2. Nervous & Hormonal
Communication
Receptors detect stimuli and effectors produce a response:
◦ Receptors can be cells or proteins on cell surface membranes
◦ Effectors include muscle cells & cells found in glands
Nervous system sends information as electrical impulses:
◦ Sensory Neurone – Transmits impulses from receptor to CNS
◦ Motor Neurone – Transmits impulses from CNS to effector
◦ Relay Neurone – Transmits impulses between Sensory & Motor Neurones
Stimulus Receptor CNS Effector Response
Peripheral Nervous System:
◦ Made up of neurones that connect CNS to rest of body
Somatic Nervous System:
◦ Controls conscious activities e.g. running
Autonomic Nervous System:
◦ Controls unconscious activities e.g. digestion
◦ Sympathetic: - stimulates effectors/speeds things up
◦ Parasympathetic: - inhibits effectors/slows things down
3. Nervous & Hormonal
Communication
Hormonal system is made up of glands & hormones:
◦ Group of specialised cells that secrete a useful substance
◦ Hormones are ‘chemical messengers’ mostly proteins or peptides
Glands stimulated by:
◦ Change in concentration of a specific substance
◦ Electrical impulse
Hormones diffuse directly into the blood
Hormones usually trigger a response in the target cells
4. They’re specific to one particular stimulus
They can be cells, or proteins on cell surface membranes
How they work:
◦ When nervous system receptor at resting state there’s a difference in
voltage between inside & outside of cell
◦ Resting potential is when a cell is at rest
◦ When a stimulus is detected, cell membrane becomes excited & more
permeable. This allows ions to move in & out of cell.
◦ This alters the potential difference (PD) of cell
◦ Change in PD is called the generator potential (GP)
◦ Bigger stimulus = more ion movement = bigger GP
◦ If the GP is big enough & reaches threshold, a AP is produced
Receptors
5. Receptors in Skin & Eye
Pacinian Corpuscles – Pressure Receptor in Skin:
◦ They’re mechanoreceptors – detect mechanical stimuli e.g. pressure &
vibrations
◦ Contain the end of a sensory neurone – a sensory nerve ending
◦ Ending wrapped in layers of connective tissue – lamellae
◦ When stimulated the lamellae are deformed & press on the sensory nerve
ending
◦ This deforms the stretch-mediated Na+ channels in the sensory neurone’s
cell membrane
◦ Allows Na+ to move into the cell creating a GP
◦ If the GP reaches the threshold then an AP is produced
Photoreceptors – Light Receptors in Eye:
◦ Light enters through pupil – amount of light let through controlled by iris
muscles
◦ Light rays are focused onto the retina by the lens
◦ Retina contains the photoreceptor cells
◦ Fovea - lots of photoreceptor cells
6. Receptors in Eye
Photoreceptors convert light to an electrical impulse:
◦ Light enters eye, hits photoreceptors & absorbed by light-sensitive
pigments
◦ Light bleaches pigments, causes chemical change – membrane more
permeable to sodium
◦ If GP reaches threshold an AP is produced & is sent down the bipolar
neurone
◦ Bipolar neurones connect photoreceptors to the optic nerve
◦ Two type of photoreceptor:
Rods – Found in peripheral part of retina
– Give information in black & white
Cones – Found packed together in fovea
– Three types of cone – red, green & blue sensitive
◦ Sensitivity:
Rods very sensitive to light. Many rods join one neurone, so many weak GP’s combine to reach
threshold and trigger an AP
Cones less sensitive to light. One cone joins one neurone, so more light is needed to reach the
threshold
◦ Visual Acuity:
Rods have low visual acuity, many rods join one neurone. This means light from two objects
close together can’t be told apart
Cones have high visual acuity because each cone joins one neurone and the cones are tightly
7. Neurones
Resting potential – difference in voltage across the membrane when at rest
Resting potential maintained & created by Na+/K+ Pumps & K+ Channels
