4. Contents
Introduction 7
Chronology 10
Background to war
Controlling the empire 12
Warring sides
Inside and outside the empire 19
Outbreak
Creating crisis 27
The fighting
Challenges to empire 34
Portraits of soldiers
Brothers in arms 62
The world around war
Impact of conflict 67
Portraits of civilians
Notable individuals 77
How the war ended
Making new boundaries 81
Conclusions and consequences
Roman legacies 86
Further reading 92
Index 94
5. Introduction
In the early third century AD the Roman the Balkans, with specific leaders emerging in
Empire stretched from Scotland to the Sahara certain areas: Bulgars in the north-east, Serbs
and to the northern River Tigris - an enormous and Croats in the north-west. In Italy the
imperial enterprise and the most powerful Lombard kingdom, based in the Po valley,
state in the world. Four centuries later the fragmented authority in the peninsula, and
Empire had shrunk to consist of Anatolia, the so it remained until reunification in the
Aegean fringes of the Balkans and limited 19th century. Franks controlled Gaul, though
territories in Italy around Rome and Ravenna. it was usually split between different branches
Still strong in Mediterranean terms, it was of the ruling Merovingian dynasty. In the
forced to confront and interact with a variety Iberian peninsula the Visigoths had
of new powers. To the east Arabs, inspired by established authority, sometimes tenuously,
Islam, had overrun the Levant and Egypt, as over the groups who had settled during the
well as the Persian kingdom. More than a fifth century; however, their switch from
millennium of conflict between Islamic east Arian to Nicene Christianity in the seventh
and Christian west was introduced as Arab
warriors pushed westwards through North The Emperor Theodosius and his family receive tokens
of submission from barbarians while seated in the
Africa and into Spain and regularly raided
imperial box at the hippodrome. From the base of
towards Constantinople. Slav tribes the obelisk at the Hippodrome in Constantinople.
established themselves throughout much of (Ancient Art and Architecture)
6. Essential Histories • Rome at War
century provided a force for unity which
would survive centuries of conflict with
Muslim invaders. The British Isles presented
another mosaic, with Saxons increasingly
dominant in the south and east, Britons
holding on in the west, and rival Pictish and
Scottish kingdoms in control of southern
Scotland. Here again religion offered hope for
future unity, with the Saxons progressively
converted through the Roman mission based
at Canterbury and the Celtic Church, which
was dominant in Ireland, Scotland and the
north-west, then reconciled with Roman
traditions.
By the end of the seventh century many of
the important elements of the modern
European political landscape were in place, or
at least in evidence, but the stages whereby
Roman hegemony fragmented are complex. It
is essential, above all, to remember that there
was nothing inevitable about this process:
Europe did not have to be organised into the
territorial units and dominated by the
national groups with which we are familiar
today. 'Decline and fall' has been a powerful
model for analysing this transition, from the Bronze head of Constantine with eyes characteristically
composition of Edward Gibbon's masterwork gazing to heaven. (Ancient A r t and Architecture)
in the late eighteenth century, and before. But
the vitality of the Roman system - especially but the setback ushered in 140 years of almost
when reinvigorated by Christianity - the unbroken peace in the eastern Empire. In 378
commitment of peoples to the Roman ideal, the eastern emperor Valens was killed in
and the sheer power of Roman arms also need battle at Adrianople in Thrace, and many of
to be stressed in opposition to this analysis. his Gothic opponents had to be allocated
Identification of turning points is an lands for settlement, but thereafter successive
understandable temptation, and acceptable eastern emperors generally managed the
provided that the qualifications for each 'Gothic problem' to their advantage. When
particular date are not forgotten. The the last sole Roman ruler Theodosius I died in
conversion of Constantine to Christianity in 39S, the Empire was split between his young
AD 312 initiated the Empire's transformation sons, and emperors ceased to campaign
from polytheism to Christianity, and regularly in person, but such divisions had
prompted the development of the Church as occurred in the past, often beneficially, and
a powerful and wealthy institution. For some there were advantages in withdrawing the
scholars the Church was yet one more emperor from the battlefield. 'Immortal'
substantial group of idle mouths for Roman Rome was captured by Alaric's Visigoths in
tax-payers to support, with unfortunate AD 410, but it had long ceased to be an
long-term consequences, but the Church also imperial capital, so the event was largely of
served imperial goals beyond the frontiers and symbolic importance: Augustine in Africa
reinforced loyalties within. In 363 Julian's wrote City of Cod to demonstrate the
grand invasion of Persia ended in death for superiority of the heavenly over the terrestrial
him and near disaster for the Roman army, city, but in Italy the Visigoths withdrew and
7. Introduction 9
emperors continued to rule from Ravenna. In cumulatively they contributed to diminishing
the 440s Attila challenged imperial authority imperial authority, undermining the fiscal and
- in both east and west, threatening even to military structures which permitted the
reduce emperors to vassal status - but his imperial machine to function. By the late fifth
Hunnic federation disintegrated after his century an emperor had become irrelevant in
death in 453 so that within a decade his heirs the western Mediterranean, although the
were seeking Roman help. In 476 the last eastern ruler was accepted as a figurehead by
Roman emperor in the western Empire was some. The eastern Empire's continuing power
deposed by a 'barbarian' general, but the was revealed by its ability to organise the
authority of the eastern emperor was still reconquest of the Vandal and Ostrogothic
acknowledged. A western consul was annually kingdoms, which extended to the recovery of
nominated to share the chief titular parts of Spain and the exercise of intermittent
magistracy with eastern colleagues, and under influence in Gaul. Even if the cumulative
Theoderic the Ostrogoth a regime, which impact of recurrent bubonic plague and the
carefully maintained a Gotho-Roman facade demands of western warfare left the Empire
dominated the western Mediterranean from economically and militarily weaker in AD 600
Ravenna. than it had been in AD 500, in comparative
Individually the significance of each of terms it might have been stronger, since its
these 'key' dates must be qualified, but greatest rival, the Persian kingdom, also
suffered heavily during a century of conflict;
its then ruler, Khusro II, had only secured the
One of the more accurate assessments of the throne with Roman help. In the early seventh
Empire's demise occurs in a conversation century internal dissension and foreign
between lews in prison at Carthage in the invasion seemed to have forced the Romans
630s. They discuss the state of the Empire to the brink of destruction, symbolised by the
and the news of a new prophet among the arrival of a Persian army on the Bosporus and
Saracens in terms of the vision of Empire in its co-operation with the Avar Chagan in the
the Book of Daniel (Doctrine of the AD 626 attack on Constantinople. But the city
Newly-baptised Jacob 3.8). and its Empire survived: within two years
'Jacob asked him: "What do you think Heraclius had defeated the Persians, and
of the state of Romania? Does it stand as overseen the installation of friendly rulers on
once, or has it been diminished?" the Persian throne, including, briefly, the
Justus replied uncertainly, "Even if it Christian Shahvaraz; and during the 630s the
has been somewhat diminished, we hope Avar federation began to disintegrate as the
that it will rise again." reduced prestige of its leader permitted
But Jacob convinced him, "We see the subordinate tribes to assert their
nations believing in Christ and the independence. For the eastern Empire the
fourth beast has fallen and is being torn decisive blow came out of the blue when
in pieces by the nations, that the ten the new religion of Islam transformed
horns may prevail."' long-standing manageable neighbours into
a potent adversary.
8. Chronology
226 Ardashir overthrows Parthian dynasty. 395 Death of Theodosius; Empire divided
235 Murder of Severus Alexander by between Arcadius and Honorius.
troops. 406 German tribes breach Rhine frontier.
243/4 Gordian defeated by Shapur I of 408 Stilicho executed.
Persia. 410 Sack of Rome by Alaric and Visigoths.
251 Death of Decius in battle against 418 Establishment of Visigoths in
Goths. Aquitania.
260 Defeat and capture of Valerian by 429 Vandals cross into Africa.
Persians. 445 Attila becomes sole ruler of Huns.
Franks invade Gaul; Alamanni invade 451 Attila invades Gaul; defeated at
Italy; revolts in Balkans. Catalaunian Plains (near Troyes).
