Ethics Revision General Theories

General

Theories

Definitions Ethics – systematic reflection about what is the right thing to do. Morals – actions arising from ethics (‘doing the right things’) Ethical controversy – an issue where two or more views are held, and argued for, about what is the right thing to do. Local, community, global

Ethics – systematic reflection about what is the right thing to do.

Morals – actions arising from ethics (‘doing the right things’)

Ethical controversy – an issue where two or more views are held, and argued for, about what is the right thing to do.

Local, community, global

Definitions – From Chaos to Clarity Ethics is the examination of collective and individual decision-making about what are worthy human actions and the exploration of why people make such judgements. An issue is a question or practice where there are differing opinions as to what is correct or desirable Morals is concerned more with right or wrong actions rather than ethos or character.

Ethics is the examination of collective and individual decision-making about what are worthy human actions and the exploration of why people make such judgements.

An issue is a question or practice where there are differing opinions as to what is correct or desirable

Morals is concerned more with right or wrong actions rather than ethos or character.

Issue Description What it is? (Facts) Why a controversy? (Responses)

Description

What it is? (Facts)

Why a controversy? (Responses)

Exploration Why is it right Various arguments Intrinsic (good in itself) Extrinsic (good because of its results) Why is it wrong Various arguments Intrinsic ( a priori ) Extrinsic ( a posteriori )

Why is it right

Various arguments

Intrinsic (good in itself)

Extrinsic (good because of its results)

Why is it wrong

Various arguments

Intrinsic ( a priori )

Extrinsic ( a posteriori )

Key theories Title Description Main idea Strengths Weaknesses Applications

Title

Description

Main idea

Strengths

Weaknesses

Applications

Tactics Clarity, emphasis, repetition, key words Show how that an ethical theory can (often) be used on either side of a controversy. Structure your answer Follow your structure A conclusion is worth more than one hasty extra point.

Clarity, emphasis, repetition, key words

Show how that an ethical theory can (often) be used on either side of a controversy.

Structure your answer

Follow your structure

A conclusion is worth more than one hasty extra point.

Key terms – generally Autonomy Responsibility Respect Quality of life Slippery slope Benefit Justice Equity Consequences/consequentialism Absolutes/standards/principles Arbitrary/relative Ends, Means Objective, Subjective Teleology Duty, deontology Slippery slope, straw man, ad hominem

Autonomy

Responsibility

Respect

Quality of life

Slippery slope

Benefit

Justice

Equity

Consequences/consequentialism

Absolutes/standards/principles

Arbitrary/relative

Ends, Means

Objective, Subjective

Teleology

Duty, deontology

Slippery slope, straw man, ad hominem

Key terms – from the theories Utilitarianism Greatest pleasure/happiness/good/ for the greatest number consequentialism Hedonic calculus, calculation, measure Rule, act Bentham, Mill

Utilitarianism

Greatest pleasure/happiness/good/ for the greatest number

consequentialism

Hedonic calculus, calculation, measure

Rule, act

Bentham, Mill

Key terms – from the theories Ethical egoism All autonomy No responsibility The only end is I Everything else is means

Ethical egoism

All autonomy

No responsibility

The only end is I

Everything else is means

Key terms – from the theories Situation ethics Agape (self-giving love) Antinomianism Legalism (‘nomianism’) Moral precepts are ‘illuminators’ People in their situation are the central focus Consequentialist but Absolute too – ‘the law of love’ Fletcher

Situation ethics

Agape (self-giving love)

Antinomianism

Legalism (‘nomianism’)

Moral precepts are ‘illuminators’

People in their situation are the central focus

Consequentialist but

Absolute too – ‘the law of love’

Fletcher

Key terms – from the theories Natural law Good is allowing/providing each entity to attain their potential Every entity/creature has a goal/end/telos (this is their nature) The good is actualising their potential Evil is blocking, denying that potential Observation, reason, scripture Aristotle, Aquinas teleological

Natural law

Good is allowing/providing each entity to attain their potential

Every entity/creature has a goal/end/telos

(this is their nature)

