Visual Literacy: A Semiotic
Analysis of Icons as Visual
Information Representations
on Library Homepages
Dr. Yan Ma
Graduate School of Library and Information Studies
University of Rhode Island
Kingston, RI 02881, USA
Email: yanma@uri.edu

Introduction
The World Wide Web (the Web) allows users to interact
with graphic interface to search for information in a
hypermedia/multimedia environment. Graphics
including color lines serve as indexes or reference points
on the Web for searching and retrieving information
including texts, visuals, and sound materials in a non-
linear fashion.

Introduction
This study applies semiotic theory to examine
the codes embedded in the icons on library
homepages of Web homepages in the world. It
is the second phase of research of a previously
published pilot study in 1996, which focused on
icons on library homepages in the United States.
The icons selected in the present study include
not only those on library homepages in the
United States but also icons on library
homepages in other counties in the world.

Research Methods
Semiotics is the theory of signs. Eco explains
that semiotics “studies all cultural processes as
processes of communication” (Eco, 1979, p. 8).
The study is based on Ann DeVaney’s semiotic
model for the analysis of social and cultural
issues in educational television. The theories
that support her model are from Ferdinand de
Saussure, Roland Barthes, and Christian Metz
who emphasize that knowledge is socially
constructed through language or communication
systems. Meaning is socially and culturally built.

Research Methods
The concept of sign contains two aspects:
signifier, which is the sound-image and
signified, which is the concept. For example,
the relationship between the concept of a “rose”
(the signified) and the sound-image made by
the word “rose” (the signifier) forms a sign.

Research Methods
Semiotics, like structuralism, studies the
relationship between form and meaning.
Signs are organized into systems of
meaning and recognized by codes. “Signs
are assigned meaning based on historic
patterns of use that are recognized within
social/cultural groups.

Research Methods
A sign comprises two types of meanings:
syntagmatic and paradigmatic meanings.
Syntagmatic meaning refers to the
meaning that is assigned based on syntax,
or based on the relationships among
signs. Paradigmatic meaning is derived
from other systems or codes.

Research Methods
For example, color white is often used to
symbolize purity in Western culture.
Brides wear white gowns. While in Eastern
culture, color white symbolizes sorrow and
sadness and it is associated with death.
Brides in the Eastern civilization wear red,
which conveys the meaning of
celebration, good luck, happiness, and
prosperity. However, color red often
suggests danger and stop in Western
culture.

Research Methods
The icons on the homepages of the Web
carry meaning dependent on the syntax of
their use. They also carry paradigmatic
meanings derived from the original
meaning, domain or other systems of the
icons

Research Methods
The criteria to select a homepage to be
included in the study are that a homepage
has to have at least three hyper-linked
icons. Three different types of libraries are
included: academic, public, and special
libraries.
Based on a pilot study of icons on the
library homepages in the United States in
1996, this study expanded the coverage
of library homepages to include library
homepages in the world.

Research Methods
The investigator has selected icons on the
homepages 1999 to 2003 for the analysis.
Nineteen academic library homepages
were selected among a total of 723
academic library homepages. Twenty-four
public library homepages were selected
among a total of 785 public library
homepages, and nineteen special libraries
homepages were selected among a total
of 304 special library homepages.

Research Methods
These homepages are from America, Asia,
Africa, Australia, and Europe. Thirty-four
library homepages were selected from the
sixty samples homepages for the analysis

Research Methods
Icons on the library homepages have
been used as index pointers to resources
whether it was the Web designer's intent
or not. Icons have been playing a role in
information retrieval, but little literature
can be found on how they have played
this role.

Research Methods
Based on the author’s prior research, the
investigator chose to examine how icons
are used to index five common categories
of library services for this current study.
They are the most representative
categories of resources and services that
most libraries offer on their homepages.

Research Methods
These five categories are carefully selected based on the results
from the author’s previous pilot study. (Ma, 1996, p. 39).
1. Library information: includes "about the library", “library news,”
and information about the library"
2. Catalogs: include card catalogs, electronic catalogs, and
databases.
3. Services: include reference services, electronic reference
services, and reference desk, and other services.
4. Resources: include reference materials, electronic resources,
Web resources, and links to other resources.
5. Search: includes search the Internet, search the Web, search the
site.

Research Methods
The research method for the study is
based on Ann DeVaney’s model for
semiotic analysis of educational television
(DeVaney, 1991, p. 268). Her model
consists of five phases: format
identification, segment identification,
elements of construction identification,
quantitative analysis, and qualitative
analysis.

