Lecture 8: Groups & Leadership

Slide 1: Social Psychology Groups & Leadership 2007 Lecturer: James Neill

Slide 2: Lecture Web Page http://ucspace.canberra.edu.au/display/7125/Lecture+Groups Readings Ch14 Groups  Baumeister, R. F., & Bushman, B. J. (2008). Social psychology and human nature (1st ed.) Belmont, CA: Thomson

Slide 3: Overview: Pt 1 (Groups) Questions about groups  What is a group?  Groups, roles, and selves  Group action  How groups think  Group decision making  Effects of groups on individuals  Social facilitation  Hawthorne effect  Social loafing  Intergroup conflict  Co-operation between groups  Self-categorisation theory  Social categorisation theory 

Slide 4: Questions about groups Is group behaviour different to the behaviour of individuals? Do groups make better or worse decisions than individuals? Why do groups conflict?

Slide 5: What is a group? How would you define a group? What are the minimal criteria for a group?

Slide 6: What is a group? 2 >= people  “doing or being something together”  Group members:  Feel similar  Share a common identity  Work towards a common goal  Are distinguished from outgroup(s)  Depend on each other

Slide 7: What is a Group? “A collection of people, usually people who are doing or being something together.” (Bauemeister & Bushman, 2008, p. 480)

Slide 8: What is a Group? “two or more people who share a common definition and evaluation of themselves and behave in accordance with such a definition” (Vaughan & Hogg, 2002, p. 200)

Slide 9: What is a Group? A collection of people who:  interact with one another  accept rights & obligations  share a common identity.

Slide 10: What is a Group? Criteria:  2 or more persons  formal social structure  common fate  common goals  interdependence  self-define as group members  recognition by others

Slide 11: Why groups? Groups are favored by evolution If individuals compete against groups… Humans always live in small groups Groups are essential to culture

Slide 12: Advantages of Animal Groups Safety in numbers   Vigilance: even if just one spots the danger, or opportunity  Sharing resources  Working together, increased power

Slide 13: Advantages of Human Groups  Role differentiation, division of labor – Everything is done by experts – Assembly line example  Accumulation of knowledge – Transmittal to next generation – Can reorganize the group based on information, ideas  Economic exchange

Slide 14: Advantages of Human Groups In human evolution  Safety in numbers  Help others find food  Accomplish tasks that are too difficult for the individual

Slide 15: Advantages of Human Groups Cultural groups  Preserve information and pass it along to future generations  Use information to organize themselves  Benefit from role differentiation and division of labor

Slide 16: Studying Groups  The whole (group) can be more than the sum of its parts  But sometimes it is much less  Hence one challenge for social psychologists: Understand the advantages and disadvantages of group process

Slide 17: Social Facilitation The tendency to perform well when others  are present  Classic study by Triplett – Children wind string on a fishing reel faster when working with others present

Slide 18: Social Facilitation In 1897, Norman Triplett noticed that bicycle racers usually made better times in group competition than alone.

Slide 19: Social Facilitation But sometimes the presence of others  makes performance worse (social inhibition)  Zajonc noticed that the presence of others is arousing – Arousal has been known to enhance the dominant response

Slide 20: Facilitation vs. Loafing Social facilitation is found in many animals   Social loafing is uniquely human – If people are not held responsible, they will not contribute to the group – People are naturally inclined to notice and punish social loafers and cheaters

Slide 21: Facilitation vs. Loafing Individual Evaluation Social efforts apprehension Facilitation evaluated Presence of others Individual No evaluation Social efforts not apprehension Loafing evaluated

Slide 22: Social Facilitation Theory Presence of others is arousing   Arousal increases the “dominant response,” whatever it is – Familiar tasks: dominant response is success, so this increases when others are present – Unfamiliar tasks: dominant response is failure, so this too increases when others are present Same for other kinds of dominant response  – E.g., talkers talk more, silent types clam up more

Slide 23: Social Facilitation In a social situation, would a violinist:  Perform a well-rehearsed piece well?  Perform a difficult piece poorly?