The good is actualising their potential

Evil is blocking, denying that potential

Observation, reason, scripture

Aristotle, Aquinas

teleological

Key terms – from the theories Deontology – duty Universal/absolute Maxim Precept Categorial imperative Hypothetical imperative Good will Intention vs action A priori Means Ends if what I will were to become a law for all and the outcome is good – then that is what I must do All duties are equal Kant

Deontology – duty

Universal/absolute

Maxim

Precept

Categorial imperative

Hypothetical imperative

Good will

Intention vs action

A priori

Means

Ends

if what I will were to become a law for all and the outcome is good – then that is what I must do

All duties are equal

Kant

Ethical Theories Review

Normative Ethics How should I behave Reasons and foundations for actions Rational Framework – so no space for intuitionism Vs Descriptive Ethics How do I behave

How should I behave

Reasons and foundations for actions

Rational Framework – so no space for intuitionism

Vs Descriptive Ethics

How do I behave

Varieties of Ethical Theory Ethical Egoism Virtue Ethics Natural Law Utilitarianism Deontology Situation Ethics …

Ethical Egoism

Virtue Ethics

Natural Law

Utilitarianism

Deontology

Situation Ethics

…

Ethical Egoism Needs no deep exploration My goals My wants My needs My desires… All actions (however they appear) Are self-serving

Needs no deep exploration

My goals

My wants

My needs

My desires…

All actions (however they appear)

Are self-serving

Virtue Ethics Located in character Not reasoning Aristotle’s ethics ‘ golden mean’ eg Cowardice (too little) Courage Recklessness (too much) Renewed by MacIntyre in 20 th c – Beyond Virtue

Located in character

Not reasoning

Aristotle’s ethics

‘ golden mean’ eg

Cowardice (too little)

Courage

Recklessness (too much)

Renewed by MacIntyre in 20 th c – Beyond Virtue

Natural Law (1) Everything has a nature – which makes it what it is, governs how it should be and how it should act. A good thing is that which is living out its nature A good wombat does its ‘wombat things’ well It would be a bad thing for wombats to ride bicycles (and we would be doing evil to train wombats…) There is a purpose, goal (telos) for everything The goal is meant to be achieved, the theory is teleological.

Everything has a nature – which makes it what it is, governs how it should be and how it should act.

A good thing is that which is living out its nature

A good wombat does its ‘wombat things’ well

It would be a bad thing for wombats to ride bicycles

(and we would be doing evil to train wombats…)

There is a purpose, goal (telos) for everything

The goal is meant to be achieved, the theory is teleological.

Natural Law (2) To deny the attainment of the goal is bad (intrinsically bad – bad in itself) purpose and potential If an entity has potential to become… NL says good actions enable the potential to be reached (actualised) We can discover the ‘nature’ of something Reflection, observation, revelation Consistent understandings

To deny the attainment of the goal is bad

(intrinsically bad – bad in itself)

purpose and potential

If an entity has potential to become…

NL says good actions enable the potential to be reached (actualised)

We can discover the ‘nature’ of something

Reflection, observation, revelation

Consistent understandings

NL Good points There is a purpose and meaning to existence (principles and absolutes) Arbitrary behaviour is unjustified/unjustifiable Absolute goods understood in terms of ‘nature’, realising potential

There is a purpose and meaning to existence (principles and absolutes)

Arbitrary behaviour is unjustified/unjustifiable

Absolute goods understood in terms of ‘nature’, realising potential

NL: Bad/unclear points Is there only one nature for any entity Male/female Heterosexual/homosexual Is there only one purpose. Sex for procreation only Or sex as expression of love intimacy Procreation Pleasure Conventionalism/Static world Can we be sure we’re right about nature? Eg evangelicals and the fallen world

Is there only one nature for any entity

Male/female

Heterosexual/homosexual

Is there only one purpose.

Sex for procreation only

Or sex as expression of love

intimacy

Procreation

Pleasure

Conventionalism/Static world

Can we be sure we’re right about nature?

