group membership may enhance positive feelings about self (Cialdini et.al, 1976) Basking - Linking oneself to winners Blasting - Criticizing a rival group People show a stronger tendency to blast (negative) than bask (positive)

Group membership may enhance positive feelings about self (Cialdini et.al, 1976)

Basking - Linking oneself to winners

Blasting - Criticizing a rival group

People show a stronger tendency to blast (negative) than bask (positive)

Basking and blasting Loyal fans experience changes in their own confidence level based on the success or failure of their team Losing had a stronger effect than winning

Loyal fans experience changes in their own confidence level based on the success or failure of their team

Losing had a stronger effect than winning

Low self-esteem Research on low self-esteem Do not want to fail Self-concept confusion Focus on self-protection More prone to emotional highs and lows Myth of low-self esteem in United States

Research on low self-esteem

Do not want to fail

Self-concept confusion

Focus on self-protection

More prone to emotional highs and lows

Myth of low-self esteem in United States

Distorted perceptions of nondepressed Positive illusions Overestimate good qualities Underestimate faults Overestimate control over events Unrealistically optimistic

Positive illusions

Overestimate good qualities

Underestimate faults

Overestimate control over events

Unrealistically optimistic

Self-deception strategies Self Serving Bias More skeptical of bad feedback Junk Mail Theory of Self-Deception Comparisons with those slightly worse Skew impressions of others to highlight own good traits as unusual

Self Serving Bias

More skeptical of bad feedback

Junk Mail Theory of Self-Deception

Comparisons with those slightly worse

Skew impressions of others to highlight own good traits as unusual

Benefits of high self-esteem Initiative Confidence you can do the right thing More adventurous in activities Feels good Helps one to overcome bad feelings If they fail, more likely to try again

Initiative

Confidence you can do the right thing

More adventurous in activities

Feels good

Helps one to overcome bad feelings

If they fail, more likely to try again

Why do we care about self-esteem? Sociometer theory Self-esteem is a measure of social acceptability Self-esteem feels good Theory of terror management

Sociometer theory

Self-esteem is a measure of social acceptability

Self-esteem feels good

Theory of terror management

Negative aspects of high self-esteem Narcissism Subset of high self-esteem Tend to be more aggressive and violent Higher prejudice Tend to think their group is better

Narcissism

Subset of high self-esteem

Tend to be more aggressive and violent

Higher prejudice

Tend to think their group is better

Pursuit of self-esteem May have harmful consequences Can compromise pursuit of competence Impairs autonomy Pressure to meet expectations of others Weakens individual intrinsic motivation Impairs learning Can damage relationships Can be harmful to health

May have harmful consequences

Can compromise pursuit of competence

Impairs autonomy

Pressure to meet expectations of others

Weakens individual intrinsic motivation

Impairs learning

Can damage relationships

Can be harmful to health

Self-presentation Behaviors that convey an image to others Public esteem More important than private self-esteem Public behaviour Acting for the audience

Behaviors that convey an image to others

Public esteem

More important than private self-esteem

Public behaviour

Acting for the audience

Functions of self-presentation Social acceptance Increase chance of acceptance and maintain place within the group Claiming identity Social validation of claims to identity

Social acceptance

Increase chance of acceptance and maintain place within the group

Claiming identity

Social validation of claims to identity

Good self-presentation Demonstrate positive traits Behave with consideration of audience Tradeoff Tendency toward favorable presentation Modesty More prevalent in long-term relationships Risky behaviors

Demonstrate positive traits

Behave with consideration of audience

Tradeoff

Tendency toward favorable presentation

Modesty

More prevalent in long-term relationships

Risky behaviors

Self-concept Cognitive representations of the self. Now commonly seen as a set of multi-dimensional and hierarchically organized domains of self-concept, e.g., Physical Self-Concept Academic Self-Concept Social Self-Concept Same-Sex Relations Opposite-Sex Relations Parent Relations, etc. Top-down vs. bottom-up debate

Cognitive representations of the self.

Now commonly seen as a set of multi-dimensional and hierarchically organized domains of self-concept, e.g.,

Physical Self-Concept

Academic Self-Concept

Social Self-Concept

Same-Sex Relations

Opposite-Sex Relations

Parent Relations, etc.

Top-down vs. bottom-up debate

Self-efficacy Belief in one’s capacity to succeed at a given task. e.g. Public Speaking Self-Efficacy Bandura recommended specific rather than general measures of Self-efficacy.

Belief in one’s capacity to succeed at a given task. e.g. Public Speaking Self-Efficacy

Bandura recommended specific rather than general measures of Self-efficacy.