261-68 Odaenathus of Palmyra takes 453 Death of Attila.
control of eastern provinces. 455 Vandals sack Rome.
262-67 Goths invade Asia Minor. 476 Odoacer deposes Romulus Augustulus,
271 Aurelian withdraws Romans from Dacia. the last western emperor.
Circuit of walls built for Rome. 493 Theoderic captures Ravenna and kills
272 Aurelian defeats Palmyra. Odoacer.
275 Murder of Aurelian. 502 Kavadh invades eastern provinces and
284 Accession of Diocletian. captures Amida (Diyarbakir).
293 Tetrarchy with Maximian as co- 505 Truce on eastern frontier;
Augustus and Constantius and construction of Dara starts.
Galerius as Caesars. 507 Clovis and Franks defeat Visigoths at
305 Abdication of Diocletian and Maximian. Vouillé.
312 Constantine captures Rome after 527 Renewed warfare in east. Accession of
battle of Milvian Bridge. Justinian.
324 Constantine defeats Licinius and 532 'Endless Peace' with Persia.
becomes sole emperor. 533 Belisarius defeats Vandals and
337 Death of Constantine at start of recovers Africa.
campaign against Persia. 540 Belisarius enters Ravenna and ends
353 Constantius II defeats usurper Ostrogothic kingdom.
Magnentius and reunifies Empire. Khusro I invades eastern provinces
355 Julian co-opted by Constantius as and captures Antioch.
Caesar. 542 Arrival of bubonic plague.
357 Julian defeats Alamanni at Strasburg. 546 Totila recaptures Rome.
361 Death of Constantius. 552 Narses defeats and kills Totila at Busta
363 Julian's invasion of Persia and death. Gallorum.
376 Goths cross the Danube. 562 50 Years Peace with Persia.
378 Defeat and death of Valens at 568 Lombards invade Italy.
Adrianople (Edirne). 572 Justin II launches new war on eastern
382 Theodosius settles Goths in Balkans as frontier.
federates. 578/9 Avar invasions of Balkans start.
394 Theodosius defeats usurper Eugenius 586/7 Slav raids reach Athens and Corinth.
and reunifies Empire. 591 Termination of war with Persia.
9. Chronology
602 Revolt of Balkan army and overthrow 632 Death of Muhammad.
of Maurice. 636 Arabs defeat Romans at River Yarmuk.
610 Heraclius captures Constantinople 638 Arabs capture Jerusalem.
and kills Phocas. 639 Arabs attack Egypt.
614 Persians capture Jerusalem. 642 Arabs capture Alexandria.
622 Muhammad leaves Medina (Hijra). 651 Death of Yazdgard III, last Sassanid
626 Avars besiege Constantinople, with ruler.
Persian support. 661 Mu'awiyah becomes Caliph at
627 Heraclius defeats Persians at Nineveh. Damascus.
10. Background to war
Controlling the empire
Marking boundaries conquest of Gaul, although it was only a
century later that the frontier stabilised
The centuries of conflict covered in this along the river - once grander Roman
volume saw the Romans pitted against visions to incorporate Germania were
enemies in three main sectors: along the renounced. Temporary military installations
Rhine against the Alamanni, Franks and were replaced in stone, permanent camps
other Germanic tribes; on the Danube against attracted settlements of veterans, traders and
first the Sarmatians and Goths, then the other camp-followers, and prosperous sites
Hunnic tribes, and finally the Avars and were honoured with colonial status, for
manifold Slav groups; in Armenia and example Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) and
Mesopotamia the Sassanid Persians; Moguntiacum (Mainz). Stability along the
eventually, towards the end of the period, frontier required active defence, and there
Arab tribes erupted from the Arabian were major campaigns commanded by an
peninsula to sweep through the Levant. Since emperor in the 90s (Domitian), 170s (Marcus
the Roman Empire was a military institution Aurelius) and 230s (Severus Alexander).
whose widespread control had been imposed The Rhine provided a partial barrier to
by force, there was naturally a long history of tribal movement which the Romans could
conflict in each sector, even if the precise
opponents were not always the same. Impressive defences reinforced Rome's psychological
The Romans first campaigned on the superiority along the frontiers. Taken from Trajan's column
Rhine in the 50s BC during Caesar's in Rome. (AKG London/Hilbich)
11. Background to war I3
Troops crossing a river by pontoon bridge, from a The second major European river frontier,
section ofTrajan's column. (AKG Berlin) along the Danube, was joined to the Rhine
frontier by linear defences, which protected a
control through naval squadrons and by triangle of territory to the south-east of
supervising recognised crossing-points. Argentoratum (Strasburg), always a sensitive
Beyond the Rhine were numerous tribal area. The Romans had reached the upper and
groups whose relationship with the Romans middle Danube during the reign of Augustus
was not always hostile: tribesmen served in (31 BC-AD 14), confirming their control over
Roman armies, Roman garrisons had the hinterland in the face of massive rebellions
considerable wealth (by local standards) to in Pannonia and Illyricum; further
spend on slaves, furs or basic foodstuffs, downstream the Danube became the frontier
while the Romans were a source of luxury during the first century AD. A process of
goods such as wine or spices. A symbiotic consolidation similar to that on the Rhine got
relationship could emerge: Romans wanted under way, but in this case the need to
tribal manpower and supplies, while tribal dominate the Dacian tribes of the lower
leaders relied on Romans for the wealth and Danube led to major campaigns across the
display goods to demonstrate superiority river under Trajan (98-117) in the early second
over their rank and file. A cyclical pattern to century and the creation of a new province
relations on the frontier can be seen: the within the arc of the Carpathian mountains.
Romans bolstered the authority of compliant In the eastern Empire the Romans
leaders whose expanding following encountered the Parthians during the first
generated greater demands; when these century BC, experiencing one of their worst
became excessive, conflict ensued between defeats in 53 BC when three legions were
Rome and a major tribal grouping; thereafter annihilated at Carrhae (Harran) in
the cycle would begin again. Mesopotamia. Until the mid-first century AD,
12.
13. Background to war 15
small client kingdoms constituted buffer North Africa, which the Romans gradually
states for Roman territory in Anatolia and took over between the mid-second century
the Levant. Thereafter the upper and middle BC and the mid-first century AD, resembled
Euphrates provided a suitable line on which the southern portion of the eastern frontier.
to base legionary positions - though, as Desert, supplemented on occasion by linear
along the European rivers, the Romans barriers, played a significant part in marking
maintained a keen interest in events beyond. the boundaries of Roman authority. Tribal
Between the River Euphrates and the Arabian instability could pose threats, though, as
Gulf, desert offered a reliable buffer zone, along the European frontiers; 'outsiders' were
although tribes who knew how to operate in tied into the Roman system through military
this inhospitable terrain troubled Roman service and economic exchanges. The British
lands to the west intermittently. For the Isles, which the Romans invaded in the first
Romans the east was the prestigious area for century AD, stands in contrast to the other
conflict, ideally for expansion, with the major frontiers as a place where the Romans
renown of Alexander the Great's relied primarily on linear defences - the
achievements luring successive western rulers walls of Hadrian and Antoninus - to separate
to emulation: in the early second century the untamed tribes of Caledonia from
Trajan campaigned to the head of the Persian Roman areas.