Eg evangelicals and the fallen world

Utilitarianism Bentham – maximise pleasure, minimise pain Need a scale of pleasure & pain Simple arithmetic tells you what to do Mill – maximise happiness – for the greatest number Or good, or justice, or…

Bentham – maximise pleasure, minimise pain

Need a scale of pleasure & pain

Simple arithmetic tells you what to do

Mill – maximise happiness – for the greatest number

Or good, or justice, or…

Utilitarianism Consequentialist – we consider (all) the consequences what we should do is what brings the best consequences

Consequentialist – we consider (all) the consequences

what we should do is what brings the best consequences

Utilitarianism – an Example? From Bagaric and Clark “Not Enough (Official) Torture in the World” “… a neat little formula. It measures up factors such as whether the person is a terrorist, whether it is probable they have information and how many lives will be lost if that information is not extracted. It then divides that figure by the time available before disaster, multiplied by whether the information can be obtained elsewhere.” (http://www.cageprisoners.com/articles.php?id=7454)

From Bagaric and Clark “Not Enough (Official) Torture in the World”

“… a neat little formula. It measures up factors such as whether the person is a terrorist, whether it is probable they have information and how many lives will be lost if that information is not extracted. It then divides that figure by the time available before disaster, multiplied by whether the information can be obtained elsewhere.” (http://www.cageprisoners.com/articles.php?id=7454)

From the article (USFLR 39) The variables are (1) the number of lives at risk; (2) the immediacy of the harm; (3) the availability of other means to acquire the information; (4) the level of wrongdoing of the agent; and (5) the likelihood that the agent actually does possess the relevant information.

The variables are

(1) the number of lives at risk;

(2) the immediacy of the harm;

(3) the availability of other means to acquire the information;

(4) the level of wrongdoing of the agent; and

(5) the likelihood that the agent actually does possess the relevant information.

Utilitarianism: Good Points Scientific Objective Repeatable

Scientific

Objective

Repeatable

Util: Bad/unclear points Tyranny of the majority How do we/can we set an accurate scale? ‘ Simple’ Arithmetic? All consequences? For every person? For every course of action? Arbitrary – why should we maximise pleasure/happiness/good…

Tyranny of the majority

How do we/can we set an accurate scale?

‘ Simple’ Arithmetic?

All consequences?

For every person?

For every course of action?

Arbitrary – why should we maximise pleasure/happiness/good…

Deontology Good will – intention not result response based on reason/rationality Not personal desire Categorial Imperative has two forms Universality Respect for persons

Good will – intention not result

response based on reason/rationality

Not personal desire

Categorial Imperative has two forms

Universality

Respect for persons

Deontology: Good Points There are absolutes, general laws of conduct They can be discovered by reason People are of value

There are absolutes, general laws of conduct

They can be discovered by reason

People are of value

Deontology: Bad/Unclear points Does reason enable us to discover the good? How do we prioritise several ‘goods’ Telling the truth Preserving life Not stealing

Does reason enable us to discover the good?

How do we prioritise several ‘goods’

Telling the truth

Preserving life

Not stealing

Situation Ethics One absolute principle ‘ to love one another as I have loved you’ Laws in SE are ‘illuminators’ People are central Situations /contexts are of great importance. What is the most loving thing to do?

One absolute principle

‘ to love one another as I have loved you’

Laws in SE are ‘illuminators’

People are central

Situations /contexts are of great importance.

What is the most loving thing to do?

SE: Good Points Love (agap é - as Jesus showed) Centrality of people Responsiveness to circumstances A place for principle (and faith)

Love (agap é - as Jesus showed)

Centrality of people

Responsiveness to circumstances

A place for principle

(and faith)

SE: Bad points The details (as for utilitarianism) (Mis) understanding of ‘love’ No absolutes

The details (as for utilitarianism)

(Mis) understanding of ‘love’

No absolutes

Sample Questions “ Three major approaches to ethical decision-making are consequentialist (utilitarian), deontological and metaethical”. Taking a controversial issue, present a clear and reasoned analysis of the major principles, concepts and issues associated with one approach to ethical decision making. What are the weaknesses of this approach?

