Introduction to Research in Psychology If we knew what we were doing, it would not be called research, would it? - Albert Einstein Lecturer: James Neill (2009)

Outline Spirit of research What is research? Research terminology Research process Research methods Bias in research Ethical issues

Spirit of research

What is research?

Research terminology

Research process

Research methods

Bias in research

Ethical issues

Focus Points How to determine causal relationships and correlate between variables The different types of psychological measurement The need for valid and reliable measures

How to determine causal relationships and correlate between variables

The different types of psychological measurement

The need for valid and reliable measures

Focus Points cont. How to evaluate research claims and think critically The analysis of data and drawing conclusions (found in the Statistical Supplement in MyPsychLab)

How to evaluate research claims and think critically

The analysis of data and drawing conclusions (found in the Statistical Supplement in MyPsychLab)

Spirit of research (quotes & examples)

Somewhere, something incredible is waiting to be known. - Carl Sagan

To do successful research, you don't need to know everything, you just need to know of one thing that isn't known . - Arthur Schawlow

We are in the position of a little child entering a huge library filled with books in many different languages. The child knows someone must have written those books. It does not know how. It does not understand the languages in which they are they are they are written. The child dimly suspects a mysterious order in the arrangement of the books but doesn't know what it is. - Albert Einstein

If you are a scientist you believe that it is good to find out how the world works, that it is good to find out what the realities are, that it is good to turn over to mankind at large the greatest possible power to control the world... It is not possible to be a scientist unless you believe that the knowledge of the world, and the power which this gives, is a thing which is of intrinsic value to humanity, and that you are using it to help in the spread of knowledge, and are willing to take the consequences. - J. Robert Oppenheimer (1904-1967)

I didn't think; I experimented. - Wilhelm Roentgen ( German physicist , 1845-1923)

Quick Fun Survey

Student research opportunities Research participation Research seminars Research news e.g., via Journal alerts Google Alerts Research journals Hard copies Electronic copies

Research participation

Research seminars

Research news e.g., via

Journal alerts

Google Alerts

Research journals

Hard copies

Electronic copies

Research = disciplined inquiry What is research?

What is research? Search Re

What is research? Research is formalised curiosity . It is poking and prying with a purpose. - Zora Neale Hurston

Research is an attempt to understand the world . Psychological research , more specifically, is an attempt to understand human experiences of themselves and the world . What is psychological research?

Research is an attempt to understand the world .

Psychological research , more specifically, is an attempt to understand human experiences of themselves and the world .

Systematic development & testing of theory about human behaviour and mental events Disciplined enquiry into human thinking, feeling, and behaviour . What is psychological research?

Systematic development & testing of theory about human behaviour and mental events

Disciplined enquiry into human thinking, feeling, and behaviour .

Quick Fun Survey What is your favourite colour? What is your favourite number? What sex is the number 4? What sex is the number 8?

What is your favourite colour?

What is your favourite number?

What sex is the number 4?

What sex is the number 8?

Psychological research ...holds out the promise of discovering the architecture of our psyche and understanding our behaviour in the world around us.

Psychological research is a recent phenomenon Western, scientific, psychological research only has about a 60-100 year history. Much still to be discovered - prospects for considerable growth & opportunity. e.g., due to technology, new research techniques and directions are becoming available.

Western, scientific, psychological research only has about a 60-100 year history.

Much still to be discovered - prospects for considerable growth & opportunity.

Research is a way of thinking Researchers need to acknowledge & understand the limits of intuition & common sense Philosophy of science The scientific attitude The scientific method

Researchers need to acknowledge & understand the limits of intuition & common sense

Philosophy of science

The scientific attitude

The scientific method

Critical thinking Critical thinking does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions: Examines assumptions Discerns hidden values Evaluates evidence

Examines assumptions

Discerns hidden values

Evaluates evidence

It is a good morning exercise for a research scientist to discard a pet hypothesis every day before breakfast - It keeps him [sic] young. - Konrad Lorenz

Research is a language Learn key terms / concepts UG study, especially 1 st year, is about acquiring the language skills to access and make sense of recorded research knowledge

Learn key terms / concepts

UG study, especially 1 st year, is about acquiring the language skills to access and make sense of recorded research knowledge

Research involves skilled use of tools For example: Surveys / questionnaires Physiological / neurological recording equipment Data analysis software

Surveys / questionnaires

Physiological / neurological recording equipment

Data analysis software

A knowledge of statistics is like a knowledge of foreign languages or of algebra; it may prove of use at any time under any circumstances. - A.L. Bowley

Research process The process of psychological research, generating theories and testing hypotheses.