Gulf, briefly establishing a province in It is ironic that the best-studied Roman
Mesopotamia; in the 160s Lucius Verus defences - the salient between the Rhine and
(161-9) fought energetically in lower Danube in south-western Germany and the
Mesopotamia, and in the 190s Septimius walls of north Britain - are not typical of
Severus (193-211) again defeated the Roman frontier areas overall. As a
Parthians and annexed new territory. consequence, however, we may fail to
understand how the frontiers operated. The
A view along part of Hadrian's wall (showing Chester's traditional view is that frontiers were
fort), another defensive structure which combined maintained to delimit and protect Roman
protection and propaganda. (Ancient Art and Architecture) territory by barring entry to foreigners. But
14. I6 Essential Histories • Rome at War
frontiers are now seen as zones of contact, as maintain imperial control and ensure the
much as lines of exclusion: this is clearly smooth collection of taxation. They
true for the European river frontiers, and suppressed brigandage (which subsisted at a
even in the case of an apparent barrier, low level in many parts of the Empire),
scrutiny of the installations along Hadrian's regulated disputes between provincial cities
Wall reveals its purpose was to control, but and ensured their internal stability, and
not prevent, movement. It is also argued that oversaw communications between the
generals and emperors were more interested province and Rome, including the
in the rewards of conquest than in routine important annual expressions of allegiance
defence of the Empire's inhabitants, and that to the emperor.
from the military perspective the provinces
more often required subjugation than Taxes and trade
protection. Exchanges across frontiers, the Taxation was the lifeblood of the Empire,
significance of military glory, and the which depended upon a regular cyclical flow
preservation of law and order are all valid of wealth. The areas of greatest consumption
considerations, but the ideology of pax were Rome - where the imperial court and
Romana was also important: emperors were senatorial households spent lavishly - and the
believed to have a duty towards the civilian frontier armies whose salaries had to be paid
members of the Empire - or at least their to prevent the risk of mutiny. Most frontier
performance of this role was an issue which provinces could not support the full costs of
might be picked up in speeches of praise or the legions based in them, and so tax
defamatory tracts. surpluses had to be transferred from 'interior'
Within the frontier Roman territory was regions, for example Spain or Asia Minor
divided into provinces, of which there were where the inhabitants generated cash to meet
about 60 in the early third century AD. Most tax demands by selling produce: the Empire
provincial governors were drawn from the evolved quite a complex system which locked
senate, the council made up of former different areas together. The two most
magistrates, which had considerable important taxes were a poll tax and a land tax.
authority but little real power. Governors of The former was simpler, although its coverage
frontier provinces with substantial armies and rate varied. The latter was based on an
were chosen from among former consuls assessment of land value as determined by
(the most senior group within the senate) by agricultural use, for example arable as opposed
the emperor. In the 'interior' provinces the to vineyard or pastureland, and was levied as a
governors' primary functions were to fixed percentage of the valuation. These taxes
were not progressive, which meant that
financial burdens fell more heavily on
A panel from Constantine's arch at Rome showing the
emperor distributing largesse. This victory monument small-holders than grandees, who would also
depicts the emperor's civilian virtues as well as his have greater influence to secure exemptions.
military triumphs. (AKG London/Pirozzi) In addition there were customs duties at both
15. Background to war I7
imperial and provincial boundaries, and a enriched both the imperial exchequer
5 per cent tax for Roman citizens on through customs revenues and the
inheritances and the freeing of slaves. middlemen whose profits were invested in
Movement of produce, as both trade and Petra and Palmyra. The current view of the
tax revenue, was an important aspect of the Roman economy, based in part on the
Empire's economic system. Massive amounts increasing evidence from ship-wrecks, is that
of grain from Egypt and other parts of North trade played a minor but significant role in
Africa, and of oil and wine from Spain, were the Empire's prosperity: trade in luxury items
transported to supply Rome as taxation or was the tip of an iceberg of local, intra-
the produce of imperial estates; similarly regional and inter-regional exchange which
senators' provincial estates supported their was greatly facilitated by the existence of the
palatial households in the capital. Supplies roads, ports and other installations
for the army might also seem to be located established to service the crucial elements of
within this command economy and to an the imperial system, namely the capital and
extent they were, but the Vindolanda writing the armies.
tablets, which preserve correspondence of an Overall, the Empire was prosperous during
auxiliary cohort based in north Britain the first two centuries AD, as can be seen
c. AD 100 reveal that army units were also from the archaeological remains of provincial
supported by their own supply networks. cities where local elites competed to beautify
The best evidence for Roman trade their home towns. Wealth did flow out of the
inevitably relates to the exceptional needs of Empire, but this was balanced by the
the elite, who had an enormous appetite for
eastern 'luxuries': spices from eastern Africa, The colonnaded streets of Palmyra were evidence of the
and silks, gems and spices from India. The wealth derived by the city from its trading activities.
eastern trade was a substantial enterprise; it (Ancient A r t and Architecture)
16. 18 Essential Histories • Rome at War
substantial production of mines (such as the
silver mines of Spain), imperial properties Cassius Dio, historian, twice consul and
which were exploited under the protection experienced provincial governor, writing
of military units. In spite of the inflexibility about 230, assesses the change in the
of the tax system, imperial revenue tended Empire's fortunes in 180 (72.36).
to exceed expenditure during peace time, '[Marcus Aurelius] encountered a host
while wars could be supported, especially if of problems practically all through his
they were of limited duration and generated reign ... he both survived himself and
some booty: the agricultural production of preserved the Empire in extraordinary
the provinces sustained both the imperial and untoward circumstances. One thing
machine and the demands of local cities. alone marred his personal happiness: his
On the other hand, there were already son [Commodus] ... our history now
ominous signs of strain in the second falls away, as affairs did for the Romans
century, the golden age of imperial of that time, from a realm of gold to
prosperity. The purity of the basic silver one of iron and rust.'
coin, the denarius, was reduced from about
90 per cent to 75 per cent, and then to
50 per cent under Septimius Severus. The Empire functioned best when rulers
Prolonged warfare was expensive, especially survived for reasonably long reigns with the
along the European river frontiers where support of both senate and provincial
booty was unlikely to offset costs: troops armies, when conflicts remained localised
had to be moved to the area of conflict, and did not coincide with challenges on
imposing demands on communities along other frontiers, and when climatic and other
their lines of march, and extra resources conditions permitted a reasonable level of
were demanded to make good losses. Civil agricultural production. The accession of
war was an even worse prospect, partly Septimius Severus in 193 provided a severe
because such conflicts were, at best, a jolt, since this was followed by three years of
zero-sum game (and at worst ruinously internal conflict across much of the Empire.
expensive to ravaged provinces and all His son Caracalla, who succeeded in 211,
who supported the losers), but more had to buy favour with the troops by
significantly because any attempt to secure awarding a 50 per cent pay increase,
the throne required lavish promises of financed by issuing a new (overvalued) silver
donatives and higher pay for armies, which coin and by doubling the 5 per cent
would also be expanded to meet the crisis. inheritance tax: to increase the revenue from
The plague brought back from the east by the latter, he gave Roman citizenship to all
Lucius Verus' army in AD 167 was also a the free inhabitants of the Empire and so
significant factor, and the consequences of brought them into the tax net. The Empire
the loss of agricultural population can be survived Caracalla, but if the balance of
traced in papyrus records of land leases in imperial prosperity was delicate during the
Egypt: in some areas the impact seems to second century it now become precarious,
have lasted for a generation, in others three with a major external threat or significant
generations. internal upheaval likely to generate a crisis.
17. Warring sides
Inside and outside the empire
Army of the Roman Empire were recruited into the legions,
while non-citizens traditionally entered
The Roman Empire depended on the the auxiliary units. Remarkably little is
power of its armies, which had always known about the process of recruitment:
been composed of a combination of citizen
and non-citizen troops. Before the universal Late Roman cavalry. Artwork by Christa Hook.
extension of citizenship in AD 212 citizens (Osprey Publishing)
18. 20 Essential Histories • Rome at War
Late Roman infantry. Artwork by Christa Hook. (Osprey Publishing)
19. Warring sides 21
conscription was probably always a feature, a horseman equipped with a composite bow
with manpower needs being apportioned in to represent the ideal contemporary soldier.
line with census records of citizens, but there But infantry remained the basis for most
was also some element of hereditary service armies, and Roman foot-soldiers, when
as units drew on veteran settlements. At properly trained and led, were capable of
times, perhaps often, military service offered defying all opponents.