Self-efficacy e.g. Social Self-Efficacy for Relating to Teachers 1. I can get along with most of my teachers. 2. I can go and talk with most of my teachers. 3. I can get my teachers to help me if I have problems with other students. 4. I can explain what I think to most of my teachers. 5. I ask the teacher to tell me how well I'm doing in class. (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 2005)

e.g. Social Self-Efficacy for Relating to Teachers

1. I can get along with most of my teachers.

2. I can go and talk with most of my teachers.

3. I can get my teachers to help me if I have problems with other students.

4. I can explain what I think to most of my teachers.

5. I ask the teacher to tell me how well I'm doing in class.

(Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 2005)

Rogers: Self-congruence Incongruence  Anxiety  Defense ACTUAL IDEAL EXPERIENCE

Rogers: Self-congruence

Self has evolutionary functions Self-bias e.g., access to resources Self-organization / Self-complexity e.g., adaptability & self-insight/self-control Self-promotion e.g., for increased likelihood of mating Social comparison e.g., motivation to improve Social control e.g., storage of social norms and rules

Self-bias e.g., access to resources

Self-organization / Self-complexity e.g., adaptability & self-insight/self-control

Self-promotion e.g., for increased likelihood of mating

Social comparison e.g., motivation to improve

Social control e.g., storage of social norms and rules

Self has evolutionary functions Self-bias e.g., access to resources Self-organization / Self-complexity e.g., adaptability & self-insight/self-control Self-promotion e.g., for increased likelihood of mating Social comparison e.g., motivation to improve Social control e.g., storage of social norms and rules

Self-bias e.g., access to resources

Self-organization / Self-complexity e.g., adaptability & self-insight/self-control

Self-promotion e.g., for increased likelihood of mating

Social comparison e.g., motivation to improve

Social control e.g., storage of social norms and rules

Self has adaptational functions “ People’s selves allow them to regulate their own behavior , an advantage for both self and group.”

“ People’s selves allow them to regulate their own behavior , an advantage for both self and group.”

Self has adaptational functions “ The self can serve various social psychological functions; having a self is not only knowing where your skin ends, but also how to get along in a group .” (Fiske, 2004, p. 176)

“ The self can serve various social psychological functions; having a self is not only knowing where your skin ends, but also how to get along in a group .” (Fiske, 2004, p. 176)

Self-complexity People generally see themselves as more complex and others as less complex.

People generally see themselves as more complex and others as less complex.

Self-complexity There are individual variations in self-complexity, with self-complexity being advantageous e.g., less depressed, better able to handle stress, etc.

There are individual variations in self-complexity, with self-complexity being advantageous e.g., less depressed, better able to handle stress, etc.

Self-complexity … includes having multiple possible selves.

… includes having multiple possible selves.

Social comparison Everyone uses social comparison to: Understand how they are doing (through comparison with similar others) Feel better (through downward comparison) To improve (through upward comparison)

Everyone uses social comparison to:

Understand how they are doing (through comparison with similar others)

Feel better (through downward comparison)

To improve (through upward comparison)

Social feedback Symbolic interactionism: All self perceptions are based on one’s history of social interactions.

Symbolic interactionism: All self perceptions are based on one’s history of social interactions.

Social feedback Reflected appraisal: One’s sense of self is based on how one perceives that others perceives one.

Reflected appraisal: One’s sense of self is based on how one perceives that others perceives one.

Social feedback Spotlight effect : People tend to think other people notice and evaluate them more than they actually do.

Spotlight effect : People tend to think other people notice and evaluate them more than they actually do.

Social feedback Transparency Effect : People tend to think that their inner self ‘leaks out’ and is more obvious than it really is.

Transparency Effect : People tend to think that their inner self ‘leaks out’ and is more obvious than it really is.

Self-discrepancies Actual-Ideal -> Promotion Focus (failure -> Depression) Ideal-Ought -> Prevention Focus (failure -> Anxiety)

Actual-Ideal -> Promotion Focus (failure -> Depression)

Ideal-Ought -> Prevention Focus (failure -> Anxiety)

Self-discrepancies Self-evaluation maintenance theory More relevant the comparison, the more threat Closer the person is, the more emotion (+ve or –ve)

Self-evaluation maintenance theory

More relevant the comparison, the more threat

Closer the person is, the more emotion (+ve or –ve)

Strategic self-presentation Ingratiation (being liked) Self-Promotion (being competent) Intimidation (being in control) Exemplification (Worthy, saintly) Supplication (Helpless)

Ingratiation (being liked)

Self-Promotion (being competent)

Intimidation (being in control)

Exemplification (Worthy, saintly)

Supplication (Helpless)

Self-monitoring High (adjusts behavior to situation; monitors situation) Low (principled attitudes guide behaviour)

High (adjusts behavior to situation; monitors situation)

Low (principled attitudes guide behaviour)

Self-regulation Monitoring and controlling self-presentation and behavior uses up valuable self-regulatory resources.