Slide 24: Social Facilitation Theory Presence of others facilitates dominant response  (Allport, 1920) Theory of social facilitation (Zajonc, 1965)  – Presence of others increases arousal – Arousal increases dominant response If the dominant response is correct, performance  increases. If the dominant response is incorrect, performance  decreases. Presence of others can improve people’s performance,  especially familiar, easy tasks However, presence of others facilitates performance on  skilled tasks, impairs performance on unskilled tasks

Slide 25: Cockroach Studies (Zajonc, et al., 1969) Simple mazes more quickly when they ran  in the presence of 4 other cockroaches than when they ran alone. Completed complex mazes more quickly  when they ran alone than when they ran in the presence of 4 other cockroaches

Slide 26: Cockroach Studies (Zajonc, et al., 1969)

Slide 27: Pool Hall Study: Enhancing the dominant response 100 90 80 % of shots made 70 60 50 40 30 20 Others Present 10 Alone 0 Expert Novice

Slide 28: Why does this happen? Evaluation apprehension – concern about being judged Presence of Evaluation Dominant Arousal others apprehension Response What if people do not think they are being evaluated?

Slide 29: Evaluation Apprehension Model (Cottrell, 1972) Apprehension about evaluation -> arousal -> increased drive & social facilitation

Slide 30: Time taken for an easy and a difficult typing task as a function of social presence Difficult task 75 Time taken (seconds) 65 55 45 35 25 Easy task 15 5 Alone Mere presence Evaluation apprehension Experimental Condition

Slide 31: Distraction-conflict theory (Baron, 1986; Sanders, 1983) Conflict occurs when person  simultaneously pays attention to task & others  Conflict -> arousal -> increased drive & social facilitation

Slide 32: Distraction: Drive/Conflict Theory of Social Facilitation Tendency to pay attention to audience or coactors Social Individual Increased Presence of facilitation performing arousal/drive Attentional audience or effects a task conflict coactors Tendency to pay attention to task

Slide 33: Zajonc’s Drive Theory of Social Facilitation (Zajonc, 1965) Mere physical presence of others leads to arousal, motivating performance of dominant Social response (best learned, most habitual). If facilitation correct Increase in Presence Arousal performing of others dominant responses Social If inhibition incorrect

Slide 34: The Hawthorne Effect The benefits you reap when you pay  attention to people.  The act of showing people you are interested in them usually spurs them to better job performance.  Also known as the ‘Somebody upstairs cares’ syndrome.  This was a tremendous break from the idea that industrial man was motivated by economic means only.

Slide 35: The Hawthorne Effect People who know that they are being observed modify their behavior not only consciously but also unconsciously.

Slide 36: Social Loafing People often reduce effort when working  in a group  “Tug of War” Study – Worked alone or in groups – Do you work harder as part of a team? – Alone – 85 kg/person – In groups – 61-65 kg/person

Slide 37: Social Loafing A reduction in individual effort when working on a collective task compared to working alone.  Coordination loss - losses of productivity due to problems of coordinating individual members  Motivation loss - losses due to decreases in individual members’ motivation

Slide 38: Social Loafing  Ringlemann (1913) - less effort per person exerted when rope pulling in a group vs. alone.  Latane, Williams & Harkins (1979) - performance decreased as group size increased.

Slide 39: Social Loafing Factors:  – Not individually identified or accountable – Not wanting to be a ‘sucker’ – Bad apple effect Countering:  – When one’s cooperation is unique to the group, less likely to loaf. – Identifying people in groups & holding them accountable produces better results.

Slide 40: Reduction in volume of individual shout in 2- person & 6-person real & pseudo-groups ………………………………….. Potential performance Motivation loss, 100 reduced effort, Pseudo groups social loafing 80 Percentage reduction in Coordination 60 loss Real groups 40 individual shout 20 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Group size (persons)

Slide 41: Why Does Social Loafing Occur? Output equity Evaluation apprehension Matching to standard Diffusion of individual responsibility as group size increases (Latane, 1981).