a reasonably good and quite safe career for Another development in the late Roman
the young provincials, especially if they army was that, from the fourth century,
served close to home. distinctions were drawn, in terms of status
In the later Empire it is often alleged that as well as rewards, between limitanei and
the balance of the armies changed, with troops of the comitatus, i.e. between more
citizens being outnumbered by foreigners, static provincial units and those which
the traditional infantry backbone eclipsed accompanied the emperor or senior
by cavalry units, and frontier units generals. It is often claimed that limitanei
(limitanei) relegated to an inferior status. became soldier-farmers, losing their military
Romans were progressively demilitarised quality along with their professionalism,
and the increasingly un-Roman armies but that misrepresents the nature of the
declined in discipline and loyalty. These estates which helped to support them and
theories reflect developments in the later ignores their continuing use in conjunction
army, although they are all ultimately with mobile troops on major eastern
misconceptions. campaigns. It is noticeable that the limitanei
Roman armies did continue to rely on included more cavalry units than the
substantial units of non-citizens, especially comitatus, a reflection of the usefulness of
when troops had to be recruited quickly, as horses for local patrolling and of the greater
in civil war and after military defeat, or for ability of infantry to retain fighting
special expeditions. These 'outsiders' were strength when required to move long
often excellent troops who provided reliable distances quickly.
bodyguards for emperors and generals, There had been a gradual change in the
whose personal retinues of bucellarii deployment of Roman armies. In the early
(biscuit-men) might represent the elite part empire legions were quartered in major
of an army. There were also several senior bases near the frontier (e.g. Cologne), but
non-Roman commanders who played military need dictated that units were
important political roles, especially during detached for specific duties as frontier
the fragmentation of the western Empire in garrisons or in the interior. Later this ad hoc
the fifth century, but it is invalid to infer dispersal was consolidated so that troops
from their prominence that non-Romans were spread across provinces in numerous
also dominated the ranks of the army. forts and cities. Emperors, however, also
Infantry had always been the particular needed mobile forces for more rapid
strength of the Romans, and it is true that deployment. In the east there came to be
cavalry units performed a more important two armies 'in the presence' stationed near
role in late Roman armies, but there is little Constantinople, and others in the Balkans
evidence to support the popular notion and the east; in the west Gaul and Italy had
that the Romans switched to reliance on their own armies until imperial authority
heavy-mailed cavalry, an anticipation of contracted from the former.
medieval knights. The Romans had a few Overall, Roman armies changed between
units of mailed lancers (clibanarii or the third and seventh centuries, but the
boiler-boys) in imitation of Parthian and majority of troops were drawn from the
Persian units, but mounted archers on the Empire's inhabitants. Specific upland
Hunnic model were probably more common. regions had the reputation for producing
The sixth-century historian Procopius chose good recruits: the Balkan highlands,
20. 22 Essential Histories • Rome at War
Late Roman parade helmet (AKG London) looked quite barbaric and undisciplined,
but the same could often have been said
mountainous Isauria in southern Asia about early imperial armies.
Minor, and Armenia. Goths, Germans and The size of late Roman armies is a complex
Huns also made important contributions, game for which most of the pieces are missing.
but such soldiers often came from groups In the third century army units probably
who had been accepted into the Empire and numbered upwards of 350,000, with a further
given lands with the explicit purpose of 40,000 in the navy. Numbers increased
providing recruits. To educated observers significantly under Diocletian (284-305) and
from the cities, the people who wrote most Constantine (306-37), so that the total
of our evidence, Roman armies undoubtedly military establishment exceeded 500,000 -
21. Warring sides 23
perhaps even 600,000. But paper strength will Folio from the Notitia Dignitatum, depicting the
always have surpassed disposable strength, and responsibilities of the Master of Offices which included
the imperial weapons factories (fabricae). (MS Canon
many troops were committed to particular
Misc. 378, f. 141 r, Bodleian Library)
assignments so that only a small proportion of
the total establishment could be deployed for
individual campaigns. In the fourth century Empire, although it is probably correct that
an army of 50,000 was large, and by the sixth organisation, rather than basic military skill,
century mobile armies rarely exceeded 30,000. increasingly emerged as the way in which
In spite of complaints about discipline, Romans surpassed their opponents. The
Roman training appears to have remained Romans had the capacity to co-ordinate troops
tough. A succession of military manuals over long distances to build up complex
indicates that attention was devoted to armies, with artillery units as well as infantry
training and tactics, at least in the eastern and cavalry, and then keep these supplied on
22. 24 Essential Histories • Rome at War
campaign: the infrastructure of roads,
warehouses, granaries, arms factories and the The Greek historian Theophylact preserves
billeting arrangements generated a complex rare information on Persian military
body of law, and enabled the Romans to move arrangements.(3.15.4)
their men wherever thev were needed. 'For, unlike the Romans on
campaign, Persians are not paid by the
treasury, not even when assembled in
Persian arrangements their villages; the customary
distributions from the king, which they
Only in the East did the Romans face an administer to obtain income, are
enemy with a sophistication comparable to sufficient to support themselves until
their own. The Iranian Sassanids supplanted they invade a foreign land.'
the Parthian Arsacids during the 220s,
imposing themselves as a new military elite
on a heterogeneous population, which Persian kings did not maintain a large
included substantial groups of Jews and standing army until at least the sixth
Christians in densely populated lower century: there were garrisons in frontier
Mesopotamia. Persian armies are not clearly cities and fortresses, but for major campaigns
understood, since almost all our knowledge kings instructed their nobles to mobilise
comes from Roman informants reporting provincial levies. Minor gentry of free status
Persian actions during the repeated conflicts. served as mounted warriors providing a
One important strategic point to bear in backbone, and they probably brought along
mind is that, from the Persian perspective, their own retinues. The system was feudal,
their north-eastern frontier, the sector in with royal land grants carrying an obligation
which they confronted the nations of central to serve or send troops on demand;
Asia, took priority; we occasionally glimpse campaigns inside the Persian kingdom seem
Persian action in this area, as when King to have been unpaid, on the assumption that
Peroz led his armies to disaster against the soldiers could support themselves from their
Hephthalite Huns in the late fifth century, or estates, but payment was given for foreign
during the service of the Armenian Smbat expeditions. Feudal arrangements could be
Bagratuni in the early seventh, but there is extended to attract troops from outside the
a substantial gap in our appreciation of kingdom - who worked for specific terms -
Persian might. but mercenaries were also recruited,
sometimes from the Hunnic and Turkic
tribes beyond the north-east frontier,
The career of Smbat sometimes from specific internal groups
The Armenian Smbat, a member of the such as the Dailamites who inhabited the
noble Bagratid house, commanded mountains south of the Caspian.
cavalry for the Romans in the Balkans in Persian armies are often associated with
the 580s, but was exiled to Africa for heavily mailed cavalry, but their most potent
instigating revolt. In the 590s he element were mounted archers: Roman
reappears in Persian service, being tactical writers advised that the Persians
appointed provincial governor by King could not withstand a frontal charge, but
Khusro II; he was trusted to suppress that any delay in engaging at close quarters
awkward rebellions in the east and would permit them to exploit their
received the nickname 'Joy of Khusro', superiority at archery. The Persians were
but Khusro was reluctant to allow him heirs to a long Middle-Eastern tradition of
to return to Armenia and Smbat was siege warfare and they had a formidable
kept at court as an honoured advisor. capacity to organise sieges, dig mines and
deploy a variety of engines to capture even
23. Warring sides 25
the most strongly fortified positions. In the mobilise 10,000 warriors, and larger forces -
sixth century there was a substantial such as those that confronted Julian at
overhaul of the tax system as well as a Strasburg in AD 357 - could be produced
redistribution of land, which was intended through alliances. On rare occasions
to bolster royal power by permitting the German leaders commanded larger numbers -
payment of some permanent units, an the Amal-led Ostrogoths fielded
imitation perhaps of the Roman comitatus. 25,000-30,000 warriors after subsuming a
But the feudal link between king and rival Gothic group in the Balkans - but
nobility remained crucial, dictating that this was exceptional, the product of Roman
military prestige was essential for royal power which forced tribes to coalesce or
authority: kings might embark on foreign face defeat.
