Henry Rachllin Portfolio

Freberg Discovering Biological Psychology 2e 2010 Cengage Learning 1 / 3 Introducing Biological tionary standpoint, it seems unlikely that we would bother to evolve structures L E A R N I N G Psychology that did not contribute directly to our chances of survival. The human brain con- O B J E C T I V E S tains 5 percent of the body’s mass, but it gobbles up 20 percent of its glucose and After reading this chapter, you oxygen resources. It wouldn’t seem sensible to build such an expensive structure should be able to and then leave it virtually unused. Finally, observations of patients with brain dam- LO1 Define biological age show that even small injuries, such as those caused by a concussion, can psychology. Photo Title have a detrimental effect on brain functioning. A person who experienced damage LO2 Trace the major histori- cal highlights in the study of Why is it that you to 90 percent of the brain would likely be dead or, at a minimum, unable to emerge the brain and nervous system. can’t tickle yourself? from a coma. LO3 Describe the major fea- Although it may be disappointing to you to see the 10 percent myth debunked, tures of histological methods. Researchers using a brain- we suspect that this course in biological psychology will leave you with an enormous imaging technique believe LO4 Distinguish between the amount of respect for the real, scientifically demonstrated capacities of this remark- imaging techniques of CT, PET, they have the answer. able organ, the human brain. MRI, and fMRI. LO5 Describe the use of EEG, MEG, evoked potentials, single-cell recording, and patch Biological Psychology as an clamp methods. Interdisciplinary Field LO6 Describe the use of stimulation and lesion methods. C H A P T E R O U T L I N E B iological psychology is defined as an interdisciplinary area of study involving psychology, biology, physiology, biochemistry, the neural sciences, and related fields (Online Medical Dictionary, 2000). Researchers are specifically interested in LO7 Summarize the methods used to assess the biochemis- Biological Psychology as an the relationships between the actions of the nervous system and observable behavior. try of the nervous system. Interdisciplinary Field In this text, the topics explored will range from sleep to sexuality, from emotions to LO8 Identify the contri- Highlights in the Biological learning, from hunger to psychopathology. In each of the topic areas, you will see butions made by studies Psychology Timeline that the relationship between biology and behavior is circu tha team) drives biology involving twins, adoptions, Interim Summary 1.1 (testosterone levels). and genetically engineered ■ WHY DOES THIS MATTER? research animals to our under- New Ethical Challenges standing of the genetics of the Regarding Stem Cell Research Highlights in the nervous system and behavior. LO9 Summarize the major Research Methods in Biological Psychology I N T R O D U C T I O N Biological Psychology Timeline ethical concerns regarding the use of human participants and Histology Y I n today’s world, we take for granted that the brain and nervous system are the sourc- animal subjects. Autopsy OU HAVE PROBABLY HEARD THE POPULAR EXPRESSION, “YOU ONLY es of intellect, reason, sensation, and movement. This disarmingly simple fact has Imaging use 10 percent of your brain.” This little bit of misinformation has become part not been universally accepted throughout human history. Although some ancient Recording of our popular culture. It certainly would be nice to think that we all had a large observers came very close to the truth, periods of enlightenment were interspersed Stimulation with periods of remarkable misunderstandings. Lesion chunk of brain awaiting more extensive use, perhaps for use in extrasensory per- Our earliest ancestors apparently had at least a rudimentary understanding about Pharmacological Methods ception (ESP) or in surviving those upcoming final exams. the brain’s essential role in maintaining life. Archaeological evidence of brain surgery Genetic Methods We’re not really sure where the 10 percent myth originated. Some writers suggests that as long as 7,000 years ago, people tried to cure others by drilling holes Interim Summary 1.2 blame the work of Pierre Flourens, described later in this chapter. Perhaps by in the skull. The results of one such operation are shown in Figure 1.1. Because some Research Ethics skulls have been located that show evidence of healing following the drilling procedure, Human Participants Guidelines showing that animals could still perform many functions with large parts of their known as trephining or trepanation, we can assume that the patient lived through the The Ethics of Research on the brains surgically removed, Flourens’s work may have led to the perception that procedure and that this was not a postmortem ritual. What is less clear is the intent of Internet all those parts really weren’t necessary after all. Other authors suggest that mis- such surgeries. Possibly, these early surgeons hoped to release demons or relieve feelings Animal Subjects Guidelines quotes of statements made by Albert Einstein and the philosopher/psychologist of pressure. Interim Summary 1.3 Based on Egyptian texts believed to be at least 5,000 years old, the Edwin Smith William James may be the original source of the myth. ■ NEW DIRECTIONS Surgical Papyrus represents the oldest known medical writing in history (Breasted, New Ethical Challenges Regardless of the exact origin of the 10 percent myth, we know today that it 1930). In general, the Egyptians did not seem to view the brain as an important biological psychology An Regarding Stem Cell Research is categorically false. Some of the new techniques discussed in this chapter for structure. During mummification, the brain was removed through the nostrils and interdisciplinary area of study replaced with rosin. Nonetheless, the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus contains a num- involving psychology, biology, Thought Questions Key Terms imaging the brain show that separate parts of the brain may become more active ber of rather modern-sounding observations regarding the structure and function of physiology, biochemistry, the during different tasks but that each has its particular role to play. From an evolu neural sciences, and related fields. of rather modern-sounding observations regarding the structure and function of the 2 HENRY RACHLIN • BOOK DESIGN • 88 PARK AVENUE • ARLINGTON, MA • 02476 • hrachlin@comcast.net

Bernstein Psychology 8e 2009 Cengage Learning 8 ● 1 CHAPTER 1 Introducing Psychology .O Introducing Psychology .......................................... take advantage of analogies, we must first recognize the similarities between current and previous problems and then recall the solution that worked before. Most people are surprisingly poor at recognizing such similarities (Anderson, 2000). They tend to .................................................... concentrate on the surface features that make problems appear different. ur goal in this opening chapter is to give you an overview of psychology and its subfields and to show how psychology’s subfields are linked to one another and to other subjects, such as economics FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS Locating Analogical Thinking and medicine. We then tell the story of how psychology came to be and the various ways in which psychologists approach their work. We have organized he value of using analogies in problem solving was beautifully illustrated after the chapter as follows: T the Hubble Space Telescope was placed in orbit around the Earth in 1990. It was designed to take detailed photographs of distant galaxies, but because its main Basic Functions of Thought mirror was not focusing light properly, the pictures were blurry. Then NASA engi- 000 neer James Crocker happened to notice the way a hotel room showerhead pivoted, The Circle of Thought and it gave him the idea for a system of movable mirrors to correct for the flaw in Measuring Information Processing the Hubble’s mirror. When shuttle astronauts installed these mirrors in 1993, the Mental Representations: The problem was solved (Stein, 1993). Ingredients of Thought 000 Concepts What was the researchers’ question? Propositions Schemas, Scripts, and Mental Charles Wharton and his colleagues wanted to know what goes on in the brain Models when people do this kind of analogical mapping—recognizing similarities between Images and Cognitive Maps things that appear to be different and even unrelated (Wharton et al., 2000). Thinking Strategies 000 Formal Reasoning How did the researchers answer the question? Informal Reasoning The researchers knew that PET scan technology could show brain activity while par- Problem Solving 000 ticipants performed an analogy task, but how could the researchers separate the Strategies for Problem Solving activity associated with analogical mapping from everything else going on in F OCUS O N R ESEARCH M ETHODS FIGURE 8.10 the brain at the same time? Their answer was to use a subtraction technique. They Locating Analogical Thinking Comparing Stimulus Patterns asked people to perform two tasks—one after the other—that involved making Obstacles to Problem Solving Building Problem-Solving Skills The top row shows an example of the comparisons between patterns of rectangles, ovals, triangles, and other shapes. Both Problem Solving by Computer stimulus patterns that were compared in tasks placed similar demands on the brain, but only one of them required the par- Decision Making 000 an analogy task. Participants had to say ticipants to make analogies between the patterns (see Figure 8.10). { Evaluating Options whether the pattern on the right is similar, Biases and Flaws in Decision Making or analogous, to the one on the left. (In This time, Gatiss and his landlord called the Royal Society for the TRY Naturalistic Decision Making this case it is, because even though the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA), whose inspectors heard the kitten THIS specific shapes used in one pattern differ L INKAGES : Group Processes in in distress and asked the fire brigade to return. They spent the next three days Problem Solving and Decision from those in the other pattern, their shad- searching for the cat. First, they tore down parts of the kitchen walls and ripped Making ing and physical arrangement are similar.) The bottom row shows an example of the up the floorboards. Next, they called in plumbing and drainage specialists, who Language 000 patterns that were compared in a “same- used cables tipped with fiber-optic cameras to search remote cavities where a kit- The Elements of Language ten might hide. Rescuers then brought in a disaster search team, which tried to find different” task. Here, participants were Understanding Speech asked only to decide whether