Stimulus:
◦ Bigger stimulus fires more frequently
◦ Causes Na+ channels to open
◦ Membrane more permeable to Na+
◦ Na+ diffuses into neurone
◦ Inside of neurone more negative
Depolarisation:
◦ If PD reaches -55mV (threshold), more Na+ open
◦ More Na+ diffuses into neurone
Repolarisation:
◦ At +30mV Na+ channels close and K+ open
◦ K+ diffuse out of neurone
Hyperpolarisation:
◦ K+ slow to close
◦ Too many K+ diffuse out of neurone
◦ More –ve than resting potential
Resting Potential:
◦ Na+- K+ pump returns membrane to rest
Refractory Period:
◦ Makes sure no overlaps or travel in one direction
K+ OpenNa+ Close
Threshold
Na+ Open
K+ Close
Refractory Period
8. Factors Affecting Speed of Impulse
Myelination:
◦ Some neurones have a myelin sheath – electrical insulator
◦ Made up of Schwann cells
◦ Between Schwann cells are nodes of Ranvier
◦ Neurone’s cytoplasm conducts enough electrical charge to depolarise
next node
◦ Impulse ‘jumps’ from node to node – saltatory conduction
Axon Diameter:
◦ Faster with larger diameters – less resistance
◦ Depolarisation reaches other parts of neurone quicker
Temperature:
◦ Ions diffuse faster at higher temperature
◦ Up to 40°C – after that the proteins denature
Motor Neurone
Sensory Neurone
Myelinated Axon
Dendrites
Cell Body
Motor End Plate
9. Synapses
Presynaptic neurone has a swelling – ‘synaptic knob’
Synaptic knob contains vesicles – filled with neurotransmitter
When AP reaches end of neurone causes neurotransmitter to be
released into synaptic cleft
Neurotransmitter diffuses across cleft & binds to receptor
Triggers AP, Muscle Contraction or Hormone Secretion
Neurotransmitter removed from receptor by enzymes
Cholinergic Synapse:
◦ AP arrives at knob
◦ Stimulates voltage-gated Na+ channels to open
◦ Ca2+ diffuse into knob
◦ Causes vesicles to fuse with presynaptic membrane
◦ Vesicles release ACh (Acetyl Choline) in cleft – exocytosis
◦ ACh binds to specific receptors on postsynaptic membrane
◦ Na+ channels open on postsynaptic membrane
◦ Na+ influx produces an AP
◦ ACh removed from receptor by AChE and reabsorbed into presynaptic membrane
10. More Synapses
Neuromuscular Junction:
◦ Synapse between motor neurone & muscle cell
◦ Similar to cholinergic synapse, but a few differences
◦ Post-synaptic membrane has lots of folds forming clefts, containing AChE
◦ Post-synaptic membrane has more receptors
◦ AP from motor neurone always triggers a response in a muscle cell
Neurotransmitter are Excitatory or Inhibitory:
◦ Excitatory depolarise the post-synaptic membrane, making it fire an AP if threshold is
reached e.g. ACh
◦ Inhibitory hyperpolarise the post-synaptic membrane preventing an AP being fired
e.g. GABA
Summation:
◦ Effect of neurotransmitter released from many neurones is added together
◦ Spatial:
Many neurones connect to one neurones
Small amount of neurotransmitter from each can be enough to reach threshold &
produce AP
If some release inhibitory neurotransmitter then total effect might not produce an
AP
◦ Temporal
Two or more impulses arrive in quick succession from same pre-synaptic neurone
11. Drugs Affecting Action of
Neurotransmitter
Same shape as neurotransmitter, mimic their action so more
receptors are activated
Block receptors so they can’t be activated by neurotransmitter, less
receptors activated
Inhibit enzyme that breaks down neurotransmitter, receptor is
blocked by neurotransmitter
Stimulate release of neurotransmitter from pre-synaptic membrane
Inhibit release of neurotransmitter from pre-synaptic membrane
12. Muscles
Skeletal muscles (striated, striped or voluntary muscles)
Made up of muscle fibres
Cell membrane of muscle fibre cells is the Sarcolemma
Bits of sarcolemma fold inwards across the muscle fibre and stick into the
sarcoplasm (muscle cell’s cytoplasm)
These folds are called transverse (T) tubules & help spread impulses throughout
sarcoplasm
