The document outlines a study that examines the use of graphic organisers to improve L2 reading comprehension among Japanese undergraduate students. A mixed methods approach is used, including quantitative and qualitative data collection. Students are assigned to either a treatment group that uses graphic organisers during reading or a control group. Both groups complete pre- and post-tests and a survey. The treatment group's use of graphic organisers, students' attitudes, behaviors, and perceived comprehension are observed and assessed. The goal is to determine if graphic organiser use improves actual and perceived reading comprehension, and to gain insights from qualitative data. Materials developed include reading texts, mapping templates, tests, and observation protocols.

1. G R A P H I C O R G A N I S E R S
M I C H A E L S H A R P E
K O C H I U N I V E R S I T Y O F T E C H N O L O G Y
s h a r p e m i k e 1 9 7 0 @ g m a i l . c o m
for
L2 READING

2. • Problem
• Graphic organisers
• Contextual background
• Methodology
• Results and Discussion
• Conclusion
P R E S E N T A T I O N O U T L I N E

3. B A C K G R O U N D
Reading
L2 reading tasks invariably based on expository texts
Worldwide: Considered most
important aspect of EFL
literacy for college students*
Reading work prioritised in many
students’ EFL study schedules.
In Japan: Many
college EFL programs
focus on reading

4. B A C K G R O U N D
L2 Reading in Japan
Common assumption
College freshmen have the skills
needed to negotiate EFL reading
tasks**
Established fact
At high school students work
primarily on building L2 literacy*
*Browne, 1996. **Browne, 1996

5. B A C K G R O U N D
Inadequate English reading skills
So in many situations
teachers/students rely
on supplementary
translations.
1. Lack of lexical and
grammatical knowledge*
due to
*Kitao and Kitao (1995), Laufer and Yano (2001), and Okumura and Miyamoto (2010)
2. Inability to understand
English text
organisation**
** Okumura and Miyamoto (2010)
Evidence suggests that many Japanese college students struggle
with reading tasks
L2 Reading in Japan

6. B A C K G R O U N D
• Information dense
• Frequently based on unfamiliar topics
• Structurally complex
• Conceptual relationships are implicit
To comprehend English expository texts readers
therefore need a whole range of literal and
inferential reading skills*
*Armbruster, 1984; Meyer and Freedle, 1984; Williams, et al,1984); Armbruster,1984; Meyer et al, 2002; Reutzel and Cooter,
due to
The nature of English expository texts
L2 Reading in Japan
Evidence suggests that many Japanese college students struggle
with reading tasks

7. B A C K G R O U N D
Methodological paradigms at Japanese high schools
High school EFL curricula
Mostly prep. for senta shikken and nyugakku shikken
• Test student’s grammatical knowledge through multiple-choice questions.
• Test reading ability through questions based on NS level i reading passages*
Typical EFL learning activities
• Grammar-translation (yakudoku)
• Grammar analysis
At most high schools “students are required to read difficult English texts while translating
word-for-word, reordering the translated words to fit Japanese word order”**.
Hino, 1988; Gorsuch, 1998; Mantero and Iwai, 2005; Porcaro, 2005*; Takase, 2007**; Underwood, 2012.
due to
Evidence suggests that many Japanese college students struggle
with reading tasks
L2 Reading in Japan

8. Consequences for students
B A C K G R O U N D
Lack motivation to
read*
‘Students leave
school with little
interest either in
reading or in English
in general’
(John, 2013:6).
*Kimura et al, 2001; John, 2013, Norris-Holt,
2002; Okumura and Miyamoto, 2010.
Can translate in the
literal sense*
….but cannot
understand inherent
message**
*Kitao and Kitao, 1995;
**Mantero and Iwai, 2005.
Believe that
reading is simply
obtaining meaning
from print.*
*Mantero and Iwai, 2005
L2 Reading in Japan

9. B A C K G R O U N D
Summary
High-school EFL reading
classes
fail to teach L2 reading skills and
strategies nor engage student’s
interest.
Undergraduates
struggle with
expository text
reading tasks
Need for research into
approaches that:
• Improve performance in reading
tests.
• Improve reading confidence
• Improve motivation to read
Browne, 1996; Iino, 2002; Laufer and Yano; 2001; Robb and Susser, 1989; Torikai, 2003).
Much input but
abilities among
Japanese
undergraduates are
poor*
L2 Reading in Japan