Slide 42: Collective Effort Model (CEM) (Karau & Williams, 1993)  Linksbetween individual’s efforts & their outcomes weaker when working with others in a group.

Slide 43: Collective Effort Model (CEM) Individuals Working Alone Effort Performance Outcome Individuals Working with Others in Groups Group Share of Effort available Performance rewards

Slide 44: Collective Effort Model (CEM) Individuals work hard on a task when: 1. Believe working hard will lead to a better performance 2. Believe better performance will be recognised & rewarded 3. Rewards are ones they value & desire

Slide 45: Ways to  Social Loafing  identifiability   value of task   uniqueness of contributions   group cohesiveness   identification with the group (e.g., Holt, 1987)

Slide 46: Diverse Groups Can be more creative & flexible. Better chance of bringing in different information. Can be harder to cooperate & work together.

Slide 47: Roles  Complementary roles produce better results than having each member do the same thing.  Human roles work in the context of large systems where most people do different things.

Slide 48: Roles  In fascist movements individual self- interest is subordinated to the interests of the group.  Roles are defined by the system; exist independent of the person in that role.  People need to be flexible to take on & drop roles.

Slide 49: Optimal Distinctiveness Theory Tension between the need to be:  Similar to, and  Distinctive from other group members.

Slide 50: Altruistic Punishment  People will sometimes sacrifice their own gain, to benefit all, by punishing cheaters & free riders  May be considered guarding the culture – Culture depends on a system; cheat the system, ruin it for all

Slide 51: Deindividuation Loss of self-awareness & evaluation  apprehension – Occurs more in situations which favour expression of group norms

Slide 52: Deindividuation & Mob Violence Deindividuation can lead to antisocial  behavior  Being anonymous to outsiders makes people more willing to violate norms  Stop worrying about what others think of them – more willing to behave badly  Accountability is best predictor of aggression

Slide 53: Trick or Treat Study 60 % Who took extra Identified 50 40 Anonymous 30 20 10 0 Alone In Groups

Slide 54: Zimbardo “hood” study (1970) Study of deindividuation &  anonymity  2 conditions: 1. Hoods & white coats 2. Wore large name tags

Slide 55: Zimbardo “hood” study (1970) Asked them to deliver shocks Gave longer shocks when anonymous

Slide 56: Inter-Group Cooperation  Social Dilemmas - situation in which most rewarding short-term choice for individual causes negative consequences for group as a whole  Commons Dilemma - if all cooperate, all gain; if all compete, all lose

Slide 57: Problems with Private vs. communal ownership Private Communal Inequality Lack of care Ambition & greed Squandering shared resources

Slide 58: The Tragedy of the Commons A type of social trap, often economic, that involves a conflict over resources between individual interests and the common good.

Slide 59: The Commons Dilemma Dilemmas:  Social conscience vs. selfish impulse  Time (Now vs. tomorrow) Factors influencing outcome:  Communication  Behavior of others

Slide 60: The Prisoner’s Dilemma B Stays Silent B Betrays A Stays A 10 years 6 months each Silent B free A free A Betrays B 10 years 5 years each

Slide 62: Factors influencing cooperation in these games 1. Cooperation increases as conflict between own & others’ interests decreases 2. Cooperation increases as rewards for coop increase 3. Communication increases cooperation

Slide 63: Factors influencing cooperation in these games 4. Cooperation increases when players know each other 5. More likely to cooperate with ingroup members 6. Increased no. of participants leads to increased conflict 7. Initial social value orientation - competitive vs. cooperative

Slide 64: Criticisms of Dilemma Games  Assumes individuals are rational, motivated to maximise self-interest  Lack ecological/external validity  Are they about intergroup cooperation?