Network of internal membranes called Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
Sarcoplasmic reticulum stores Ca2+ needed for muscle contraction
Muscle fibres are multinucleate (contain many nuclei)
Muscle fibres have lots of long, cylindrical organelles called Myofibrils
Myofibrils:
◦ Contain thick & thin filaments
◦ Thick = made of myosin
◦ Thin = made of actin
13. Muscle Contraction
Myosin has globular heads
With a binding site for ATP & actin
Tropomyosin & troponin found between actin filaments, helps filaments slide
over each other
At rest actin-myosin binding site blocked by tropomyosin, held in place by
troponin
AP depolarises sarcolemma, spreading down T tubules to sarcoplasmic
reticulum
Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca2+ into sarcoplasm
Ca2+ binds to troponin causing it’s change shape
Pulls tropomyosin out of actin-myosin binding site, exposing site
Bond between myosin head & actin creating a actin-myosin cross bridge
Ca2+ also activates ATPase, providing energy
Energy released moves myosin head, pulling actin molecule
ATP provides energy to break cross bridge
Myosin head reattaches to different binding site, creating new cross bridge
When excitation stops Ca2+ leave binding site on troponin & moves into
sarcoplasmic reticulum by AT
14. More Muscle Contraction
Aerobic Respiration:
◦ Most ATP produced via oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria
◦ Long periods of low-intensity exercise
Anaerobic Respiration:
◦ ATP made rapidly by glycolysis
◦ Produces pyruvate which converts into lactate
◦ Lactate builds up in muscles causing fatigue
◦ Short periods of high-intensity exercise
ATP-Phosphocreatine (PCr) System:
◦ ATP produced by phosphorylating ADP, adding a phosphate group from PCr
◦ PCr stored inside cells
◦ Quick production of ATP
◦ PCr runs out after a few seconds
◦ ATP-PCr is anaerobic & alactic (no lactate formed)
Slow-Twitch Fibres:
◦ Aerobic – Red Colour – high levels of Myoglobin
Fast-Twitch Fibres:
◦ Anaerobic – White Colour – low levels of Myoglobin
15. Control of Heart Rate
SAN generates impulses controlling HR
Unconsciously controlled by Medulla
Stimuli are detected by baroreceptors & chemoreceptors:
◦ Baroreceptors in Carotid Arteries – stimulated by Blood Pressure
◦ Chemoreceptors in Carotid Arteries – monitor O2, CO2 & pH in blood
◦ Chemoreceptors detect change in pH
◦ More CO2 = More Carbonic Acid = Lower pH
Stimulus Receptor
Neurone &
Neurotransmitter
Effector Response
High BP
Baroreceptor
Impulse to medulla, along
parasympathetic to SAN
Cardiac
Muscle
HR slows BP
lowers
Low BP
Impulse to medulla, along
sympathetic to SAN
HR increases BP
increases
Low CO2
Chemoreceptor
Impulse to medulla, along
parasympathetic to SAN
HR slows CO2 level
returns to norm
High CO2
Impulse to medulla, along
sympathetic to SAN
HR increases CO2
level returns to
norm
16. Reflexes
Involuntary rapid response to a stimuli
Thermoreceptors in skin detect heat stimulus
Sensory neurone carries impulse to Relay
Relay to Motor
Motor sends impulse to effector (e.g. biceps)
Effector muscle contracts stopping hand being damaged
If relay neurone involved you can override the reflex e.g. leave your
hand on the heat
17. Responses in Animals
Tactic response (taxes):
◦ Organisms move towards or away from a directional stimulus
◦ Phototaxis – Light
◦ Chemotaxis – Chemicals
◦ Aerotaxis – Air (O2)
◦ Geotaxis - Gravity
Kinetic response (kineses):
◦ Organisms’ movement is affected by the intensity of the stimulus
Cells communicate with other cells with Chemical Mediators:
◦ Chemical mediator is a chemical messenger that acts locally
◦ Similar to hormones
◦ Chemical mediators can be secreted from cells not just from glands
◦ Target cells near to where mediator is produced – local response
◦ Only travel a short distance – quicker response
Histamines:
◦ Stored in mast cells & basophils. Released in response to infection or injury.