The doctrine that all events - physical, behavioural, and mental - are “determined” by specific causal factors that are potentially knowable. Concept of determinism

Theory-testing is the main function of research Observations lead to theory Theory = a specific set of assumptions and principles about a phenomenon. Derive testable hypotheses (or guesses / predictions) Systematically test hypotheses in various conditions in order to determine the utility of the theory.

Observations lead to theory

Theory = a specific set of assumptions and principles about a phenomenon.

Derive testable hypotheses (or guesses / predictions)

Systematically test hypotheses in various conditions in order to determine the utility of the theory.

Theories, hypotheses & research observations Theories Low self-esteem feeds depression Hypothesis People with low self-esteem score higher on a depression scale Research and observations Administer tests of self-esteem and depression. See if a low score on one predicts a high score on the other.

An iterative model of the research process

The research process: Example

What do you wonder about? My first study

Design your own study What topics would you like to research? Create a research question e.g., “what is the effect of meditation on stress?” What type of research would it involve? Describe a study.

What topics would you like to research?

Create a research question e.g., “what is the effect of meditation on stress?”

What type of research would it involve? Describe a study.

Science is based on… Knowledge of facts Developing theories Testing hypotheses Public and repeatable procedures

Knowledge of facts

Developing theories

Testing hypotheses

Public and repeatable procedures

Steps in a research investigation 1. Theory Establish need Research Question Hypotheses 2. Method Sampling Instrumentation Ethics 3. Data Collection Entry Analysis 4. Reporting / Dissemination

Establish need

Research Question

Hypotheses

Sampling

Instrumentation

Ethics

Collection

Entry

Analysis

Observations, beliefs, information, and general knowledge lead to a new idea or a different way of thinking about some phenomenon Theory: An organised set of concepts that explains a phenomenon or set of phenomena. Use theory to formulate research questions. Process of research

Observations, beliefs, information, and general knowledge lead to a new idea or a different way of thinking about some phenomenon

Theory: An organised set of concepts that explains a phenomenon or set of phenomena.

Use theory to formulate research questions.

Develop a hypothesis or hypotheses A tentative and testable explanation(s) of the relationship between two (or more) events or variables Use the scientific method to design the study Process of research

Develop a hypothesis or hypotheses

A tentative and testable explanation(s) of the relationship between two (or more) events or variables

Use the scientific method to design the study

Set of procedures used for gathering and interpreting objective information in a way that minimises error and yields dependable generalisations. Its goal is to draw conclusions with maximum objectivity. Conclusions are objective when they are not influenced by emotions or personal biases. Scientific method

Set of procedures used for gathering and interpreting objective information in a way that minimises error and yields dependable generalisations.

Its goal is to draw conclusions with maximum objectivity.

Conclusions are objective when they are not influenced by emotions or personal biases.

A challenge to objectivity Distortion of evidence because of the personal motives and expectations of the viewer Counter by: Standardisation: A set of uniform procedures for treating each participant Operational definition: Define constructs in terms of the specific operation or procedure used to determine its presence All variables in a research study must be given operational definitions Observer bias

A challenge to objectivity

Distortion of evidence because of the personal motives and expectations of the viewer

Counter by:

Standardisation: A set of uniform procedures for treating each participant

Operational definition: Define constructs in terms of the specific operation or procedure used to determine its presence

All variables in a research study must be given operational definitions

Operationalisation Refers to how a fuzzy psychological construct is actually measured e.g., the concept of intelligence has been operationalised through a variety of Intelligence Quotient (IQ) tests

e.g., the concept of intelligence has been operationalised through a variety of Intelligence Quotient (IQ) tests

Reliability Degree to which a test produces similar scores each time it is used Stability, consistency Validity Extent to which a test measures what it was intended to test Reliability and validity

Reliability

Degree to which a test produces similar scores each time it is used

Stability, consistency

Validity

Extent to which a test measures what it was intended to test

Variables are factors which can be controlled and/or measured in research Two types: Independent Variable (IV) Dependent Variable (DV) Research variables

Variables are factors which can be controlled and/or measured in research

Two types:

Independent Variable (IV)

Dependent Variable (DV)

Independent vs. dependent variables Independent Variable the factor that is manipulated by the researcher (the researcher has control over the IV) the variable whose effect is being studied Dependent Variable the factor that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable in psychology it is usually a behaviour or mental process

Independent Variable

the factor that is manipulated by the researcher (the researcher has control over the IV)

the variable whose effect is being studied

Dependent Variable

the factor that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

in psychology it is usually a behaviour or mental process

Independent vs. dependent variables Independent Variable(s) Dependent Variable(s)

Independent vs. dependent variables: Example IV: Graffiti or no graffiti on or near a letterbox DV: Whether or not a passerby takes an envelope with money clearly showing from a letterbox Results: Graffiti condition: 27% took the $ No graffiti condition: 13% took the $

