Chapter 2 - Family Development

Text: Family Therapy: An Overview Authors: Goldenberg and Goldenberg Instructor: Jeff Garrett Ph.D. FAMILY DEVELOPMENT: CONTINUITY AND CHANGE Chapter 2 Coun 632: Introduction to Marriage and Family Counseling

Family Development: Continuity and Change
The developmental approach to family life focuses upon the family’s life cycle
From Carter and McGoldrick’s (1999) multigenerational perspective , generations have a life-shaping impact on each other as families move through family life cycle stages.

Social Factors and the Life Cycle
Social class membership and cultural background influence the options, opportunities, and resources available to families for coping with unforeseeable demands for adaptation.

Developing a Life Cycle Perspective Examples

Developing a Life Cycle Perspective Example: Freud’s Psychosexual Developmental Model
1. Oral stage (0 to 12 months): The mouth is the focus of sensation and stimulation during this stage, and weaning is the primary source of conflict. Fixation results in dependence, passivity, gullibility, sarcasm. and/or orally-focused habits (smoking, nail-biting. overeating, etc.).
2. Anal stage (1 to 3 years): The main issue during this stage is the control of bodily wastes; toilet training is the primary source of conflict. Fixation produces anal retentiveness (stinginess, selfishness, obsessive-compulsive behavior) or anal “expulsiveness” (cruelty, destructiveness, messiness).

3. Phallic stage (3 to'6 years): Sexual sensation is located in the genitals during the phallic stage. The primary task Is the resolution of the Oedipal conflict, which entails a desire for the opposite sex parent and a view of the same-sex parent as a rival. A successful outcome results from identification with the same sex parent and development of the superego. Fixation can produce a phallic character, which Involves the sexual exploitation of others.
4. Latency stage (6 to 12 years): During this stage, libidinal energy Is diffuse rather than focused on anyone area of the body, and the emphasis Is on developing social skills rather than sexual gratification.

5. Genital stage (12+ years): Libidinal energy Is again centered on the genitals, and successful outcome In this stage occurs when sexual desire Is blended with affection to produce mature sexual relationships.

Developing a Life Cycle Perspective Example: Erickson’s 1 st 5 Stages of Development Stage Age Task Trust vs. mistrust 1 st year Satisfy basic physical & emotional needs Autonomy vs. shame/doubt 2-3 years Explore & develop self-reliance Initiative vs. guilt 4-5 years Achieve a sense of competence Industry vs. inferiority 6-12 years Set & attain personal goals Identity vs. role confusion 12-18 years Test limits & achieve self-identity

Erickson’s Last 3 Stages of Development Stage Age Task Intimacy vs. isolation 18-35 years Achieve intimate personal relationships Generativity vs. stagnation 25-65 years Help next generation; be productive Integrity vs. despair 65+ years Integrate life activities

Criticisms of Developmental Models
Criticism from Gilligan, McGoldrick & Carter, & feminist family therapists:
Centered on men’s development
Omits importance of connectedness and relationships

Family Life Cycle Stages (from Gladding, 2009) Family Life Cycle Stage Major Task Second-Order Changes in Family Status Required to Proceed Developmentally Leaving home: single young adults Disconnect & reconnect with one’s family while being own person Differentiation of self in relation to family of origin Development of intimate peer relationships Joining of families through partnership Adjustment & adaptation Formation of partner system Realignment with family & friends to include partner Families with young children Accepting new members into the system Adjusting system to make space for children Joining in child rearing & realignment with family Families with adolescents Flexing boundaries for children’s independence & grandparent’s frailties Shifting of relationships for adolescent to move on Refocus on midlife career issues Shift toward caring for elders Launching children & moving on Accepting exits from & entries to family system Renegotiation of partnership as dyad Realignment of relationships Dealing with disability & death Families in later life Accepting shifting generational roles Maintaining functioning while facing senescence Support for more central role of middle generation Dealing with loss

Unifying Individual & Family Life Cycles
Focus on growth & development of families and individual family members.
Both viewed from systemic perspective
Therapists must emphasize circular causality

Conceptualizing the Life Cycle: Preliminary Cautions
Avoid overgeneralizations
Stages may overlap
Stage transitions are rarely accomplished as neatly in real life as stage theory would suggest.

The Family Life Cycle Framework
Family stage markers are events in a family’s life that demand a new adaptation.
Each transition requires a family to change, to reset priorities, and to organize to meet the challenges of the new life cycle stage.
Different family life cycle stages call for the mastery of specific developmental tasks by its members.
Therapists can learn much about a family and how it is coping and functioning by assessing how that family meets the challenges of each life cycle transition.