Allows more immunity cells to move in & out of blood to the area
Prostaglandins:
◦ Produced by most cells of the body. Involved in inflammation, fever, BP
regulation & blood clotting
18. Responses in Plants
Tropism – Plants Growth Response to an External Stimulus
+ve tropism = growth towards the stimulus
Phototropism:
◦ Growth in response to Light
◦ Shoot grow towards light +vely phototropic
◦ Roots grow away from light -vely phototropic
Geotropism:
◦ Growth in response to Light
◦ Shoots are -vely geotropic, grow upwards
◦ Roots are +vely geotropic, grow downwards
Gibberellin is a growth stimulus flowering & seed germination
Auxins stimulates growth of shoots by cell elongation
Auxins inhibit growth in roots
IAA is an important Auxin – diffuses over short distances & via phloem
over long distances
Root
Root Shoot
Shoot
19. Homeostasis
Homeostasis involves control systems that keep your internal
environment roughly constant
Temperature:
◦ If too high enzymes denature, enzymes molecules vibrate, breaks H-bonds, shape of
active site is altered
◦ Optimum - 37°C
pH:
◦ pH too high or low, enzymes denature
◦ Optimum usually – 7 but specialist enzymes can work higher or lower
Glucose:
◦ Too high H2O potential of blood is more –ve. H2O moves out of cells by Osmosis
◦ Too low, cells unable to function properly due to lack of energy
Negative Feedback:
◦ Mechanism that returns the level to normal but only works between certain limits. If
change is too big then effectors may not be able to counteract it
◦ Multiple negative feedback mechanisms give more control
Positive Feedback:
◦ Mechanism that amplifies the change from the norm, effectors respond to further
increase level away from norm.
◦ Blood Clotting – Platelets become activated – trigger more platelets to be activated
20. Controlling Body Temperature
Mechanism of Heat Loss:
◦ Vasodilation –arteriole diameter near skin increases – warm blood passes near skin
◦ Increased Sweating – H2O lost by evaporation, body heat used to evaporate H2O
◦ Lowering of Body Hair – less insulating layer – hair erector muscles in skin relax
◦ Behavioural - sheltering in the shade/burrows
Mechanisms of Heat Gain:
◦ Vasoconstriction – arteriole diameter near skin decreases – blood passes under
insulating fat
◦ Shivering – muscles involuntarily contract – produces metabolic heat
◦ Hairs Stand Up – hair erector muscles contract – traps layer of air next to skin
◦ Hormones – releases adrenaline & thyroxine – increase metabolic rate – more heat
produced
◦ Less Sweating
◦ Behavioural – basking in sun / huddling / sheltering from windEctotherms e.g. reptiles Endotherms e.g. mammals
Control temp by changing their
behaviour
e.g. basking in sun
Control temp internally by homeostasis &
behaviour
Internal temp depends on external
temp
Internal temp less affected by external temp
Activity depends on external temp Activity independent on external temp
Variable metabolic rate High metabolic rate – produces heat
21. Hypothalamus
Controls body temperature in mammals
Heat Loss Centre:
◦ Responds to rise in body temp
Heat Gain Centre:
◦ Responds to fall in body temp
Receives information about both internal & external temperature
Information produced by Thermoreceptors
Internal temperature:
◦ Thermoreceptors in hypothalamus detect blood temperature
External temperature:
◦ Thermoreceptors in skin detect skin temperature
Thermoreceptors send impulses to hypothalamus along autonomic
nervous system
To effectors from hypothalamus along autonomic nervous system
22. Hormonal Control of BGC
Insulin:
◦ Lowers BGC when too high