Slide 65: Rejection by Groups Rejection by groups has more impact than acceptance Rejected experience drop in self-esteem

Slide 66: Group Decision-Making Brainstorming Group polarisation Groupthink

Slide 67: Thinking in Groups  The pooling of information has many benefits for groups and for culture  Sometimes groups can be smarter than individuals, even smarter than experts  But sometimes groups can be incredibly stupid

Slide 68: Are Groups Smart? Brainstorming: Originated in ad agencies  – People generate ideas together – Interactive stimulation of creative energy Intuitively appealing   Exciting, enjoyable  But not creative: less quality and quantity than working alone

Slide 69: Are Groups Smart? “Wisdom of crowds:” pooled group information is often superior to single judgments  Stock market  Betting lines on sports events  Polling

Slide 70: Are Groups Smart? “Wisdom of crowds” works if…  Diversity of opinion  Independent thought process and judgment (instead of pressure to conform)  Pooled information, central ‘clearinghouse’  Leaders can help OR harm this process

Slide 71: Brainstorming  Generation of ideas in a group to enhance group creativity  Does brainstorming -> greater creativity?  People enjoy the process & evaluate it favorably  Output is lower than individuals working alone  Nominal groups outperform ‘real’ interactive groups.

Slide 72: Brainstorming Why? Evaluation apprehension   Social loafing  Production matching  Production blocking Remedies Electronic brainstorming   Heterogenous groups

Slide 73: How Groups Think For the collective wisdom of the group to be better than individual experts, people must act as independent members of a group and share their diverse information

Slide 74: Transactive Memory Members of a small group remember different things. Begins at learning stage where group can decide roles for learning different things.

Slide 75: Groupthink  Tendency of group members to think alike.  Group clings to shared but flawed view rather than being open to the truth (Janus, 1972, 1982).  Roots in desire to get along.

Slide 76: Signs & Symptoms of Groupthink  Becoming close-minded  Pressure toward conformity  Appearance of unanimous agreement  Illusion of invulnerability  Sense of moral superiority  Tendency to overestimate opponents

Slide 77: Factors that Promote Groupthink Cohesive group   Strong, directive, popular leader, with vision  Dissent seems disloyal and personal  “Mindguards” and other pressures to conform, including stifling dissent  Isolation from others  Group has high self-regard and moral self- righteousness, sense of superiority

Slide 78: Why aren’t committees effective? Group harmony stifles free exchange of information Focus on common knowledge rather than unique information people have

Slide 79: Why aren’t committees effective? A camel is a horse designed by committee.

Slide 80: Why aren’t committees effective? Too many cooks spoil the broth.

Slide 81: The Wisdom of Crowds: Why the many are smarter than the few & How collective wisdom shapes business, economies, societies & nations

Slide 82: The Wisdom of Crowds Criteria which separate wise from irrational crowds:  Diversityof opinion  Independence  Decentralization  Aggregation

Slide 83: Failures of Crowd Intelligence Too homogenous Too centralized Too divided Too imitative Too emotional

Slide 84: Risky Shift (Stoner, 1961)  Tendency for group discussion to lead to more risky decisions.  A group is willing to take greater risks than individuals (on average).

Slide 85: Group Polarisation Tendency of group members to shift towards more extreme positions as a result of group discussion.

Slide 86: Group Polarisation Movement toward either extreme (risk or  caution) resulting from group discussion

Slide 87: Persuasive Arguments Theory During discussion, people are exposed  to novel arguments that support initial position  Become more convinced of initial position  BUT - group polarisation is found in studies involving perceptual judgements

Slide 88: Social Comparison/Value Theory  Competition between group members to represent some underlying valued position  Social comparison - strive to represent most valued (extreme) position  BUT - group polarisation occurs for ‘non-value’ judgements

Slide 89: Minimal Group Paradigm Tajfel, Billig, Flament & Bundy (1971) -  minimal group experiments  Most popular strategy was to favour the ingroup as much as possible.  Ingroup bias occurs in absence of personal gain & intergroup competition.

Slide 90: Social Identity Theory What are the minimal conditions for  intergroup conflict?  Is competition between groups necessary (& sufficient) for intergroup conflict?  Mere categorisation into groups sufficient to produce intergroup conflict.  Interdependence & conflict of interest not necessary for bias against outgroups.