campaigns to acquire booty and prestige for The most powerful Roman enemies were
internal consumption. the supranational federations, represented by
the Huns in the fifth century and the Avars
in the sixth and seventh. These groupings
Enemies in Europe swallowed the variety of smaller tribal units
within their sphere of action, with terror and
The personal prestige of the war leader was booty providing the cement; their existence
also vital for Rome's various tribal enemies in required regular warfare, and their ruthless
Europe. These groups ranged from small war leaders had the manpower to overrun the
bands from an extended family or single defences of even major cities. Both Huns and
village, through more complex clan and Avars posed serious challenges to Roman
tribal bands into which the family units authority, but their inherent instability was
would be subsumed, to the occasional but their undoing: Attila's death in 453 led to
mighty international federation. At the fatal dissension among his potential heirs,
bottom of the scale were the Slav raiders who while the Avars never recovered from their
crossed the Danube in the sixth century; failure at Constantinople in 626, since
these might operate in groups of 200 or weakness at the top permitted constituent
300, perhaps accompanied by their families sub-groups to rebel. The image of the Huns is
in wagons as they sought land for settlement. of nomadic warriors whose attachment to
Most of the German and Gothic groups their horses was such that they could
who challenged the Empire were collections scarcely walk, and it is true that the various
of such smaller clan or village units, united warrior elites will have fought as cavalry,
under the authority of a king. The right to but all these groupings could also field
lead depended ultimately on success, substantial infantry forces which would
especially in warfare; although leading have been provided by less prestigious
families (such as the Gothic Balti and Amali) elements, for example the Slavs within the
attempted to create dynasties, these could not Avar federation.
survive the shock of prolonged failure or the Collectively Rome's enemies rivalled, or
absence of a suitable war-leader. There was surpassed, its military strength, but the
some instability in these groups, and units - Romans could usually hold their own, partly
such as the Carpi, who were prominent down through superior organisation and training,
to AD 300 - might disappear permanently; partly through strong defences, but above
others such as the Lombards are absent from all by the strategy of trying to avoid
our sources for several generations before re- simultaneous conflict on different frontiers.
emerging in the sixth century. Such changes Along the Danube or Rhine tribal groupings
did not represent the elimination of these might co-operate in the short term, but
people but their subjection to a different elite Roman diplomacy was adept at exploiting
which imposed its identity on its followers. potential splits. Wider collaboration was
Powerful German kings might be able to extremely rare, the only real instance
24. 26 Essential Histories • Rome at War
Movement of Goths across Europe
occurring in 626 when Persian troops which distinguished the Romans from all
encamped on the Bosporus attempted to join their opponents, with the exception of
the Avar attacks on Constantinople, only to Saxon raiders in the North Sea and the
be thwarted by the Roman fleet. Possession Vandal kingdom in North Africa which took
of a small but powerful navy was a factor over part of the western Roman fleet.
25. Outbreak
Creating crisis
After the murder of Severus Alexander in 235
the Roman Empire experienced 50 years The Greek historian Herodian records
of instability, commonly termed the demands of a Persian embassy to Alexander
Third-century Crisis, a period which marks the Severus in the 220s (6.4.5).
transition to the later Empire. The 'crisis' can 'The mission declared that by order of
be viewed from a number of interlocking the Great King the Romans and their
aspects - frontier pressure, usurpers, religious ruler must abandon Syria and the whole
change, financial shortages - but it is of Asia opposite Europe, allowing Persian
reasonable to begin from the frontiers: here rule to extend as far as Ionia and Caria
developments can be identified which then and the peoples within the Aegean-
arguably prevented the Empire from Pontus seaboard. For these were the
controlling change in other areas. traditional possessions of the Persians.'
Beyond the eastern frontier a new dynasty
was inaugurated when the Sassanid Ardashir
was crowned in Ctesiphon in 226. The inevitable refusal. Gordian's attempt to
change was significant since the Romans had discipline Ardashir's son Shapur I ended in
generally dominated the Parthians, and humiliation in 244, with Gordian defeated
indeed repeated Roman successes had and murdered and his successor Philip the
contributed to undermining royal prestige, Arab forced to purchase the withdrawal of
but the Sassanids propagated a dynamic his army. Shapur's invasions in 253 and 260
nationalism, including links with the resulted in the capture of Antioch, the major
Achaemenids, who ruled Persia before city of the eastern provinces as well as
Alexander the Great's conquests. Embassies
demanded the return of their ancestral The ruined walls of Dura by the River Euphrates.
property, with war as the consequence of the (Ancient A r t and Architecture)
26. 28 Essential Histories • Rome at War
The Valerian Wall at Athens, cutting across the agora. mouth; a decade later they swept across the
(Author's collection) north-eastern Balkans, and Emperor Decius
was killed and his army annihilated while
numerous lesser places such as Dura on the trying to force them back across the Danube
Euphrates, and the transport to Persia of in 251. Further ravaging occupied the 250s,
massive booty; Emperor Valerian was with the Goths commandeering shipping on
captured in battle at Edessa (Urfa) in 260 and the Black Sea to cross to Asia Minor and sail
taken back to Persia. For the next decade into the Aegean where they sacked Athens in
imperial authority in the east was limited, 268. Mining operations in Macedonia and
with the most effective resistance to the Thrace were inevitably disrupted.
Persians being provided by the ruler of This great movement of Goths naturally
Palmyra, Odaenathus. The east had become displaced other peoples who might find
an expensive military arena for the Romans, themselves squeezed against the Roman
and the substantial tax revenues of its frontier; this process could trigger the
provinces were jeopardised. formation of substantial federations as
The problem was compounded by events different tribes steeled themselves for the
on the Danube, where the Romans also had ultimate challenge of attacking the Romans.
to face a new enemy. Here change had been On the upper Danube the Vandals, Quadi
slow, the result of the gradual movement of and Marcomanni breached the frontier, and
Gothic peoples from northern Poland. The on the upper Rhine the Alamanni increased
first attested Gothic incursion came in 238, their strength to the extent that they twice
when they sacked Istria near the Danube invaded Italy in the 260s. On the lower Rhine
27. Outbreak 29
Porchester Castle. One of the late third-century Alexander, who had just campaigned
Saxon shore fortifications, built to protect southern and
unsuccessfully in the east, was overthrown
eastern Britain from raids across the North Sea.
(Ancient Art and Architecture)
by the Rhine armies who feared his
leadership. They proclaimed as their leader
Maximinus the Thracian (allegedly an
the Franks gradually came to dominate uneducated peasant risen from the ranks).
another large federation which threatened Maximinus made no attempt to conciliate
frontier defences during the latter half of the the senate, his control of the armies,
century, and Saxon pirates began to raid especially those in the east, was shaky in
across the North Sea and down the Channel. spite of a promise to double military pay,
Of the Roman world only Africa, the and the extensive confiscations needed to
Iberian Peninsula and, to a lesser extent, provide funds for his promises damaged his
Britain, were spared invasion. The reputation further. Maximinus survived until
cumulative nature of the frontier pressure is 238 when his failure to deal with rivals
evident, with emperors unable to divert supported or proclaimed by the senate
troops from one sector to another and caused his troops to mutiny. Seven emperors
instead constrained to confront invaders in within one year, fighting in North Africa and
conditions which led to defeat. The northern Italy, and disturbances in Rome
consequences for imperial prestige are were a foretaste of the anarchy to come; such
obvious, and by the late 260s the Empire was substantial internal upheavals naturally
virtually split into three units which afforded external enemies a chance to
attended separately to their own security. invade, which then increased the problems
Trouble began in 235 when Severus for whoever happened to occupy the throne.