◦ Produced by Beta cells in the Islets of Langerhans (pancreas)
◦ Binds to receptors on cell membrane of liver & muscle cells
◦ These cells are more permeable to glucose, cell takes up more glucose
◦ Insulin activates enzyme converts glucose to glycogen
◦ Cells store glycogen in cytoplasm – energy source
◦ Glycogenesis = glucose glycogen
◦ Insulin increases rate of respiration of glucose, especially in muscle cells
Glucagon:
◦ Raises BGC when too low
◦ Produced by Alpha cells in Islets of Langerhans (pancreas)
◦ Binds to receptors on membrane of liver cells
◦ Activates enzyme breaks down glycogen into glucose
◦ Glycogenolysis = breaking down glycogen
◦ Gluconeogenesis = forming glucose from non-carbohydrates
◦ Glucagon reduces rate of respiration of glucose in cells
BGC – Blood
Glucose
Concentration
23. Control of BGC
Adrenaline:
◦ Hormone secreted by adrenal glands
◦ Secreted if BGC is low
◦ Binds to receptors on liver cells
Activates glycogenolysis – glycogen glucose
Inhibits glycogenesis – glucose glycogen
◦ Activates glucagon secretion
◦ Inhibits insulin secretion
◦ Adrenaline & Glucagon bind to receptors activating Adenylate Cyclase
(enzyme)
◦ This enzyme converts ATP into a chemical signal a ‘second messenger’
◦ Second messenger is Cyclic AMP (cAMP)
◦ cAMP activates a chain of reactions breaking down glycogen into glucose
(glycogenolysis)
Diabetes:
◦ Type 1:
No insulin produced, BGC stays high – hyperglycaemia, treated with insulin injection
◦ Type 2:
Don’t produce enough insulin or don’t respond to insulin
Treated by controlling simple carbohydrate intake
24. Menstrual Cycle
Lasts 28 days
Follicle developing in the ovary
Ovulation – egg being released
Uterus lining thickens, to support implanted egg
Corpus luteum develops from follicle remains
FSH (Follicle-Stimulating Hormone) – stimulates follicle to develop
LH (Luteinising Hormone) – stimulates ovulation & corpus luteum
development
FSH & LH from Pituitary Gland
Oestrogen – Stimulates uterus lining thickening
Progesterone – maintains uterus lining thickening
Oestrogen & Progesterone from Ovaries
25. 1. High [FSH] in Blood:
FSH stimulates follicle development
Follicle releases oestrogen
FSH stimulates oestrogen to be
released by ovaries
2. Rising [Oestrogen]:
Oestrogen stimulates uterus lining
thickening
Oestrogen inhibits FSH
3. [Oestrogen] Peaks:
High [oestrogen] stimulates FSH &
LH production
4. LH Surge:
Ovulation stimulated by LH
LH stimulates follicle corpus
luteum
Corpus luteum releases
progesterone
5. [Progesterone] Rises:
Progesterone inhibits FSH & LH
Maintains uterus thickening
If no embryo implants, corpus
6. Falling [Progesterone]:
FSH & LH increase (not inhibited by
progesterone)
Uterus lining not maintained so it
breaks down - menstruation
26. -VE & +VE Feedback -
Hormones
Negative Feedback:
Example One:
◦ FSH stimulates Ovary to release Oestrogen
◦ Oestrogen inhibits release of FSH
After FSH has stimulated Follicle development, -ve feedback keeps [FSH] low, so no more
follicles develop
Example Two:
◦ LH stimulates Corpus Luteum, which produces Progesterone
◦ Progesterone inhibits release of LH
-ve feedback makes sure no more Follicles develop when Corpus Luteum is developing
Also makes sure Uterus Lining no maintained if no Embryo implants
Positive Feedback:
Example:
◦ Oestrogen stimulates Pituitary Gland to release LH
◦ LH stimulates Ovary to release Oestrogen
◦ Oestrogen further stimulates to release LH
High Oestrogen concentration triggers +ve feedback to make Ovulation happen
27. DNA
It’s a large polymer of repeating Nucleotides.