“ Three major approaches to ethical decision-making are consequentialist (utilitarian), deontological and metaethical”. Taking a controversial issue, present a clear and reasoned analysis of the major principles, concepts and issues associated with one approach to ethical decision making. What are the weaknesses of this approach?

Sample Questions Outline the major arguments involved in a debate over a controversial ‘ethical issue’. In choosing a controversial community or global moral issue, ensure that you define what you understand by the terms ‘ethics’ and ‘ethical controversies’. Present a clear and reasoned analysis of the major arguments involved in the debate as well as the major principles, concepts and issues associated with the differing approaches.

Outline the major arguments involved in a debate over a controversial ‘ethical issue’. In choosing a controversial community or global moral issue, ensure that you define what you understand by the terms ‘ethics’ and ‘ethical controversies’. Present a clear and reasoned analysis of the major arguments involved in the debate as well as the major principles, concepts and issues associated with the differing approaches.

Sample Questions What does it mean to be morally right or wrong? Explain one approach to what is right in relation to the ethical issue you have studied. (4, 5, 8) What do you understand by ‘ethics’ and ‘ethical controversies’? Nominate an ethical issue and use it to critically examine some of the major ‘approaches’ adopted in ethical decision-making. (5, 6, 8) Using the example of a current ethical issue critically examine and evaluate at least two of the major ethical approaches that could be adopted in ethical decision-making. (5, 8, 9)

What does it mean to be morally right or wrong? Explain one approach to what is right in relation to the ethical issue you have studied. (4, 5, 8)

What do you understand by ‘ethics’ and ‘ethical controversies’? Nominate an ethical issue and use it to critically examine some of the major ‘approaches’ adopted in ethical decision-making. (5, 6, 8)

Using the example of a current ethical issue critically examine and evaluate at least two of the major ethical approaches that could be adopted in ethical decision-making. (5, 8, 9)

Examinable Criteria Criterion 4 Use evidence to support a point of view. Criterion 5 Demonstrate understanding of relevant terminology. Criterion 6 Demonstrate understanding and appreciation of the implications and significance of philosophical or religious positions. Criterion 8 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of religious or philosophical concepts. Criterion 9 Critically analyse and evaluate ideas and information.

Criterion 4 Use evidence to support a point of view.

Criterion 5 Demonstrate understanding of relevant terminology.

Criterion 6 Demonstrate understanding and appreciation of the implications and significance of philosophical or religious positions.

Criterion 8 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of religious or philosophical concepts.

Criterion 9 Critically analyse and evaluate ideas and information.

One nature? " Then Mary stood up, greeted them all, and said to her brethren, "Do not weep and do not grieve nor be irresolute, for His grace will be entirely with you and will protect you. But rather let us praise His greatness, for He has prepared us and made us into men." When Mary said this, she turned their hearts to the Good, and they began to discuss the words of the [Saviour]. Gospel of Mary Magdalene ( http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/maps/primary/mary.html)

" Then Mary stood up, greeted them all, and said to her brethren, "Do not weep and do not grieve nor be irresolute, for His grace will be entirely with you and will protect you. But rather let us praise His greatness, for He has prepared us and made us into men." When Mary said this, she turned their hearts to the Good, and they began to discuss the words of the [Saviour].

Gospel of Mary Magdalene ( http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/maps/primary/mary.html)

Categorial Imperative (1) ‘ Act so that the maxim of your action can be a universal law’ Are you willing to carry out the rule yourself? Can you wish all people would obey the principle you act on? Would all rational people of good-will agree? Is it self contradictory?

‘ Act so that the maxim of your action can be a universal law’

Are you willing to carry out the rule yourself?

Can you wish all people would obey the principle you act on?

Would all rational people of good-will agree?

Is it self contradictory?

Categorial Imperative (2) ‘ Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end.’ People are rational and therefore have intrinsic worth. The value of a person is not determined by their usefulness. Does the action you propose result in USING someone?

‘ Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end.’

People are rational and therefore have intrinsic worth. The value of a person is not determined by their usefulness.

Does the action you propose result in USING someone?