10. Graphic organisers: definitions
B A C K G R O U N D
(Also known as knowledge maps, concept maps, story maps, cognitive organisers, advance
organisers, or concept diagrams)
(Jiang and
Grabe,
2007:34).
(Robinson and
Kiewra,
1995:455).
(Jones, Pierce
& Hunter,
1988:20).
National Centre for
Accessible
Instructional
Materials
‘Visual
representation of
information in the
text’
‘GOs use a
spatial format to
convey concept
relations’
‘Graphic
representations
(that) are visual
illustrations of
verbal statements.’
‘A graphic organiser
is a visual and
graphic display that
depicts the
relationships
between facts,
terms, and or ideas
within a learning
task.’

11. Graphic Organisers:Examples

12. B A C K G R O U N D
Research also supports GO use in these subject
areas*
*(Bulgren, Schumaker, & Deshler, 1988; Darch, Carnine, & Kammenui, 1986; Herl, O'Neil, Chung, & Schacter,
1999; Willerman & Mac Harg, 1991)
Graphic Organisers - Teaching Applications
Language ArtsReading Social studiesScience Math
Most studies have been
on reading
Graphic organisers - research

13. B A C K G R O U N D
Graphic organisers - research
L1 contexts
500 + empirical studies
L2 contexts
~20 empirical
studies
‘Gap’ in our knowledge about GO based L2
reading instruction needs filling. Jiang and
Grabe (2007); Howard and Ellis (2011)
GOs adopted as one of seven
recommended (US) National Reading
Council reading strategies

14. Theoretical basis for GOs
Ellis (2004) states that the main theoretical basis for these claims, lies in turn, in the more general theories of learning proposed by Ausubel, by Pavio, and by Sweller.
Claims for GOs
B A C K G R O U N D
Cognitive Theory of Meaningful Verbal Learning
(David Ausubel, 1963).
Overview: Learning and retention of unfamiliar materials occurs
when newly acquired information is assimilated into the extant
cognitive structure that makes up an individual's knowledge
base. (Ausubel, cited in Novak and Cañas, 2006).
• For meaningful learning, as opposed to rote learning, to
occur. input must be presented in a way that allows it to be
easily linked with existing schema. Information that fits into
existing schema is much more easily comprehended and
stored within the hierarchy.
➥ The ‘advance organiser’ that Ausubel developed based on
these theories activate prior knowledge and relate new material
to existing information, so that the information is more familiar
and meaningful.’(ibid) This ‘advance organiser’ is considered to
be the conceptual model for graphic organisers.
Dual Coding Theory
(Allan Paivio).
Overview: Readers ‘encode’ information according to two
separate but interrelated information processing systems
via which they process both non-verbal imagery and
language. Each of these systems is independently
controlled, but they are closely interconnected, thereby
allowing for ‘dual coding’ of information.
• Imagery is processed and stored as ‘imagems’ whereas
linguistic information is processed and stored as
‘logogens’. Readers hold both logogens and imagems in
short-term memory in parallel forms. Thus, ‘memory for
text information and the retrieval of that information are
facilitated by verbal-non-verbal dual coding’ (Paivio,
2001:112-113).
➥ Graphic organisers present information in a way that
makes it possible to codify the information both verbally and
visually, so the information is more memorable.
Cognitive Load Theory
(Sweller,1988)
Overview: Short term memory has a limited
capacity in terms of the number of elements
that can be held at any one moment. For
schema acquisition to occur, instructional
approaches that reduce working memory load
are most effective in order to facilitate the
changes in long-term memory associated with
schema acquisition.
➥ Graphic organisers are an effective means
for reducing working memory load.
Jones, Pierce, and Hunter: 1988:21 Tang, 1991:37
“Can show the key parts of
a whole and their relations,
thereby allowing a holistic
understanding that words
along cannot convey”
“Help students select
important ideas as well
as detect missing
information and
unexplained relations.”
“Communicate shape of
knowledge and
make visible the knowledge
structure they represent, so
providing a schema which can be
accessed again and again, thus
facilitating comprehension.”’
Process of creating or completing graphic
representations of the topics and main
ideas in a text i.e. reconstructing
messages in the text, helps to show how
these topics or ideas are interrelated and
that this resulting in improved
comprehension and recall.