G & A Large Bases (Purines)
C & T Small Bases (Pyrimidines)
A - T, C - G are the complementary pairs
Small % of DNA are genes, the rest is junk (VNTRS)
used to create a DNA fingerprint
DNA molecules found inside nucleus, but organelles for
protein synthesis are found in cytoplasm
DNA too large to move out of nucleus
Sections are copied into RNA which then moves to
ribosomes
A – Adenine
G – Guanine
C – Cytosine
T (U) – Thymine
(Uracil in RNA)
P – Phosphate Group
S – Sugar
N – Nitrogen Base (Varies)
Gen
e
Loci
Exo
n
Intron
A & T have 2 H bonds
G & C have 3 H bonds
28. RNA – Single Stranded
Messenger RNA (mRNA):
◦ Made during transcription in the nucleus
◦ Carries genetic information from nucleus to the cytoplasm
Transfer RNA (tRNA):
◦ Clover-shaped
◦ Every molecule has a specific anticodon at one end
◦ Amino Acid binding site at other end
◦ Found in cytoplasm where it’s involved in translation
DNA mRNA tRNA
Shape
Double Stranded
Helix
Single-Stranded Single-Stranded
Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose Ribose
Bases A T C G A U C G A U C G
Other… 3 Bases = 1 Codon
3 Bases = 1
Codon
3 Bases = Anticodon or
AA Binding Site
29. Protein Synthesis
Transcription:
RNA polymerase attaches to DNA double-helix
H-bonds between helix break
One strand is template for mRNA copy
RNA polymerase attaches free RNA nucleotides to template strand
RNA nucleotides then form mRNA molecule
RNA polymerase moves along strand of DNA
H-bonds reform in DNA, back to a double-helix
Stops making mRNA if reaches a stop signal (specific base sequence)
mRNA moves out through nuclear pore & attaches to ribosome
Splicing:
Pre-mRNA contains Introns & Exons
Introns are removed during splicing
In the nucleus
Only DNA that codes for AA’s remains
30. Translation:
mRNA attaches to ribosome & tRNA carries AA to ribosomes
tRNA anticodon molecule attaches to mRNA codon (specific base sequence)
2nd tRNA attaches to next mRNA codon
2 AAs joined by peptide bond
1st tRNA molecule moves away leaving it’s AA
3rd tRNA attaches to next codon, it’s AA bonds to previous 2 AAs
Process continues producing a polypeptide chain until a stop signal on mRNA
Polypeptide chain moves away from ribosome
Protein Synthesis
31. Genetic Code
It’s non-overlapping, degenerate & universal
The genetic code is the sequence of codons in mRNA which code for
AAs
Each codon is read in sequence, each codon is read separately
Degenerate:
◦ Some AAs are coded for by more than one base triplet
Some codons are used to start & stop protein production
Same codons code for AAs in all organisms
32. Regulation of Transcription &
Translation Transcription Factors:
◦ They move from the cytoplasm into the nucleus
◦ Bind to specific DNA sites near start of target gene
◦ They control the rate of transcription
◦ Activators – increase the rate
◦ Repressors – decrease the rate
Oestrogen
◦ Binds to an oestrogen receptor and acts as a transcription factor
◦ Forms an oestrogen-oestrogen receptor complex which moves into the nucleus
◦ It binds near the start of the target gene
◦ Complex can act as an activator or a repressor
◦ Depends what type of cell & the target gene
siRNA (small interfering RNA):
◦ Short, double-stranded RNA molecules
◦ Their bases are complimentary to sections of target gene
◦ Interferes with transcription & translation
◦ Affects translation through RNA interference:
In cytoplasm, siRNA & proteins bind to target mRNA
Proteins cut mRNA into sections so it can’t be translated
Prevents expression of specific genes as translation cannot occur
33. Mutations