Research Methods
For this study, the first phase is format identification,
which is identified as international library homepages. A
sample of thirty-four library homepages is drawn from a
total population of more than 1,700 international library
homepages. Ten homepages from each of the three
categories are selected: public libraries, academic
libraries, and special libraries. To be included in the
sample, each homepage must have at least three
different hyperlinked icons. The investigators examined
the structure of the selected homepages and non-icon
information on the homepages.

Research Methods
The second phase is the segment
identification. Segments are defined as
icons used as index pointers on the library
homepages. The investigator chose to
examine how icons are used to index five
categories of library services: 1. Library
information; 2. Catalogs/databases; 3.
Services; 4. Resources; and 5. Search.

Research Methods
The third phase is elements of construction
identification. This phase identifies the codes and syntax
embedded in the icons. Just as language has its syntax
structure, a television program segment has its syntax, a
computer language also has its syntax, and so do icons
on the Web homepages. This study uses semiotics and
structuralist theories and their methodological
approaches to studying cultural messages. According to
structuralist view, meaning is created based on the form
or structure of the materials.

Research Methods
The fourth phase is to carry out a
quantitative analysis of the structure of
icons on the library homepages. It
answers such questions as “How many
times is a particular icon used to index the
same type of resource on the library
homepages?” “How many different types
of icons are used to index the same type
of resource?”

Research Methods
The fifth phase is to conduct a qualitative analysis of the
meanings of icons used to index resources on the library
homepages. It analyzes the original use and meaning of
icons; the codes embedded in the icons in their original
domain or format; their use and meaning in the icons on
library homepages; it compares the meaning of the
codes in their original domain or formats with the codes
embedded in the icons on the library homepages in this
study to ascertain how these icons are used to index
various resources.

Research Methods
For the research design, seven focus questions were
developed to answer these questions:
Focus Questions
1. What are the codes embedded in the icons on the
library homepages?
2. What are the original meanings of the codes?
3. How do the meanings of the codes in their original
domains or formats compare and contrast to the codes
embedded in the icons in this study?

Results
The results of this study would take twenty pages to
present with icons and homepage screen shots. Because
of the limited space of 5 pages for this publication, the
author has provided an analysis of the icons on library
homepages by answering some of the Focus Questions.
If requested to publish the results in a lengthier format,
the author would be willing to sharing all the results
with readers.

Results
The Focus Questions that have been chosen for the
analysis are:
1. What are the codes embedded in the icons on the
library homepages?
2. What are the original meanings of the codes?
3. How do the meanings of the codes in their original
domains or formats compare and contrast to the codes
embedded in the icons in this study?
6. How many different icons are used to index the same
type of resources?

Results
There are four frequently occurring icons on library
homepages. They are the “i” icon, the “?” mark
icon, the book icon, and the computer icon.
1. The “i" and the "?" icons appeared on thirteen
library homepages out of a total of thirty-four,
which is 38% percent of the total library
homepages. The original use of the "i" icon can be
seen often in libraries, museums, sightseeing areas,
shopping malls, etc. in the United States.
(Icons are not added to the PPT due to technical
difficulties)

Results
It is displayed in signs or on kiosks. It usually signals an
information center or information booth or an area
where people can go and ask questions and get
answers. From this icon and the direction it points to, no
one definite type of information is expected. In a broad
sense, it is necessary for the “i” iocn to keep its broad
meaning so that it can be used for different public
settings.

Results
2. The “?" icon.” This icon is also used on library
homepages for “Library Information,” "Help," “Services,”
and others. Originally, the “?" icon” is used for help and
answering questions. In the context of libraries, this icon
leads users to library information.
The "i" and the "?" icons are used thirteen times to
index thirteen different items on the library homepages
of different countries in the world.

Results
They are used to index ""About," "About the Library,"
"About Us," "Ask A Librarian," "Ask Us," "Community
Information," "Help," "Information Desk," How to Use
the Library," "Library News," "Our Services," "Reader's
Handbook," and "Requests." The meaning of those two
icons is far beyond their original meaning. The “i” and
“?’ icons are more widely used on library homepages of
English speaking countries than non-English speaking
countries.

Results
3. The “Book” icon appears on twenty-six
library homepages, which is 77% of the
total number of library homepages for the
study. The book icon was used forty-five
times for different resources indexing
purposes. Some homepages have the
book icon appear five or six times to index
different resources.