Slide 91: Intergroup Contact & Superordinate Goals May reduce conflict & increase  cooperation  Sherif’s studies - needed superordinate goals in addition to contact to produce cooperation  Superordinate goals only work if goal is achieved  Failure may worsen intergroup relations - attributed to outgroup  Recategorisation (Common Ingroup Identity Model)

Slide 92: Self-Categorisation Theory Prototype  – position that defines what group has in common compared to outgroups Ingroup members conform to prototype  or ingroup norm  Tends to be polarised in intergroup contexts

Slide 94: Sherif’s Robbers Cave Inter-Group Conflict Studies Sherif’s “Robbers Cave” summer camp studies  (Sherif, 1956) Participants: 11-12 year old boys  Homogenous background: white, protestant,  lower middle class SES, same level of pubescence, mentally “normal” Researchers were camp counsellors  Hidden microphone and cameras  Parents gave permission, boys unaware they  were participating in experiment

Slide 95: Stages of experiment  Stage 1: Arrive; free friendship formation  Stage 2: Division into groups  Stage 3: Group formation  Stage 4: Intergroup competition  Stage 5: Cooperation for a superordinate goal

Slide 96: Stages of experiment

Slide 97: Important points re: the studies Some ethnocentrism present before  competition  Boys did not have authoritarian personalities  Ingroups formed even though friends were outgroup members  Mere contact was insufficient to improve intergroup relations

Slide 98: Realistic Conflict Theory Mutually exclusive goals produce  intergroup conflict & ethnocentrism  Shared goals requiring intergroup interdependence for achievement reduce conflict, promote cooperation  Conflict will not occur when there is no personal gain for individuals in groups

Slide 99: Conclusions Groups influence the behaviour of  individuals.  Group decisions tend to be different to individual decisions (but not necessarily worse)  Conflict between groups – realistic conflict theory vs. social identity theory.

Slide 100: Conclusions Submerging the individual in the group  often leads to bad outcomes  Role differentiation & division of labor make human groups effective

Slide 101: Overview: Pt 2 (Leadership) Power and Leadership 

Slide 102: Overview: Pt 1 (Groups) Questions about groups  What is a group?  Groups, roles, and selves  Group action  How groups think  Group decision making  Effects of groups on individuals  Social facilitation  Hawthorne effect  Social loafing  Intergroup conflict  Co-operation between groups  Self-categorisation theory  Social categorisation theory 

Slide 103: Questions  What is leadership?  What is followership?  What are the characteristics of successful leaders?  Do leaders show distinctive patterns of behavior?  What leadership styles are there?

Slide 104: Questions  How does leaders’ behavior vary with the situation?  What sources of power and influence are used by leaders?  What are the effects of different types of leadership?  Can we do without leadership?  How can leadership skills be developed?

Slide 105: Social Psychology of Leadership Leadership is… A relationship  A group phenomenon  A form of social influence

Slide 106: What is Leadership?  Process of getting the cooperation of others in accomplishing a desired goal.  Ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals.

Slide 107: “You know what makes leadership? It is the ability to get men to do what they don't want to do and like it.” --Harry Truman

Slide 108: “The most powerful kind of leadership is to offer people pathways and permissions to do things they want to do but feel unable to do for themselves. That sort of energy evokes energies within people that far exceed the powers of coercion.” (Palmer 1993)

Slide 109: What is a Follower? A follower is an individual who follows the ideas, goals, or tasks of a leader.  Followers are developed by working together to identify goals and strategies for achieving the goals.

Slide 110: Follower Characteristics  Identification with the leader and the vision  Heightened emotional levels  Willing subordination to the leader  Feelings of empowerment

Slide 111: Leadership Characteristics • Involves non-coercive influence • Is goal directed • Requires followers

Slide 112: Evolution of Leadership Theory

Slide 113: Modern Thought on Leadership The end of WWI brought the demise of  hereditary leadership  First theories on personal qualities or traits  After WWII, shift to observable behaviours  1960’s - Situational leadership  Recently - transactional to transformational leadership

Slide 114: Traditional Leadership Theories Dispositional/trait theories  – Leadership is personality traits – Certain attributes make a great leader Behavior theories  – Leadership is what someone does Situational (contingency) theories  – Leadership is situational/contingent. – Interaction between leader & situation – Someone may be an effective leader in one circumstance but ineffective in a different circumstance.