Change in the base sequence of DNA
Caused by:
◦ Errors during DNA replication
◦ Mutagenic agents
Substitution:
◦ One base is substituted for another – causes frame shift
Deletion:
◦ One base is deleted
But not all mutations affect order of AAs:
◦ Degenerate nature of DNA
◦ Substitution may not affect AA order but deletion always will
Mutagenic Agents:
◦ UV radiation, Ionising radiation, some chemicals & viruses
◦ Act as a base – chemicals called base analogues can substitute for a base during DNA
replication
◦ Altering bases – some chemicals can delete or alter bases
◦ Changing DNA structure – some radiation can change shape of DNA
34. Genetic Disorders & Cancer
Hereditary Mutations:
◦ Some mutations can cause genetic disorders
◦ Some mutations can increase risk of developing certain cancers
◦ If a gamete containing a gene mutation is fertilised it becomes a hereditary mutation
Acquired Mutations:
◦ Mutations that occur after fertilisation
◦ If mutations occur in genes controlling cell division, can cause uncontrollable cell
division
◦ Produces a tumour – mass of abnormal cells
◦ Tumours invade & destroy surrounding tissues are Cancers
◦ Two genes control cell division:
Tumour-Suppressor Genes – mutation causes protein not to be produced uncontrollable cell division
Proto-Oncogenes –mutation causes it to be overactive cells to divide uncontrollably
Proto-OncogenesTumour-Suppressor Genes
35. Stem Cells
Able to mature into any body cell
Stem cells are unspecialised cells
Stem cells found in embryo and some adult tissues
Stem cells that can mature into any body cell are totipotent cells
Totipotent cells only found in early life of embryo
After this point they lose ability to become any cell
Totipotent found in plants:
◦ Mature plants have them where they grow e.g. roots & shoots
◦ All plants stem cells are totipotent
◦ Can be used for tissue cultures – cell placed in sterile growth medium – produces new
plant
Totipotent become specialised because they only translate &
transcribe part of their DNA
◦ Certain genes are expressed others are turned ‘off’
36. Making DNA Fragments
Using Reverse Transcriptase:
◦ Most cells contain 2 copies of each gene but contain many mRNA copies
◦ Enzyme converts RNA DNA
◦ DNA produced from RNA is cDNA (complementary DNA)
Using Restriction Endonucleases:
◦ Enzymes recognise palindromic sequences of nucleotides
◦ DNA sample incubated with the specific restriction endonuclease
◦ Can leave sticky ends allowing the DNA fragment to anneal to another DNA molecule if
they have a complementary base match
Using PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction):
◦ Mixture with Primers, DNA sample, Free Nucleotides & DNA Polymerase
◦ Primer – short piece of DNA complementary to bases at start of fragment required
◦ DNA mixture heated to 95°C to break H-bonds in double strand
◦ Cooled to 60°C so primers can anneal to strand
◦ Mixture heated to 72°C so DNA polymerase can work
◦ DNA polymerase forms a new strand complementary to the template strand
◦ Two new copies are formed, one cycle of PCR complete
◦ Cycle starts again
◦ Each PCR cycle doubles the amount of DNA
37. Gene Cloning
In Vitro:
◦ Where the gene copies are made outside of a living organism using PCR
In Vivo:
◦ Where the gene copies are made within a living organism
In Vivo:
◦ Gene Inserted into a Vector:
DNA fragment inserted into vector DNA
Vector – something used to transfer DNA into a cell
Vector DNA cut open using restriction endonuclease
DNA ligase joins sticky ends of DNA fragment to vector DNA, Ligation