15. Research rationales
• Summary evidence from dozens of studies has supported recommendations in the L1 reading
literature to use GOs as part of reading instruction.
• Currently, graphic organisers are widely used in L1 reading instructional curricula designed
for learner readers, and are frequently included in L1 reading textbooks. (Jiang and Grabe,
2007). The recommendations to use GOs as part of reading instruction are commonly found
in the first language (L1) reading literature’ they are ‘generally less common in second
language (L2) contexts’.
• On the basis of the ‘strong claims for GO effectiveness’ made in the literature, they conclude
that, ‘an important goal would be to generalize the results of GO use to the L2 student
population’ (Jiang and Grabe, 2007:34). (Grabe and Stoller).
B A C K G R O U N D

16. Is there any relationship between using graphic organisers in the reading
classroom and students actual comprehension of expository text?
Is there any relationship between using graphic organisers in the reading
classroom and students perceived comprehension of expository text?
Can anything be inferred from:
Learners’ attitudes to classroom mapping activities.
Observations of learner behaviours during classroom activities.
M E T H O D O L O G Y
Research questions

17. M E T H O D O L O G Y
Research design
Mixed method design, quantitative/qualitative data collection and analysis techniques.
Experimental component
Aims.
a) To determine if the
treatment resulted in a
quantitative increase in
reading comprehension
b) To determine if using
graphic organisers during
reading resulted in any
short-term perceived
increase in reading
comprehension.
Qualitative components
Aims.
To record student’s
attitudes regarding:
• Overall effectiveness of
mapping activities for
enhancing their EFL
reading skills
• Reading motivation,
• Reading confidence,
• Knowledge of text
organization and text
structures
Aims
To record significant
events/trends/patterns of
behavior.
• Levels of
participation/motivation in
regard to the assigned tasks
between the two groups.
• Levels of interaction among
subjects while completing
assigned tasks.
• Time taken to complete and
ability to complete assigned
tasks.
• To reinforce validity of the
quantitative data and explain
meaning of comparisons
made.
Materials
• Classroom observation
protocol.
Materials
9-item Likert-type mapping
questionnaire
Pre-program-post-program
non-equivalent group design (N-O-X-O)
Materials
a) 18-item pre/post test
b) 9-item self-rated comprehension questionnaire
Post-treatment
survey
Systematic
classroom observation
program.

18. M E T H O D O L O G Y
Groups:
1st year (18 yrs old) undergraduate engineering students at a Japanese public university.
• Treatment Group (Information Systems Engineering majors (n = 31)
• Control group Environmental Systems Engineering majors (n = 21)
Level:
Beginner (~CEFR A1)
Schedule:
6-week study/assessment period
Materials:
A. Six 300-350 word reading texts (used in the treatment and testing phases)
B. Mapping templates (used in the treatment and testing phases)
• Constructed by researcher, on the basis of studies in L1 contexts indicating that teacher-generated frames are more successful than either
purely teacher-generated maps or purely student-generated maps.
• Integrate principles of several different text visualization approaches include Novak’s concept mapping principles (Novak and Cañas,
2006).
• Focus reader’s attention on the selection of main ideas, in order to represent both the overall rhetorical organization and the text
structures in the previously described expository texts.
• On showing how these ideas are connected
• On displaying the rhetorical framework of the text.
• Follow Novakian principles of spatial arrangement by having a hierarchical concept array, in which general information is at the head
and more specific information below.