28. 30 Essential Histories • Rome at War
The rapid turnover of emperors is best Rome's foundation in spectacular fashion,
illustrated by a simple list - with the proviso but the military reverses of the 250s
that it is difficult to include all the effectively split the Empire into three.
shorter-lived local claimants to the throne. Odaenathus' defence of the east fuelled
ambitions for imperial authority, which were
235-38 Maximinus inherited by his wife Zenobia in 268/9, while
238 Gordian I & Gordian II in Gaul, the Rhine armies proclaimed their
238 Balbinus & Maximus successful general Postumus. The air of crisis
238 Pupienus generated apocalyptic literature in the east
238-4 Gordian III (for example, the Thirteenth Sibylline Oracle),
244-19 Philip the Arab and a circuit of walls for Rome, 11.8 miles
249-51 Decius (19 km) in length, was rapidly constructed in
251-53 Trebonianus Gallus 271. The Empire was only reunited by
251-53 Volusianus Aurelian in a series of energetic campaigns,
253 Aemilianus which were helped by instability in Gaul
253-60 Valerian following the murder of Postumus in 269
253-68 Gallienus and by the death of Odaenathus; also, he
268-70 Claudius II Gothicus was prepared to abandon the exposed
270 Quintillus province of Dacia and redeploy Roman
270-75 Aurelian troops along the lower Danube. Perhaps
275-76 Tacitus most significantly, the energetic Shapur died
276 Florianus in 270 and it was to be 50 years before the
276-82 Probus Persians had a comparable leader. If military
282-83 Carus failure guaranteed overthrow, success did not
283-85 Carinus ensure survival: both Aurelian and Probus,
283-84 Numerian who continued Aurelian's re-establishment
of the Empire, succumbed to plots in
Each new emperor meant another military camps, and Cams died while
donation to the troops; each bout of civil invading lower Mesopotamia, allegedly
war more loss of life, physical destruction struck by lightning.
and distraction from the frontiers. Ironically,
in 248 Philip celebrated the millennium of Aurelian's wall at Rome. (Ancient Art and Architecture)
30. 32 Essential Histories • Rome at War
Coin with legend Carausius et fratres, c.AD 286. Empire, it transpired that Pannonians, and
(Ancient Art and Architecture) other officers of Balkan extraction, became
prominent. These were professional soldiers,
Another consequence of crisis was the at whom civilian intellectuals might sneer
marginalisation of the senate and a for their lack of culture, but they proved
professionalisation of military command. In to be solidly committed to the idea of
238 the senate and armies had contested the Rome and its traditions, as well as
imperial succession, but under Gallienus effective generals.
senators were effectively removed from The crisis also had a religious impact, since
military commands. This development a natural inference from repeated misfortune
had begun earlier, since the Severans was that the gods had to be placated. At first
had sometimes preferred trustworthy this took the form of intensified supplication
non-senators for important commands, but to traditional deities: in 249 Decius issued a
the insecurity of emperors furthered the general instruction to all citizens to offer
change while troops also demanded reliable prayers and sacrifices on his behalf. A
leaders rather than aristocratic amateurs. consequence, probably unintended, of this
When Aurelian came to power with the order was that Christians were faced with the
backing of the upper Danube legions and choice of disobedience or apostasy; some
then used these troops to restore the abandoned the faith, many more probably
31. Outbreak 33
Radiate coin of Aurelius (AD 270-275). (Barber Institute
of Fine Arts) A papyrus of AD 250 demonstrates the
consequences of Decius' demand for sacrifice:
found means to evade or connive in the everyone needed a receipt to prove compliance.
ruling, but there were enough martyrs to 'To those superintending the
identify Christians as traitors to the Empire. sacrifices of the village of Theadelphia,
Persecution lapsed with Decius' death, but was from Aurelia Bellias, daughter of Peteres,
restarted in 257 by Valerian who specifically and her daughter Capinis. We have
targeted the Christians, with attention focused sacrificed to the gods all along, and now
on the priestly hierarchy; his defeat in battle in your presence according to orders I
terminated proceedings. The successful have poured a libation and offered
Aurelian advertised his devotion to the sacrifice and eaten of the sacrificial
traditional divinities, especially Victoria, Mars, offering; we ask you to sign below to
Hercules and Jupiter who were all connected this. Farewell.
with success in war, and to these he added a Signatures: We Aurelius Serenus and
special devotion to the cult of the Aurelius Hermas saw you sacrificing.
Unconquered Sun, Sol Invictus, after the defeat Signed by me, Hermas.
of Palmyra in 273. Devotion to the correct Year 1 of the Emperor Caesar Gaius
divinity did bring success, as Diocletian and Messius Quintus Traianus Decius Pius
Constantine would continue to demonstrate Felix Augustus, Payni 27.'
in their different ways.
32. The fighting
Challenges to empire
Diocletian's stabilisation for Diocletian and Hercules his son for
Maximian. After six years of joint reign,
Aurelian reunified the Roman Empire, but rebellion in Egypt prompted Diocletian to
Diocletian re-established imperial stability increase his imperial resources by appointing
through a reign of 20 years which ended in two junior colleagues as Caesars, Galerius for
planned retirement. The secret of success was the east and Constantius for the west.
an imperial college, since one factor Marriage between the Caesars and daughters
promoting earlier disunity had been the of the Augusti united the Tetrarchy.
desire of major armies to have their own The energetic campaigning of Diocletian
emperor. Power-sharing had worked in the and his colleagues is reflected in the victory
second century when Marcus Aurelius titles which precede his Edict on Maximum
co-opted Lucius Verus to command his Prices of 301:
Parthian campaign, and was tried in the 'The emperor Caesar Gaius Aurelius
third century by the families of Valerian and Valerius Diocletianus, pious, fortunate,
Carus. Family control might enhance loyalty, unconquered, Augustus, pontifex maximus,
but perhaps at the expense of ability. Germanicus maximus six times, Sarmaticus
Diocletian elevated a long-standing maximus four times, Persicus maximus two
colleague, Maximian, to the rank of Caesar times, Britannicus maximus, Carpicus
in 285 and dispatched him to Gaul to quell maximus, Armenicus maximus'.
an uprising of baccaudae, rebels who have Constantius was sent to recover Britain,
been variously interpreted as Robin which permitted Maximian to leave the Rhine
Hood-style brigands or supporters of local frontier and move to Africa to deal with
warlords. In 286 Maximian was promoted Moorish incursions. In the east the major
to Augustus, with the relationship between achievement was Galerius' success against the
the Augusti represented by their divine Persians in 298, after initial defeat in the
companions, Jupiter king of the gods previous year. The decisive action was
Galerius' capture of King Narses' womenfolk,
although he also ravaged lower Mesopotamia.
An orator in Gaul addresses Maximian in Narses sued for peace and surrendered territory
289, praising his co-operation with Diocletia east of the Tigris to recover his women.
(Latin Panegyrics 10.11). Almost as important as the victories was
'Your harmony has this result, Diocletian's administrative overhaul, which
invincible princes, that even Fortune doubled the number of provinces - where
responds to you with an equally great governors were expected to keep closer
measure of success. For you rule the control of their areas - and introduced
State with one mind, nor does the great dioceses which grouped provinces and
distance which separates you hinder you provided a judicial buffer between the
from governing, so to speak, with right governor and the praetorian prefect at court.
hands clasped. Thus, although your The tax system was reformed perhaps to
doubled divinity increases your royal distribute the burdens of land and poll
majesty, by your unanimity you retain tax more fairly, perhaps to improve
the advantage of an undivided Empire.' efficiency. Provision was made for regular
reassessment; for the first time it was
33. The fighting 35
theoretically possible to construct an
imperial budget. Diocletian also attempted to Diocletian explains the need to control prices.
stabilise the coinage, with new issues of gold, (Preamble to Edict on Maximum Prices.)
silver and bronze, but he seems to have 'Who does not know that wherever
lacked the bullion to issue enough precious communal safety requires our armies to
metal coins to convince people. As a result be sent, profiteers insolently and covertly
inflation continued, and in 301 Diocletian attack the public welfare, not only in
issued an Edict on Prices, a law for display in villages and towns, but on every road?
all towns and markets of the Empire on They charge extortionate prices for
which was listed the maximum prices for a merchandise, not just fourfold or
wide range of goods and services. In terms of eightfold, but so that human speech
military organisation, Diocletian may have cannot find words to characterise their
been less innovative than in other areas, profit and practices. Indeed, sometimes
although the evidence for his actions is in a single transaction a soldier is
indecisive. His concern for frontiers was stripped of his donative and pay.
reflected in the strengthening of defensive Moreover, the contributions of the whole
installations, the construction of new roads - world for the support of armies fall as
for example the Strata Diocletiana which ran profits into the hands of these
from the Gulf of Aqaba to the Euphrates - plunderers, and our soldiers appear to
and the deployment of troops near the bestow with their own hands the rewards
frontiers. The army most probably increased of military service and their veterans'
in size during his reign, though there are no bonuses upon the profiteers.'
precise figures.