Monitoring and controlling self-presentation and behavior uses up valuable self-regulatory resources.

Self-awareness Attention directed at the self Private self-awareness Public self-awareness Usually involves evaluative comparison.

Attention directed at the self

Private self-awareness

Public self-awareness

Usually involves evaluative comparison.

Self-awareness In general, people spend little time actually thinking about themselves. (but a lot of time is spent thinking about self-presentation and self-preservation)

In general, people spend little time actually thinking about themselves.

(but a lot of time is spent thinking about self-presentation and self-preservation)

Self-awareness Certain situations (e.g., mirrors, cameras, audiences, self-development exercises, increase self-awareness) Individual differences in self-consciousness

Certain situations (e.g., mirrors, cameras, audiences, self-development exercises, increase self-awareness)

Individual differences in self-consciousness

Self compared to standards Concepts of how things might possibly be Ideals, norms, expectations, moral principles, laws, past experiences Around age 2, begin use of standards Beginning of self-awareness

Concepts of how things might possibly be

Ideals, norms, expectations, moral principles, laws, past experiences

Around age 2, begin use of standards

Beginning of self-awareness

Self-awareness and behaviour Self-awareness Improves behaviour Enables people to be more socially desirable

Self-awareness

Improves behaviour

Enables people to be more socially desirable

Self-awareness Causes us to notice self-discrepancies and can produce temporary reductions in self-esteem.

Causes us to notice self-discrepancies and can produce temporary reductions in self-esteem.

Self-awareness To cope, we either adjust our behavior to meet our standards or withdraw from self-focusing situations. e.g., watch TV, play sport, alcohol, suicide.

To cope, we either adjust our behavior to meet our standards or withdraw from self-focusing situations. e.g., watch TV, play sport, alcohol, suicide.

Self-awareness

Purpose of self-awareness Self-regulation Adopt the perspective of other people Manage behavior in pursuit of goals

Self-regulation

Adopt the perspective of other people

Manage behavior in pursuit of goals

Why people seek self-knowledge Appraisal motive Looking for the truth about oneself Self-enhancement Motive Looking for flattering things about self Consistency motive Looking for confirmation about current belief about self

Appraisal motive

Looking for the truth about oneself

Self-enhancement Motive

Looking for flattering things about self

Consistency motive

Looking for confirmation about current belief about self

When motives compete Appraisal motive Weakest motive Self-enhancement motive Strongest motive (emotional appeal) Consistency motive Second preference (cognitive appeal)

Appraisal motive

Weakest motive

Self-enhancement motive

Strongest motive (emotional appeal)

Consistency motive

Second preference (cognitive appeal)

Self-knowledge and the duplex mind Automatic egotism Automatic, self-enhancing Modesty Conscious, deliberate control

Automatic egotism

Automatic, self-enhancing

Modesty

Conscious, deliberate control

Self and information processing Self-reference Effect Information bearing on self is processed more deeply and remembered better Endowment effect Items gain in value to the person who owns them

Self-reference Effect

Information bearing on self is processed more deeply and remembered better

Endowment effect

Items gain in value to the person who owns them

Can self-concept change? Self-concept tends to be consistent with public self: People expect you to stay the same Changing social environment may change inner self Convince others that you have changed Allow others to see your changed behavior Memory shifts to fit new self-concept.

Self-concept tends to be consistent with public self:

People expect you to stay the same

Changing social environment may change inner self

Convince others that you have changed

Allow others to see your changed behavior

Memory shifts to fit new self-concept.

References Fiske, S. T. (2004). The self: Social to the core . In S. T. Fiske (2004). Social beings: A core motives approach to social psychology. (Ch 5, pp. 169 – 214). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley. Hoover-Dempsey, K.V., & Sandler, H.M. (2005). Final Performance Report for OERI Grant # R305T010673: The Social Context of Parental Involvement: A Path to Enhanced Achievement. Presented to Project Monitor, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, March 22, 2005.

Fiske, S. T. (2004). The self: Social to the core . In S. T. Fiske (2004). Social beings: A core motives approach to social psychology. (Ch 5, pp. 169 – 214). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.

Hoover-Dempsey, K.V., & Sandler, H.M. (2005). Final Performance Report for OERI Grant # R305T010673: The Social Context of Parental Involvement: A Path to Enhanced Achievement. Presented to Project Monitor, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, March 22, 2005.

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