19. M A T E R I A L S
P O S T T E S T R E A D I N G
Kansai International Airport
Airports are very important for trade and tourism. In Japan, Kansai International Airport is one of the most important
airports. Every year, about 14 million people use the airport for domestic and international flights.
In the 1960s, businesses in the Kansai area wanted a better airport for the Kansai area because they were losing business
to Tokyo. Osaka already had an international airport at Itami, near central Osaka. However, it was impossible to expand
Itami Airport for two reasons. First, there were too many buildings around Itami. Also, many of the people living near the
airport did not like the noise and pollution from the aircraft. Therefore, planners decided to build a new airport on a man-
made island in the middle of Osaka Bay. The main advantage of building the airport in Osaka Bay was that it could stay
open 24 hours a day. Itami Airport has to close at night. The main disadvantage was the high risk of earthquakes and
typhoons.
In 1987, after 20 years of planning, construction of Kansai International Airport began. First, workers constructed a
rectangular seawall using rocks and 48,000 concrete blocks. The seawall was finished in 1989. Next, workers created a
man-made island by putting a 33-meter layer of earth over the seafloor inside the seawall. They used 21 million cubic
meters of earth from three mountains. However, during construction of the island, it began to slowly sink. As a result, the
project was delayed and the project costs increased. When complete, the island was four kilometers long and one kilometer
wide. Then, workers constructed a three-kilometer-long bridge between the island and the mainland. Following that,
workers constructed the runway and the terminal building. Kansai International Airport finally opened in September 1994.
The terminal has several interesting features. First, the total length of terminal is 1.7 kilometres, so it is the longest terminal
in the world. Inside the terminal is an automatic people mover system for passengers and aircrew. Second, the terminal is
shaped like an aircraft wing, to improve air circulation through the building. Finally, because the island is still sinking, it is
necessary for engineers to raise the roof. To raise the roof, engineers put thick metal plates under the roof supports.
Flesch-Kincaid 9.3

20. M A T E R I A L S - M A P P I N G T E M P L A T E F O R T E X T

21. Self-Rating Reading Scale
Using the scale below rate your ability to comprehend the Kansai International Airport text. Circle one number only.
9 I understand everything. I am able to read the text from beginning to end with no comprehension problems at all.
8 I understand almost everything. A few items of grammar/vocabulary confuse me, but I can usually guess their meaning.
7 I have no real problems reading the text. I understand all the main points and most of the supporting details. There are only a few
sentence structures, items of vocabulary or expressions I do not understand.
6 Although I understand most of the main points of the text, some points are confusing. I do not understand all the supporting details.
5 I am able to understand at least half of the main points and some of the supporting details of the text. There are many new words
and expressions I do not understand.
4 I often get confused when reading the text. I am unable to identify most of the main points and supporting details. I understand about
30% of the text.
3 I understand very little of the text. I cannot identify the main points or supporting details. The parts I do understand are limited, e.g.
title.
2/1 I do not understand the text.
M E T H O D O L O G Y - A S S E S S M E N T M A T E R I A L S

22. R E S U L T S - S E L F - R A T E D C O M P R E H E N S I O N O N P O S T T E S T
Summary: There was high variability in terms of self-rated reading comprehension across the two groups after the time-
limited reading exercise. Control group rated their comprehension of the text higher; non-parametric analysis showed that
the difference was significant (p < .05).
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
8.00
9.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
SelfRatedComprehension
Case number
Treatment Group Control Group

23. M E T H O D O L O G Y - P O S T T E S T ( E N G L I S H / A B R I D G E D )
Post-reading multiple choice
This test has three parts.
■ Part A (Questions 1 - 7). The answer is directly stated in the text.
■ Part B (Qs 8 - 15). The answer is not directly stated in the text, but implied. This means you have to deduce the answer from context clues.
■ Part C (Qs 16 - 18). The answer can be deduced using critical thinking.
Circle the answer that you think best matches the information in the text.
You have 20 minutes to complete the test.
Part A
1. The text states that the length of the bridge that connects the island to the mainland is....
a) 3 kilometres long b) 4 kilometres long c) No information
2. The text states that the material used to construct the man-made island was....
a) concrete b) earth c) Both a) and b)
Part B (Remember, this information is NOT stated directly in the text. However, there are clues in the text from which you can infer the answers)
8. The text implies that businesses in the Kansai region were losing business to Tokyo because...
a) There was no international airport in the Kansai Region.
b) Businesses in Kansai do not have good management.
c) The international airport in Kansai could not be developed any further.
9. The text implies that engineers could not expand Itami Airport because of....
a) Lack of space. b) Lack of money. c) Lack of space and local opposition.
Part C (Remember, this information is NOT in the text. You need to infer the answers)
16. There is a people mover system from one end of the terminal building to the other because...
a) It makes moving around the building safer for passengers.
b) It makes moving around the building more enjoyable for passengers.
c) It makes moving around the building more convenient for passengers.
17. The island is sinking because....
a) The materials used to construct the island do not float.
b) The weight of the island is causing seabed subsidence.
c) The sea levels are rising.