Family Life Development
Family life cycle — developmental trends within the family over time
These phases are caused by a family stage marker that occurs because of:
A shift in family composition
a major shift in autonomy
external factors
Relationships between members undergo shifts
Is tension between individual & family as system

The Family Life Cycle Framework The Stages of the Family Life Cycle according to Carter and McGoldrick (1999)
See p.29

A Family Life Cycle Stage Model The Developmental Stages
Early Models (late 1940s)
Evelyn Duvall and Reuben Hill (1948) - first proposed a developmental framework for studying families to account for regularities in family life over time. The attempted to plot the stages through which families typically pass, and to predict the approximate time when each stage is reached.
Recent Models (beginning in 1980s)
Carter and McGoldrick broadened the life cycle concept to include a multidimensional, multicultural, multigenerational perspective. Their latest revision (Carter & McGoldrick, 1999) further expands the concept to include individual, family, and socio-cultural perspectives.

A Family Life Cycle Stage Model Family Transitions and Symptomatic Behavior
The family life cycle perspective offers a valuable context for understanding individual and family dysfunction.
From a family life cycle perspective, psychiatric symptoms in a family member represent a signal that the family is having problems mastering the tasks at that stage in the cycle.

Common Transition Points Through the Life Cycle Based on Duval (1977), and Barnhill & Longo (1978)
Structuralists and strategists , are especially interested in how families navigate transitional periods between stages.
See this table on p. 33

Developmental tasks: Problems to be overcome and conflicts to be mastered at various stages of the life cycle, enabling movement to the next developmental stage.
From a family life cycle perspective, psychiatric symptoms in a family member represent a signal that the family is having problems mastering the tasks at that stage in the cycle
Anxiety and distress are thought to be at their maximum at transition points as the family tries to cope, rebalance, realign, and restore stability.

A Family Life Cycle Stage Model Family Transitions and Symptomatic Behavior 32
A critique: It remains an oversimplified picture of what constitutes normal family development today. Recent changes such as dual career, high divorce rates, single-parent adoptions, children born out of wedlock (to teenagers and middle-age women), unmarried cohabiting couples, the increased visibility of gays and lesbians and numerous stepfamily arrangements need to be factored into any consideration of family development.

McGoldrick and Carter ( 2003), with a renewed emphasis on both the family and the larger cultural context , provide a more encompassing, intergenerational view of the impact of multiple stresses on a familys ability to navigate transitions.

Carter and McGoldrick are the leading advocates today of a multidimensional, multicultural view of the life cycle

Family Life Stressors Individual Immediate family Extended family Community Larger society Vertical Stressors : Racism, sexism, classicism, ageism, homophobia, consumerism, poverty Disappearance of community, more work, less leisure, inflexibility of workplace, no time for friends Family emotional patterns, myths, triangles, secrets, legacies, losses Violence, addictions, ignorance, depression, lack of spiritual expression or dreams Genetic makeup, abilities and disabilities Systems Levels : Sociocultural, political, economic Community: neighborhood, work, friends, religions, organizations Extended family Immediate family Individual Horizontal Stressors : Developmental -- life cycle transitions -- migration Unpredictable -- untimely death -- chronic illness -- accident -- unemployment Historical Events -- war -- economic depression -- political climate -- natural disasters

Expected Life Stressors
Developmental — age, life-stage related
Situational — interpersonal
Common stressors:
Economics & finances
Children’s behaviors
Insufficient couple time
Communicating with children
Insufficient personal time
Insufficient family play time
Coping — planning ahead; lowering expectations

Unexpected Life Stressors
Timing is crucial to functionality
Family development & environmental fit
Families have special difficulty with:
Happenstance & chance
Physical/psychological trauma
Success & failure
Other stresses — gaining/losing member, illness, job loss, inheriting money

Universal Family Structures
Symmetrical/Complementary families
symmetrical — relationship based on similarity of behavior
Each partner is versatile & tries to become competent at needed tasks
complementary — roles defined rigidly & differences maximized
Both will work as long as:
members are satisfied & competent in their roles
Sufficient interrelationship of roles so tasks are done
Parallel relationship — both symmetrical & complementary exchanges occur when needed

Universal Family Structures
Centripetal/Centrifugal families
centripetal — moving toward family closeness
Children prone to antisocial, irresponsible & egocentric behavior
Symptoms include eating disorders, schizophrenia & young adults unable or unwilling to leave home
centrifugal — moving away from the family
Children become socially isolated, disorganized or withdrawn
Symptoms include adolescents running away from home

Coping Strategies of Families
Those most able to cope with stress:
Identify stressor
View situation as family problem
Use a solution-oriented approach
Have tolerance for other family members
Demonstrate clear commitment & affection
Have open & clear communication
Show high levels of cohesion
Have high role flexibility
Appropriately utilize resources
Lack physical violence
Lack substance use

An example of a a horizontal stressor is the birth of a handicapped child (33)
An example of a vertical stressor is attitudes passing down over generations (33)
Family therapists with a transgenerational view attend to a family’s intergenerational issues

Changing Families, Changing Relationships Developmental Sequences in Intact Families
Becoming an adult
Coupling
Creating a family
The arrival of children
Coping with adolescence
Leaving home
Reorganizing generational boundaries
Retirement and widowhood