Graffiti condition: 27% took the $

No graffiti condition: 13% took the $

Sampling Sampling

Sample: Subset of a population selected as participants in an experiment Representation Sample: A subset of the population being studied Population: Entire set of individuals to which generalisations will be made based on an experimental sample Sampling

Sample:

Subset of a population selected as participants in an experiment

Representation Sample:

A subset of the population being studied

Population:

Entire set of individuals to which generalisations will be made based on an experimental sample

Experimental – randomised sampling Quasi-experimental – natural sampling Non-experimental – cross-sectional sampling Research methods

Experimental – randomised sampling

Quasi-experimental – natural sampling

Non-experimental – cross-sectional sampling

Experimental research method Experimenter manipulates the IVs, then measures the results on the DVs Random assignment Control group = treat same as experimental group except for the IV manipulation Experimental group = treat same as control group except for the IV manipulation Resulting differences are concluded to be due to the IV

Experimenter manipulates the IVs, then measures the results on the DVs

Random assignment

Control group = treat same as experimental group except for the IV manipulation

Experimental group = treat same as control group except for the IV manipulation

Resulting differences are concluded to be due to the IV

Alternative explanations to research can result from Confounding variables Expectancy effects Placebo effect The more alternative explanations for a given result, the less confidence there is for an initial hypothesis Experimental research method

Alternative explanations to research can result from

Confounding variables

Expectancy effects

Placebo effect

The more alternative explanations for a given result, the less confidence there is for an initial hypothesis

Confounding Variable A variable other than what the experimenter purposely introduced that affects a participant’s behaviour Confounding variables add confusion and place the interpretation of the data at risk Confounding variable

Confounding Variable

A variable other than what the experimenter purposely introduced that affects a participant’s behaviour

Confounding variables add confusion and place the interpretation of the data at risk

Expectancy Effects Results that occur when a researcher or observer subtly communicates to the participants the kind of behaviour he or she expects, therefore, creating the expected reaction and/or outcome Placebo Effect Occurs when the experimental participants change their behaviour in the absence of any kind of experimental manipulation Experimental research method

Expectancy Effects

Results that occur when a researcher or observer subtly communicates to the participants the kind of behaviour he or she expects, therefore, creating the expected reaction and/or outcome

Placebo Effect

Occurs when the experimental participants change their behaviour in the absence of any kind of experimental manipulation

Control Procedures Consistent procedures for giving instructions, responses, and holding all other variables constant except those being systematically varied Double-blind control Placebo control Between - subjects designs Within - subjects designs Experimental research method

Control Procedures

Consistent procedures for giving instructions, responses, and holding all other variables constant except those being systematically varied

Double-blind control

Placebo control

Between - subjects designs

Within - subjects designs

Double-blind Control Experimental procedure in which both the experimenter and the subject are unaware as to who received the treatment Placebo Control The inclusion of an experimental condition in which the treatment is not administered Experimental research method

Double-blind Control

Experimental procedure in which both the experimenter and the subject are unaware as to who received the treatment

Placebo Control

The inclusion of an experimental condition in which the treatment is not administered

Between-subjects Design Different groups of participants are randomly assigned to experimental conditions or to control condition Within-subjects Design Each participant is his or her own control Experimental research method

Between-subjects Design

Different groups of participants are randomly assigned to experimental conditions or to control condition

Within-subjects Design

Each participant is his or her own control

Qualitative – analyses words, pictures, etc. Quantitative – analyses numbers Qualitative vs. quantitative research data

Qualitative – analyses words, pictures, etc.

Quantitative – analyses numbers

Archival Observations Behavioural Self-report surveys Mail Interviews Online Ways of gathering data Physiological Experiential sampling e.g., with palm pilots Archival records Qualitative – Quantitative – Mixed mode

Archival

Observations

Behavioural

Self-report surveys

Mail

Interviews

Online

Physiological

Experiential sampling

e.g., with palm pilots

Archival records

Qualitative data Subjective - individuals’ interpretation of events is important e.g., Historical accounts Participant observation In-depth interviews

Historical accounts

Participant observation

In-depth interviews

Quantitative data Objective – seeks precise measurement & analysis of target concepts e.g., Psychological tests Questionnaires Physiological measures

Psychological tests

Questionnaires

Physiological measures

Mixed methods Involves a combination of qualitative and quantitative research methods.

Information taken from existing records Examples include birth and death records, weather reports, voting patterns, and attendance figures Archival data

Information taken from existing records

Examples include birth and death records, weather reports, voting patterns, and attendance figures

Observational research Researchers directly observe and record behaviour: Naturalistic observation - researcher records behavior as it occurs naturally Tests - researcher presents stimuli or problems and records responses

Naturalistic observation - researcher records behavior as it occurs naturally

Tests - researcher presents stimuli or problems and records responses

Naturalistic observation Naturally occurring behaviour is viewed and recorded without attempting to manipulate or interfere the situation. Field-rich data, time consuming, difficult to generalise.