24. R E S U L T S - P R E / P O S T C O M P R E H E N S I O N T E S T
Summary: There was high variability in scores for both groups in the 18-item pre- and post reading comprehension
tests; in non-parametric analysis baseline and post-test scores for the control group were significantly higher (p < .05).
0.00
10.00
20.00
30.00
40.00
50.00
60.00
70.00
80.00
90.00
100.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Percentagescoreontest
Case number
Treatment Group (pre) Control Group (pre) Treatment Group (post) Control Group (post)

25. -12%
0%
12%
24%
36%
48%
60%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Relativepercentagegains
Case number
Treatment group Control group
R E S U L T S - R E L A T I V E P E R C E N T A G E G A I N S D U R I N G S T U D Y
P E R I O D
Summary: Both groups improved over the course of the study period; however the relative gains were
significantly higher in the mapping group in non-parametric analysis (p < .05).

26. M E T H O D O L O G Y - M A P P I N G Q U E S T I O N N A I R E
Please read the following statements about the information mapping activities that our class has done over the past two months. For each statement tick one box only.
A. Maps and texts
a) I could understand the information maps that were provided by the teacher.
Strongly agree Strongly disagree
◯ ◯ ◯ ◯ ◯
b) I could understand the texts that were provided by the teacher.
Strongly agree Strongly disagree
◯ ◯ ◯ ◯ ◯
B. Reading skills
a) Using information maps improved my knowledge of text organization.
Strongly agree Strongly disagree
◯ ◯ ◯ ◯ ◯
b) Using information maps improved my knowledge of sentence structures.
Strongly agree Strongly disagree
◯ ◯ ◯ ◯ ◯
c) Overall, using information maps improved my English reading skills.
Strongly agree Strongly disagree
◯ ◯ ◯ ◯ ◯
C. Reading confidence and motivation
a) Using information maps encouraged me to interact more closely with the texts.
Strongly agree Strongly disagree
◯ ◯ ◯ ◯ ◯
b) Using information maps improved my reading confidence.
Strongly agree Strongly disagree
◯ ◯ ◯ ◯ ◯
c) Using information maps encouraged my interest in reading English.
Strongly agree Strongly disagree
◯ ◯ ◯ ◯ ◯
d) Overall, information mapping was a useful activity for me.
Strongly agree Strongly disagree
◯ ◯ ◯ ◯ ◯

27. Strongly
agree Agree Undecided Disagree
Strongly
disagree
Median
Q1. I could understand the information
maps that were provided by the
teacher
2.9% 68.6% 22.9% 5.7% 0 4
Q2. I could understand the texts that
were provided by the teacher. 5.7% 60% 25.7% 2.7% 0 4
Q3. Using information maps improved
my knowledge of text organization
11.4% 48.6% 34.3% 2.7% 0 4
Q.4 Using information maps improved
my knowledge of sentence structures
5.7% 40% 48.6% 5.7% 0 3
Q.5 Overall, using information maps
improved my English reading skills
8.6% 51.5% 28.7% 5.7% 0 4
Q.6 Using information maps
encouraged me to interact more
closely with the texts
8.6% 34.3% 40% 17.2% 0 3
Q.7 Using information maps improved
my reading confidence 5.7% 31.4% 48.6% 11.4% 0 3
Q.8 Using information maps
encouraged my interest in reading
English
5.7% 40% 48.6% 2.7% 0 3
Q.9 Overall, information mapping was
a useful activity for me 5.7% 71.5% 17.2% 2.7% 0 4
R E S U L T S - M A P P I N G Q U E S T I O N N A I R E ( E N G L I S H )

28. R E S U L T S - S U M M A R Y
Student observations
GO based activites…
✓ Improved overall reading skills
✓ Increased understanding of text
organisation
? Increased understanding of L2
sentence structures,
? Increased L2 reading confidence
? Increased motivation for L2 reading.
Mapping questionnaireClassroom observation program
Teacher observations:
GO-based activities….
Encouraged greater engagement and
interaction with texts compared to
activities assigned to control group.

29. C O N C L U S I O N
• Higher actual comprehension gains in treatment group
• Generally positive response to GO activities
• Higher levels of engagement in reading tasks among treatment group
• Overall, perhaps the clearest conclusion is that students respond positively to new
methodologies, which they have not encountered before in language learning.
Present study supports general claims for GO use for teaching L2 reading