Slide 115: Traditional Leadership Theories Dispositional/trait theories  – Introversion – Optimism – Need for power – Flamboyance Behavior theories  – Theory X – Expressive – Participative Situational (contingency) theories  – Situational characteristics:  Stability, Uncertainty, Complexity (remember “contingency”)

Slide 116: The Trait Approach: Great Person Theory Leaders possess special traits that set them apart from others & that these traits are responsible for their assuming positions of power & authority.

Slide 117: Trait Theories Ambition & energy   The desire to lead  Honesty & integrity  Self-confidence  Intelligence  Job-relevant knowledge

Slide 118: Trait Theories People tend to perceive that someone is a leader when he or she exhibits certain qualities:  Physical – health, vitality, older, heavier, endurance Character  – integrity, credibility humanistic, self-disciplined, stable, & industrious Intellectual  – intelligent, ability to teach others, scientific approach to problems. Personal qualities  – self-confidence, articulation, high energy, active, masculine, task- relevant knowledge and competence, emotionally controlled, dominant, popular (charismatic), cooperative, enthusiastic, inspiring, persuasive, forceful & tactful.

Slide 119: Attribution Theory of Leadership Traits of a Leader •Drive and Ambition •Self-Confidence •Desire to Lead •Intelligence •Honesty & Integrity •Technical Expertise

Slide 120: Leadership Traits Traits of successful leaders  – Humble and modest – Extreme persistence Traits of people perceived as good  leaders – Decisive – Competent at group tasks – Possess integrity – Honest and good moral character – Have vision

Slide 121: Leaders We perceive good leaders as having:  Integrity  Decisiveness  Competence  Vision

Slide 122: Negative leadership traits that prevent individuals from being leaders Uninformed   Non-participative  Rigid  Authoritarian  Offensive

Slide 123: Criticisms – Trait Theories No universal traits predict leadership in all  situations  Unclear evidence of the cause and effect of relationship of leadership and traits. (Which comes first, trait or leadership position?)  Traits predict behavior better in “weak” than “strong” situations.

Slide 124: Criticisms – Trait Theories Provides little guidance concerning what  advice or training to give current or soon- to-be leaders  Better predictor of the appearance of leadership than distinguishing effective and ineffective leaders.  Overlooks needs of followers  Fails to clarify trait's relative importance.

Slide 125: Leadership Roles Early studies identified 3 different styles:  Autocratic  Democratic  Laissez-faire

Slide 126: Leadership Styles 1. The quality of group output was better under democratic leadership. 2. Democratic leadership took more time than autocratic. 3. Member satisfaction was higher under democratic leadership. 4. The democratic group had the lowest absenteeism. 5. The democratic group fostered more independence.

Slide 127: Contingency Approach Effective leadership behavior depends on the situation at hand

Slide 128: Contingency Leadership Theory Given the right context, every  leadership theory or model is the correct one.  There is no one best style of leadership  Leadership style must match the situation

Slide 129: Task- vs People-Oriented Leadership Task-Oriented People-Oriented – task is uppermost; – concern for subordinates’ needs; – employee needs close – climate building; supervision; – supervisor upset when – inquiries about tasks not accomplished; problems; – human aspect – can be counterproductive neglected; if “overdone”. – regular checks on work progress; – perceived as “tough”;

Slide 130: The Continuum of Leadership Behavior (Tannenbaum, 1974) PUSH Tells Boss Sells [Tests] AUTOCRAT Employee Consults Joins PULL DEMOCRAT

Slide 131: Autocractic or Democratic? Reasons for a more participative or democratic style:  Information or expertise exists among subordinates  Greater understanding, acceptance and support of decision by subordinates

Slide 132: Path-Goal Theory Subordinates will be motivated by a leader only to the extent they perceive this individual as helping them to attain valued goals.