Centripetal and centrifugal periods
Combrinck-Graham suggests that family development frequently alternates between centripetal and centrifugal periods
Centripetal - families focus on family closeness, get their needs met primarily through the family, and may produce children who are family dependent, antisocial, irresponsible, and egocentric
Centrifugal -families are more disengaged, get their needs met primarily outside of the family, and may produce children who become socially isolated, disorganized, or withdrawn
Extremes of either style are like to result in poor family functioning

Impact of migration on families
A common impact of migration on families is …
role reversals between parents and children in language acquisition
the undermining of old cultural norms
value conflicts between cultures
Changing Families, Changing Relationships Developmental Sequences in Other Families

A young adult’s primary developmental task is separating from one’s parents without cutting off from them
The most significant milestone in the cycle is usually the arrival of children
Families with an adolescent frequently must deal with rule changing, limit setting and role renegotiation

As children grow up and leave home, the family’s developmental task involves creating adult-to-adult relationships between parents and children (41)
Retirement, grandparenthood, widowhood, and chronic illness / caregiving all represent major adaptational challenges for the family system as parents reach old age.
Old hierarchical boundaries between parents and children are likely to be replaced by a greater peer relationship as the children reach middle age.

Single-Parent-Led Families - One- parent households now represent 1 in 4 families with children under 18 in the United States. They are likely to be part of one of the following groupings:
A divorced person (84 % women, 16% men) with child custody
An unmarried teenage mother with a planned or unplanned child
An older unmarried biological mother (with a planned or unplanned child)
A single person, male or female, gay or straight, who adopts a child
An unmarried woman, gay or straight, who chooses impregnation through donor insemination
A widow or widower with children or stepchildren

Divorce - One million divorces occur annually in the US today
joint legal custody: A term used in the law to denote the rights of divorced parents to share in certain major decisions (e.g., religious upbringing or choice of schools) regarding their children.
binuclear family: A post-divorced family structure in which the former spouses reside in separate households and function as two separate units; in living separately, their nuclear family is thus restructured but remains intact.
Resiliency is often present - The children raised by single parents can be just as healthy and normal as those raised in the traditional two-parent family. In fact, despite the obstacles, children in most single-parent families are provided with the love and nurturing that all children need and deserve.

An Additional Stage of the Family Life Cycle for Divorcing Families See table 2.2 (p.46)
Remarried - Most heads of one-parent households eventually remarry

Lesbian parents: (50)
Have similar life cycle stresses to heterosexual parents
May rely on donor insemination to have children
May adopt children
Developmentally speaking, gay and lesbian adolescents (48)
Face similar demands to become independent as heterosexual adolescents
May experience greater anxiety, secrecy, and shame than heterosexual adolescents
Children raised by gay or lesbian parents are apt to develop patterns of gender-role behavior similar to those developed by all other children.

Ethnicity & Life Cycle
Different groups place varying emphasis on events & rituals
Types of interactions may be different
Therapists should encourage families to use life cycle transitions to strengthen individual, family, & cultural identities

Illness & Life Cycles
Onset of illness can disrupt life cycles temporarily or permanently
Families can expect change in quality of relationships, roles & responsibilities, & social support
Therapists must examine onset of disorder, course, outcome & degree of incapacitation
Help assess present functioning with past coping strategies

Poverty & Life Cycles
Class affects opportunities & resources
Class & culture are interlinked
Both determine how family proceeds through its life cycle (e.g., timing, tasks)
Differences in traditions, rituals, & ceremonies
Pay attention to what’s occurring in multigenerational family context & to social & cultural influences

Comparison of Family Life Cycle Stages Age Professional Families Low-Income Families 12-17 Prevent pregnancy Graduate from high school Parents continue support while permitting child greater independence First pregnancy Attempt to graduate high school Parent attempts strict control before pregnancy; after pregnancy, relaxation of controls & continued support of new mother & infant 18-21 Prevent pregnancy Leave parental household for college Adapt to parent-child separation Second pregnancy No further education Young mother acquires adult status 22-25 Prevent pregnancy Develop professional identity while in graduate school Maintain separation from parental household; begin living in serious relationship Third pregnancy Marriage – establish stepfamily Maintain connection with kinship network 26-30 Prevent pregnancy Marriage Intense work involvement as career begins Separate from husband Mother becomes head of household within kinship network 31-35 First pregnancy Renew contact with parents as grandparents Differentiate career & childrearing between partners First grandchild Mother becomes grandmother & cares for daughter & infant

Limitations
Early developmental schemes typically described intact middle-class American families
Social constructionist family therapists are the least interested in life cycle issues

Implications of Life Cycles for Family Therapists
Match of life cycles between family & therapist
Therapist not yet experienced family’s stage
Therapist is currently experiencing same stage as family
Therapist has already been through stage
Therapist may lack awareness of important variables (race, class, sexual orientation)
Increase sensitivity
Have work supervised
Do continuing education

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Chapter 2 - Family Development

by Jeff Garrett

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