New combination of bases in DNA – recombinant DNA
◦ Vector Transfers the Gene into Host Cells:
If a plasmid vector used, host cells won’t easily take in the Plasmid vector & it’s
DNA
With a bacteriophage vector, it will infect the host bacterium by injecting it’s DNA
into it
Host cells that take up the vector containing the gene are Transformed
◦ Identifying Transformed Host Cells:
Marker genes inserted into vector along with gene
Host cells grown on agar – creates colony of cloned cells
Marker gene can code for antibiotic resistance – agar contains antibiotic – only
transformed cells with survive
Can also code for fluorescence – will show up under UV light
Organisms with
altered DNA are
called transformed
organisms
Genetic engineering -
recombinant DNA
technology
38. Genetic Fingerprinting
Genomes contain repetitive, non-coding DNA sequences
Number of repeats of a sequence can be compared between
individuals
Gel Electrophoresis:
◦ PCR is used to make copies of sample
◦ Primers bind to each end of the repeat
◦ Fluorescent tag added to DNA fragments – visible under UV light
◦ DNA mixture placed into a well in the gel
◦ Gel covered in a buffer that conducts electricity
◦ Electric current passed through the gel, DNA moves towards +ve electrode
◦ Small fragments move further
Used to determine:
◦ Relationships
◦ Variation
◦ Medical Diagnosis
◦ Forensic Science
39. Locating & Sequencing
Genes Look for genes using DNA Probes & Hybridisation:
◦ DNA probes locate gene or see if DNA contains a mutated gene
◦ DNA probes are short strands of DNA, they have a complementary base sequence to
part of the target gene
◦ DNA probe will bind to target gene & can be detected if it is labelled (fluorescent or
radioactive)
◦ DNA sample digested with restriction enzymes & separated by gel electrophoresis
◦ DNA fragments transferred onto a nylon membrane & incubated with labelled DNA
probe
◦ Membrane exposed to UV or X-ray & bands will be visible
Restriction Mapping:
◦ Restriction enzymes cut labelled DNA into fragments
◦ Gel electrophoresis produces bands
◦ Compare DNA with different restriction enzymes
Gene Sequencing:
◦ Mixture of DNA template, polymerase, primer, nucleotides & Fluorescently labelled
modified nucleotides
◦ Each tube contains A*, G*, C* or T* & undergoes PCR
◦ Different length fragments produced depending on where the modified fragments bind
to the DNA e.g. ACTACG*, ACTACGATG* in tube with G*
40. DNA Probes in Medical Diagnosis
They can screen for mutated genes e.g. Sickle-cell Anaemia:
◦ Probe labelled to look for a specific gene
◦ Or Probe used as part of microarray, which can screen many genes at the same time
DNA Microarray is a glass slide with microscopic spots of different DNA probes attached in rows
Sample of labelled human DNA washed over the Array
Any matches with the probes will stick to the array
Array washed to remove excess DNA
Array under UV light shows any labelled DNA
Any spot that fluoresces contains that specific gene
Results of screening used to decide what treatment to use
41. Gene Therapy
Involves altering the defective genes inside cell to treat genetic
disorders & cancers
Depends if it is caused by mutated dominant or double-recessive
alleles
Allele inserted into cells using a vector
Somatic Therapy:
◦ Altering the alleles in body cells, particularly ones most affected by disorder
◦ Doesn’t affect sex cells so offspring could still inherit disease
Germ Line Therapy:
◦ Alters sex cells
◦ Offspring will not be affected by the disease
◦ Illegal at the moment