Naturally occurring behaviour is viewed and recorded without attempting to manipulate or interfere the situation.

Field-rich data, time consuming, difficult to generalise.

Behavioural measures Overt actions and reactions that are observed and recorded Direct observations The behaviour is clearly visible and is easily recorded Can be aided by technology

Overt actions and reactions that are observed and recorded

Direct observations

The behaviour is clearly visible and is easily recorded

Can be aided by technology

Self-report research Behaviour identified through a participant’s own observations and reports People rate or describe their behaviour, opinion, or mental state e.g., via: Questionnaires Rating scales e.g., from 1 to 7 rate your opinion of …

Questionnaires

Rating scales e.g.,

from 1 to 7 rate your opinion of …

Determines extent to which two variables are related Does NOT imply causation Correlational Coefficient (r) Indicates the degree of relationship between two variables Values of - 1.0 = perfect negative correlation 0.0 = no correlation +1.0 = perfect positive correlation Correlational methods

Determines extent to which two variables are related

Does NOT imply causation

Correlational Coefficient (r)

Indicates the degree of relationship between two variables

Values of

- 1.0 = perfect negative correlation

0.0 = no correlation

+1.0 = perfect positive correlation

Positive and negative correlations Correlational methods

Positive and negative correlations

Laboratory research Purpose-designed research setting Provides uniform conditions for all participants Permits elimination of irrelevant factors May seem artificial

Purpose-designed research setting

Provides uniform conditions for all participants

Permits elimination of irrelevant factors

May seem artificial

Case study Intensive observation of a particular individual or a small group. Aims to reveal things true of all. Rich data, time consuming, difficult to generalise. Is language uniquely human?

Intensive observation of a particular individual or a small group.

Aims to reveal things true of all.

Rich data, time consuming, difficult to generalise.

Survey research Commonly used Ascertains self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people Ideally question a representative, random sample of people

Commonly used

Ascertains self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people

Ideally question a representative, random sample of people

Experiential sampling

Replication Reconducting a previous study to see whether its findings are repeatable and therefore generalisable. (Nothing is considered “proven” until at least several studies have been conducted showing similar results.) Usually replicate with different participants, in different situations, in different cultures.

Reconducting a previous study to see whether its findings are repeatable and therefore generalisable.

(Nothing is considered “proven” until at least several studies have been conducted showing similar results.)

Usually replicate with different participants, in different situations, in different cultures.

Bias in research Sampling bias Measurement bias Observer bias Self-report bias Experimenter bias Publication bias (file drawer effect )

Sampling bias

Measurement bias

Observer bias

Self-report bias

Experimenter bias

Publication bias (file drawer effect )

Ethical issues in Research Guidelines and procedures for conducting ethical psychological research.

Ethical issues in psychological research Right to privacy Informed consent use of deception Animal rights Is there justification for discomfort or harm a research procedure may produce? APA publishes ethical guidelines

Right to privacy

Informed consent

use of deception

Animal rights

Is there justification for discomfort or harm a research procedure may produce?

APA publishes ethical guidelines

Research participants are asked to sign statements indicating they have been informed as to the potential risks and benefits of the study and consent to participate. Informed consent

Risks to the participants must be minimised, especially in studies of more personal aspects of behaviour. And there must be likely gains which outweigh the risks/costs. Risk/Gain Assessment

For some research it is not possible to tell participants the intention of the study without biasing the results Australian Psychological Society (2007) Code of Ethics has explicit guidelines National Health and Medical Research Council (NH-MRC) has further restrictions Intentional deception

Australian Psychological Society (2007) Code of Ethics has explicit guidelines

National Health and Medical Research Council (NH-MRC) has further restrictions

At the end of all studies each participant must be provided with as much information about the study as possible in age-appropriate style. Debriefing

Conclusions Discover your research passion(s) & follow it/them  Research is a language, a science, and a discipline. Involves formal testing of theories of human behaviour. “ Failed” research can often tells us as much as “successful” research.

Discover your research passion(s) & follow it/them 

Research is a language, a science, and a discipline.

Involves formal testing of theories of human behaviour.

“ Failed” research can often tells us as much as “successful” research.

References Gerrig, R. J., Zimbardo, P. G., Campbell, A. J., Cumming, S. R., & Wilkes, F. J. (2008). Psychology and life (Australian edition.). Sydney: Pearson. University of Gronigen. People surrounded by grafitti more likely to steal .

Gerrig, R. J., Zimbardo, P. G., Campbell, A. J., Cumming, S. R., & Wilkes, F. J. (2008). Psychology and life (Australian edition.). Sydney: Pearson.

University of Gronigen. People surrounded by grafitti more likely to steal .