Results
The book icon is presented in the form of books,
books on book shelves, books with CD-ROMs
and other media, a book in a globe as seen
here, and in other forms. The two
representative book icons demonstrate the
expanded or extended use of the original book
icon to the new versions that include books and
other non-book resources.

Results
The book icon in a globe is to extend the use of
books in the global village. It is true that
through OCLC, users in the world can check the
world largest bibliographic database for
information. Users can read e-books anywhere.
These newly created icons give meaning to
reflect the digital and the Internet culture. The
book icon is used to index forty-five different
resources on twenty-six library homepages.

Results
It is used to index "Library Catalogs" for eight times,
"About the Library" two times, "Library Information" for
two times. Apparently, "Catalog" has a strong
connection with books in libraries. Or, library is a place
to store books. But the book icon is also used to index a
wide range of resources or services in libraries. For
example, it was used to index "Ask Questions," "Book
Event," "Calendar of Events," Databases," "General
Information," "Library Information," "Our Services,"
"Reading Resources," "Reference Tools," "Search,"
"Special Collection," "Youth Page," and so on.

Results
The general idea of books that have a strong connection
with libraries is truly portrayed in the use of book icon
on library homepages in the world. Since the book icon
is so widely used for different purposes, do the users
pay attention to what it is indexed for or what
information it is represented by the book icon? Does the
book icon lead the users to what they expect or what
they are searching for? It is also clear that some book
icons are placed on the homepages with little design
plan and care of treatment for the purpose of indexing.
This lack of appropriate use of book icons cause
confusing and mislead users in their information retrieval
process.

Results
Another popular and heavy use icon is the
computer icon on library homepages. It appears
on nineteen out of thirty-four homepages, which
is 59% percent of the total number of library
homepages for the study. The highest frequency
of the use of a computer icon on one homepage
is six times. For example, Nanyang
Technological University Library in Singapore
used it five times on its homepages.
(Homepage: http://www.ntu.edu.sg/library/ Accessed
on October 24, 1999)

Results
Personal computer and the icon itself can be traced back
to 1970s when microchip came into existence. A
computer icon signifies computers, computer systems,
and computer technology. When the computer icon
appears on library homepages, it is used to index not
only computers, the Internet, e-books, databases, and
computer related items but also "Services," "Reference
Services," "Online Catalog," "Special Collection," and so
on. The computer icon with an "e" with a globe running
across the "e" on the computer monitor reminds us of
Microsoft Internet Explorer.

Results
That particular "e" is an identical icon of that on
Microsoft Internet Explorer. It can immediately link the
user to the search or surfing of the Internet. "e" can
also mean electronic books, electronic databases,
electronic journals, and so on. The other computer icon
has the famous writer Shakespeare's face on the
monitor screen to index "Reference Sources." Can all the
users in the world recognize Shakespeare's image
easily? His image is used to index reference sources. By
viewing the icon, can a user assume that Shakespeare's
works are online or in computer systems or in electronic
format? What a combination of the high technology and
humanity studies! The computer icon has been evolving
and widely used on library homepages in the world.

Conclusions
The semiotics analysis of a sample of thirty-four
library homepages from a total population of
more than 1,700 international library
homepages provides the readers an
understanding of how icons on those
homepages are structured, used/misused; how
codes embedded in the icons create meaning
and how the original meaning of those icons
change and evolve to the new meaning when
these icons are presented on those library
homepages on the Internet.

Conclusions
Traditional library oriented icons are
borrowed to index new resources and
services on the Internet. Icons from
different domains are borrowed to index
resources on library homepages. Cultural
codes embedded in the icons are used as
part of index pointers to the resources on
the Webs. These codes are mainly rooted
in Western culture and the merging digital
and the Internet culture.

Conclusions
Some icons on the library homepages in other
countries in the world show that codes are
rooted in the country’s own culture or influenced
by Western cultures. Some icons are only
meaningful to those who are familiar with that
culture. Some icons are used internationally and
understood without language or cultural
barriers. Icons themselves have been modified,
revised, updated to accommodate the ever
evolving, changing, and developing Internet and
the digital world.

Conclusions
This study contributes to the research of
indexing by analyzing the cultural codes
embedded in the icons used on the library
homepages. It reminds the designers to
pay more attention to the choice of icons
for indexing purposes.

End
Thank you!