Augustus of the west died at York in 306,
Constantine and conversion his troops promptly acclaimed his son
Constantine. Over the next six years
Diocletian retired in 305, to a specially Constantine schemed and fought his way to
prepared palace at Spalato (Split), but his mastery of the whole western Empire, a
succession arrangements faltered because process which culminated outside Rome at
they disregarded the soldiers' strong dynastic the battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312: his
loyalties: when Constantius the new opponent, Maxentius, son of Diocletian's
partner Maximian, deployed his troops on
Towers at Constantina (modern Viransehir. Turkey). the north bank of the Tiber, but they were
The large horseshoe towers of basalt date back to the routed and during the confused flight back
fourth century. (Author's collection) to the city the wooden bridge collapsed. The
34. 36 Essential Histories • Rome at War
most significant aspect of the victory was
that Constantine's men fought under the Constantine writes to the king of Persia
sign of Christ, whose inspiration (Eusebius, Life of Constantine 4.9-13).
Constantine proclaimed; after the battle he 'With God's power as ally 1 began
set about rewarding his new God. In some from Ocean's shores and progressively
ways this marked a decisive change from raised up the whole world with sure
Diocletian (who had initiated persecution of hopes of salvation ... 1 believe that I am
Christians in 303) and Constantine's not mistaken, my brother, in confessing
conversion did eventually lead to the this one God the Author and Father of
Christianisation of the Empire and so of all, whom many of those who reigned
Europe, but the underlying religious attitude here, seduced by mad errors, have
was the same: correct worship of the right attempted to deny. But such
divinity provided victory. punishment finally engulfed them that
all men saw that their fate superseded all
other examples, warning those who
A contemporary Christian teacher, attempt the same ends ... With these
Lactantius, records how Constantine had persons - 1 mean of course the
the chi-rho monogram (the first two Greek Christians, my whole concern is for
letters of Christ's name) painted on his them - how pleasing it is for me to learn
soldiers' shields (On the Deaths of the that the chief regions of Persia too are
Persecutors 44.5-6). richly endowed! ... These therefore I
'Constantine was advised in a dream entrust to you, since you are so great,
to mark the heavenly sign of God on putting their persons in your hands,
the shields of his soldiers and then because you too are renowned for piety.'
engage in battle. He did as he was
commanded and by means of a slanted
letter X with the top of its head bent Christian population of lower Mesopotamia
round, he marked Christ on their to raise hopes of 'liberation'; he had already
shields. Armed with this sign, the army written to the young Persian king Shapur II
took up its weapons.' to inform him of the benefits of Christianity
and to warn him not to harm his Christian
subjects. In the event Constantine
For the next 12 years Constantine shared bequeathed the conflict to his successors,
the Empire in uneasy partnership with since he died near Nicomedia in 337 at the
Licinius in the east, but in 324 the two start of the march east.
clashed in a decisive naval engagement in Although his accession disrupted the
the Bosporus, with Constantine emerging as Tetrarchy, Constantine was in most ways a
sole ruler of the whole Empire. This victory true heir to Diocletian's purpose. For half his
was marked by the construction of a new reign Constantine was involved in civil
capital - Constantinople - on the site of the conflicts, which diverted attention from
old city of Byzantium, which gained new frontiers: he reorganised the central forces
walls, a palace and the other appurtenances which accompanied the emperor, the
of an imperial seat. Constantine now comitatns, and created two prestigious
inherited responsibility for the Danube and commands for cavalry and infantry, the
Persian frontiers. During the 330s he magister eqiutum and magister peditum. The
campaigned energetically against the Goths, praetorian prefect lost operational military
to such effect that the area was quiet for the responsibility, but took overall charge of
next generation. Towards the end of his administration, including military supplies
reign tension began to rise in the east, with and recruitment; in recognition of this
Constantine probably contacting the increased role, the Empire was divided into
35. The fighting 37
four grand prefectures. At provincial level confrontation. Constantius was engaged on
military command was also separated from the Danube, when Shapur II planned to
civilian duties. Constantine's greatest strike deep into Roman territory, for once
achievement was the establishment of a disregarding Nisibis. The Romans
stable currency, based on gold solidi struck at implemented a scorched-earth policy and
72 to the pound: the bullion gained from placed strong guards at the Euphrates
civil war and confiscations of temple crossings, but the river was in flood and the
treasures underpinned this coinage. Persians turned northwards. At Amida
Shapur attempted to overawe the defenders
by a display of might, but a Roman
The eastern Empire artilleryman disrupted proceedings when a
bolt aimed at the king struck a member of
The Empire was divided between his entourage. Shapur felt obliged to punish
Constantine's three surviving sons, the city, which eventually fell after 73 days
Constantine II in Gaul, Constans in Rome, of determined resistance, but the
with Constantius II in the east inheriting the combination of delay and heavy casualties
war against Shapur. Constantius II has terminated the Persian invasion.
suffered historiographically, since most Civil conflicts as well as the demands of
Christian writers regarded him as heretical, other frontiers distracted Constantius,
while the major contemporary secular especially after he became sole ruler in 353.
author, Ammianus Marcellinus, Between 351 and 353 Constantius co-opted
misrepresented him because of his clash with his cousin Gallus to supervise the east, but
the pagan Julian. As a result his dogged he proved unsuitable. In 355 Constantius
conduct of 24 years of war with Persia is turned to Gallus' younger brother, the
underrated, although he managed to intellectual Julian, and used him to control
preserve the eastern frontier with only the west, with better results until in 360
limited losses in the face of one of the most Julian's troops - quite possibly with Julian's
dynamic Persian rulers. There was only one encouragement - demanded imperial
pitched battle during the conflict, outside equality for their commander. Constantius
Singara in 344: the Romans had the stabilised the frontier before turning west to
advantage until a disorderly pursuit and confront his rival, but he died en route;
attack on the Persian camp permitted the Julian inherited the Empire without a battle.
enemy to recover so that the engagement Julian arrived in the empire of the east in
ended indecisively. Constantius' strategy was 361 with a reputation as a successful general
to build new forts and rely on the major and a need to demonstrate that he could
cities of the frontier to hold up Persian surpass Constantius. A major factor in this
incursions, with Nisibis holding the key to was religion: Julian espoused the old gods
advances across upper Mesopotamia: Shapur and had renounced formal adherence to
besieged the city three times, bringing the Christianity when challenging Constantius.
full might of Persian siege technology to Persia offered the great testing ground, where
bear, but the defences held, with divine Julian could prove the rectitude of his beliefs
support provided through the city's deceased and the pusillanimity of Constantius'
bishop, Jacob, whose corpse was paraded policies. Preparations were made for a grand
around the ramparts as a talisman. Singara, invasion in 363: Julian himself would lead an
however, was captured in 360 when a newly army down the Euphrates while a second
repaired section of wall was undermined, army created a diversion in northern
and Bezabde also fell that year. Mesopotamia. The campaign began well,
The siege of Amida (Diyarbakir) in 359, of with Julian overrunning Persian forts along
which Ammianus was a fortunate survivor, the Euphrates and reaching the vicinity of
illustrates the dynamics of strategic the capital Ctesiphon in spite of Persian
36. 38 Essential Histories • Rome at War
The arch of Galerius. Thessaloniki, showing fighting supply ships which could not be hauled
between Romans and Persians. (Author's collection) upstream. Treacherous guides led him astray
and then Shapur, whose army had not been
attempts to thwart his advance by breaching tied down effectively in the north, began to
their irrigation canals. However, he now harass; Julian was mortally wounded in a
realised that he had little chance of capturing skirmish, and his successor, the officer Jovian,
the city, and resolved to march back up the could only extricate his army by surrendering
Tigris; this entailed burning his fleet of territories to the east of the Tigris, plus
37. The fighting 39
Eastern frontier in the fourth century
Nisibis and Singara. Bitter opposition from experienced, a fact crucial for the eastern
the inhabitants of Nisibis who pleaded to Empire's survival during the fifth century.