Slide 133: Path-Goal Leadership Model Select the leadership style that is appropriate to the situation to maximise performance and job satisfaction.

Slide 134: Path-Goal Leadership Styles Directive  – Informs subordinates of expectations, gives guidance, shows how to do tasks Supportive  – Friendly and approachable, shows concern for status, well-being and needs of subordinates

Slide 135: Path-Goal Leadership Styles Participative  – Consults with subordinates, solicits suggestions, takes suggestions into consideration Achievement oriented  – Sets challenging goals, expects subordinates to perform at highest level, continuously seeks improvement in performance, has confidence in highest motivations of employees

Slide 136: Path-Goal Guidelines to Be Effective Leader Determine the outcomes subordinates want  – e.g., good pay, job security, interesting work, and autonomy to do one’s job, etc. Reward individuals with their desired outcomes  when they perform well Be clear with expectations  – Let individuals know what they need to do to receive rewards (the path to the goal) – Remove barriers that prevent high performance – Express confidence that individuals have the ability to perform well

Slide 137: Transactional & Transformational Leadership As a transactional leader, I use formal rewards & punishments. As a transformational leader, I inspire and excite followers to high levels of performance.

Slide 138: McGregor’s Theory X & Theory Y 2 assumptions about human nature:  Theory X – Workers are passive and lazy – Prefer to be led – Resist change Theory Y  – Management’s basis task is to ensure that workers meet their important needs while they work Either theory can be a self-fulfilling prophecy. 

Slide 139: Servant Leadership Servant Leaders focus on providing increased service to others—meeting the goals of both the followers and the organization—rather than themselves

Slide 140: Benefits of Leading Without Authority Latitude for creative deviance  – Easier to raise questions Issue focus  – Freedom to focus on single issue, rather than many issues Frontline information  – Often closer to the people who have the information

Slide 141: Substitutes for Leadership  In some situations, leaders may not be necessary  Other factors may substitute for or neutralise leader’s influence

Slide 142: Workers That Are Jobs That Are Experienced or Unambiguous or Highly-Trained Highly Satisfying Is Leadership Always Relevant? Goals That Are Workgroups Formalized or That Are Cohesive Rules That Are Rigid

Slide 143: What is power?  Abilityto get someone to do something you want done.  Capacity to make things happen in the way you want.  Extent to which 1 person can exert more force on other group members than they, in turn, can exert to resist the powerful person’s intentions.

Slide 144: Effects of Power on Leaders  Feel good  Are reward oriented  Changes relationships between people  Rely more on automatic processing  Removes inhibitions against taking action

Slide 145: Effects of Power on Followers  Followers pay extra attention to the powerful person & try to understand him/her  People with less power will be prone to fostering peace & harmony  People low in power adapt to the expectations of high-power people

Slide 146: Bad Bosses  In surveys, a majority of people say the worst thing about their job is their boss  Estimates suggest over 50% of managers in America are incompetent or otherwise bad

Slide 147: Bad Bosses: Four types  Promoted above ability (Peter Principle)  Fails to build a good team (poor hiring choices)  Poor interpersonal skills (arrogant, etc.) leading to conflicts  Undermines the group (e.g., betrays trust)

Slide 148: Dangerous Leaders  “Emotional disregard and disconnection from others” (Mayer, 1993)  Indifference toward people’s suffering, devaluation of people generally  Intolerant of criticism (e.g., suppressing dissent)  Grandiose sense of national entitlement

Slide 149: Summary & Conclusions  Leadership plays a central part in understanding group behavior.  A lot of research has illustrated the complexity of leadership.  Leadership as person, role, & situation.  Literature provides some support for the role of individual differences – Appear to be key skill and traits for associated with effective leadership

Slide 150: Summary & Conclusions  Leader as an active, flexible pursuer of vision who influences others towards achievement of vision.  No one style of leadership is always the preferred leadership style.  Leadership is not value- & culture- bound.  Leadership may not be necessary given the right conditions.

Slide 151: Summary & Conclusions  Humans gradually developed means of transferring power without violence  Restricting power is one great achievement of human culture