continue their battle with the Persians was There were moments of tension, and two
overruled, and they were resettled in Amida. brief conflicts, but no prolonged warfare
Blame for the Roman reverse was until 502. Tension persisted for a time,
allocated in accordance with religious primarily over control of Armenia, but this
loyalties: for pagans the heroic Julian's was settled in 387 when the Armenian
success was squandered by the cowardly kingdom was suppressed and its territory
Jovian, whereas for Christians Jovian's piety partitioned between Rome and Persia. In
rescued the Romans from Julian's folly. The 421/2 war was provoked by the behaviour of
loss of Nisibis rankled, and its recovery was Christian activists in Persia against
still on the imperial agenda two centuries Zoroastrian shrines; the Christians fled west
later, but the agreement of 363 ushered in and Theodosius II refused to surrender his
the most prolonged period of peace which co-believers. In 440-42 conflict flared again,
the Roman eastern frontier had ever this time over Roman payments for the
38. 40 Essential Histories • Rome at War
Tne Baptistery at Nisibis with the lintels of the original position also became easier when doctrinal
doors just visible. Only a year after the building's questions separated them from Roman
dedication Nisibis was transferred to Persian control by
Christians. Attempts were made to regulate
Jovian (AD 363). (Author's collection)
the transhumant Arab tribes of the frontier,
construction of new fortresses was banned,
defence of the Caucasus; the Romans once the defence of key fortifications in the
more had the better of limited fighting. On Caucasus was accepted as a shared burden,
each occasion the Romans were prompted to and trade was funnelled through specific
agree peace because of Hunnic activity in the markets at Nisibis, Callinicum and
Balkans, while the Persians also had Artaxata. Rome and Persia came to see
distractions on their north-eastern frontier. themselves as the two lights of the world,
During these years there emerged a with a mutual obligation to help each
system of diplomatic arrangements, which other against disruptive and uncivilised
reduced the risks of disagreements spilling outsiders. There was even a story that
over into full-scale war. The rights of Emperor Arcadius appointed his Persian
minority religions were recognised, which counterpart Yazdgard as guardian for his
protected the Christians in Persia; their infant son Theodosius.
39. The fighting 41
(perhaps compounded by jealousies)
Khusro appeals to Emperor Maurice, unravelled the strategy and the army of Italy
recalling the tradition of collaboration was defeated near Basel. But in August Julian
between their states. (Theophylact 4.11.2-3) confronted the Alamanni on the right bank
'God effected that the whole world of the Rhine near Argentoratum (Strasburg): it
should be illumined from the very was a hard-fought struggle. Since Ammianus
beginning by two eyes, namely by the described it in reasonable detail, it is one of
most powerful kingdom of the Romans the few battles in late antiquity whose course
and the most prudent sceptre of the can be reconstructed. Ammianus commented
Persian state. For by these powers the that superior Roman discipline and training
disobedient and bellicose tribes are overcame the Alamanni's advantage in
winnowed and man's course is physical size, which gave their intitial charge
continually regulated and guided.' such ferocity; it is also noticeable that the
battle was won by the Roman infantry,
whereas their cavalry, which included some
heavy-armed cataphracts (suit of armour), was
European frontiers in the forced to flee.
fourth century After Jovian's brief reign, the brothers
Valentinian and Valens shared the Empire,
After Constantine's death, the crucial factor with the senior Valentinian taking charge of
in the west was civil war: Constantine 11 was the Rhine and upper Danube and Valens
killed while fighting Constans in 340; in 350 responsible for the lower Danube and east.
Constans was overthrown by Magnentius, an On the Danube the stability established by
officer on his personal staff, who then Constantine was broken, the reason, as so
dispatched a rival in Rome. Constantius, after often, Roman internal conflict. The Goths'
seducing the troops of another usurper in relations with Constantius had moments of
Illyria, clashed with Magnentius at Mursa on tension, especially when imperially
28 September 351 in one of the most sponsored attempts to promote Christianity
destructive battles of the century. Once provoked a backlash, but they remained
Magnentius was eliminated after a further allies of the house of Constantine to the
defeat in 353, the Rhine armies were again extent that when Procopius, Julian's cousin
disrupted when court intrigues pushed a (and hence distant relative of Constantine)
Frankish general Silvanus into revolt in 354; revolted against Valens in 365, he was able
finally Julian (who had been sent to Gaul in to secure help from the Tervingi, the main
355 because internal conflict had permitted confederation on the Danube. Thereafter
Franks and Alamanni to breach the frontier) Valens set about disciplining these rebels, but
was acclaimed Augustus at Paris in February severe flooding and the Goths' ability to
360; he marched his best troops east to disappear into the swamps and mountains
confront Constantius. prevented a decisive encounter. When Valens
Julian's actions in Gaul are painted in rosy halted proceedings in 369, the Tervingi
colours by Ammianus, whose surviving books secured better terms, which included a
open with the suppression of Silvanus, a reduction in their obligation to provide
daring action in which Ammianus troops for the Romans. South of the river
participated. During 356 Julian campaigned Valens embarked on energetic fortification,
energetically and re-established Roman while the Tervingi returned to persecution of
authority along the Rhine. In 357 an Christians. Further west Valentinian was
ambitious campaign was planned to take the engaged in similar operations against the
war into Alamannic territory, with the armies Alamanni, Quadi and Sarmatians, while his
of Gaul and Italy operating a pincer subordinates dealt with disturbances in
movement. Problems of co-ordination North Africa and Britain.
40. 42 Essential Histories • Rome at War
LEFT BATTLE OF ARGENTORATUM
Battle of Argentoratum Phase I: I Alamanni infantry in ambush; 2 Main
Alamanni infantry in wedge formation; 3 Alamanni
skirmishes; 4 Alamanni cavalry; 5 Roman flank guard
under Severus: 6 Roman light infantry; 7 Roman front
line including Cornuti and Brachiati: 8 Roman second line
including Batavi and Reges; 9 Roman reserve including
Primni; 10 Julian's personal guards; I I Roman cavalry;
12 Roman baggage and camp guards.
Phase 2: 13 Alamanni infantry drives Roman light
infantry behind front line; 14 Alamanni cavalry routs
Roman cavalry on right wing; IS Alamanni ambush
discovered and neutralised by Roman left wing, helped
by Julian's personal guard.
Phase 3: 16 Alamanni break through Roman front line,
but are held by second line; 17 Julian re-forms Roman
cavalry and stabilises right wing; 18 Roman left wing
pursues Alamanni ambush from field; 19 Alamanni drive
back Roman lines to foot of hill where camp sited;
20 Roman reserve and camp guards push Alamanni
back: 21 Alamanni flee towards Rhine, pursued by
Romans.
RIGHT BATTLE OF ADRIANOPLE
Phase I: Roman army deploys from front line of march
with cavalry on the right wing and light infantry in lead.
I Gothic wagon circle defended by infantry; 2 Gothic
light infantry; 3 Roman light infantry; 4 Roman cavalry on
right wing (sagitatti and scutarii); 5 Roman heavy infantry;
6 Roman cavalry on left wing; 7 Roman reserves
(Batavi); 8 Gothic cavalry (arriving late).
Phase 2: While Goths try to delay the battle to allow
their cavalry to return, the two armies come to blows.
9 Gothic infantry withdraws to laager during
negotiations; 10 Sagitatti and scutarii repulsed; I I Main
Roman infantry force attacks laager; 12 Part of cavalry
on Roman left wing attacks laager; 13 Gothic cavalry
returns, shatters Roman left wing; 14 Roman cavalry on
left still forming up.
Phase 3: 15 Most Roman cavalry driven from field;
16 Roman reserves withdraw; 17 Roman army trapped
between Goths counterattacking from laager and
Gothic cavalry.
In the 370s the position on the
frontiers changed. In the west Valentinian
suffered a stroke while trying to overawe a
delegation of Quadi, and was succeeded by
Gratian, whose military experience was
limited, and the infant Valentinian II.
On the lower Danube masses of Goths
arrived to pester Roman officials for the
right to cross and settle peacefully. Their
desperation was caused by the westward
movement of the Huns, who had been
displaced from further east and were now
approaching the Black Sea with a