the two the kitten using acoustic and ultrasonic equipment designed to locate victims The Development of Language How Is Language Acquired? patterns are exactly the same (Wharton trapped in the debris of earthquakes and explosions. Not a sound could be heard. T HINKING C RITICALLY : Can et al., 2000). Increasingly concerned about how much longer the kitten could survive, the fire Nonhumans Use Language? brigade tried to coax it from hiding with the finest-quality fish, but to no avail. Culture, Language, and Suddenly, there was a burst of “purring,” which to everyone’s surprise (and the Thought 000 landlord’s dismay), the ultrasonic equipment traced to the clock in the electric oven! Later, the landlord commented that everyone had assumed that Gatiss’s LINKAGES hypothesis was correct—that the meowing sound came from a cat trapped some- SUMMARY where in the kitchen. “I just let them carry on. If there is an animal in there, you have to do what it takes. The funniest thing was that it seemed to reply when we called out to it” (London Daily Telegraph, 1998). Often, people begin to solve a problem with only a vague notion of which hypotheses to test. Suppose you heard a strange sound in your kitchen. It could be caused by several things, but which hypotheses should you test, and in what order? 1 HENRY RACHLIN • BOOK DESIGN • 88 PARK AVENUE • ARLINGTON, MA • 02476 • hrachlin@comcast.net

Rosenberg Introduction to General and Organic Chemistry ©2007 Houghton Mifflin 2 2 CHAPTER 00 Chapter Title 2.1 Elements I. Definitions and Isolations 2.1 Elements I. Definitions and I L E A R N I N G G OA L S n chapter 1, we introduced the terms element and compound. In this section, Isolation (p. 000) � To learn the difference between a we will see how these words can be related to common forms of matter such as 2.2 Elements II. Names and mixture and a pure substance. salt water, air, and blood. Not one of the examples listed above is an element or a Symbols (p. 000) � To learn the difference between a compound. Instead, each one is a mixture, a blend of two or more substances. A 2.3 Elements III. Properties and the compound and an element. mixture has the properties of its components. Salt water looks like water and Periodic Table (p. 000) � To learn the difference between a tastes like salt. Importantly, the components of a mixture can be separated from 2.4 Atoms I. The Nucleus (p. 000) mixture and a compound. one another while maintaining their chemical identities. The salt and water in salt 2.5 Atoms II. The Electrons (p. 000) water can be separated from each other by boiling. If a substance cannot be sep- 2.6 The Periodic Table and Electron arated into components without undergoing a chemical change, then it is said to Configuration (p. 000) be pure. Salt and water are both pure substances. 2.7 Magnetic Resonance Imaging Unlike a mixture, a pure substance has a uniform composition. This means (p. 000) that each microscopic drop of pure water is exactly the same. A pure substance 2.8 Nuclear Chemistry (p. 000) also has uniform properties. This means that every sample of pure water is the same, whether it is from the US or Antarctica. In simpler terms, a pure substance 2.9 Nuclear Medicine (p. 000) is just one thing. � HEALTH CONNECTION: Radon Gas (p. 000) A pure substance can be either an element or a compound, alternatives that cannot be distinguished by PHYSICAL means. CHEMICALLY, compounds can be A sapphire separated into simpler substances known as elements. Unlike the separation of Impurities aren’t necessarily bad. a mixture into its components, the separation of a compound into elements involves a change in chemical composition. For example, passing an electric current through the compound water yields hydrogen and oxygen. These two substances have different chemical properties than water: Hydrogen is flammable. Oxygen tarnishes metals. Water is in-flammable. Hydrogen and oxygen are both elements as they cannot be separated by chemical means into simpler substances. Later in section 2.4, we will generate a more rigorous definition of the word element. The Periodic Table, An MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scan of the human cardio-pul- mony system. FPO FPO FPO FPO Atomic Structure, and Nuclear Chemistry � FIGURE 2.1 Mixture to Pure to Element to Compound I n this chapter, we will look at the elements that make up matter, group them according to their reactivity, and arrange this information in the periodic table. We will then examine the structure L E A R N I N G G OA L S 2.2 Elements II. Names and Symbols � To learn the names and symbols of A s each new element was discovered it was given a name, usually by its founder. Elements were named after colors (rubidium-ruby, rhodium-rose), of the atom to better understand the periodic table. The chapter the most common elements. planets (mercury, uranium, and plutonium), people (einsteinium, nobelium), concludes with two important areas of medicine that are based on � To learn which elements are places (germanium, francium, americium), mythological figures (thorium, prome- important in living systems. thium), and their chemical properties (hydrogen-water producing, oxygen-acid the nucleus of the atom, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and producing). nuclear medicine. Several of the most recently produced arti- For each element there is a corresponding one or two letter abbreviation known ficial elements have three letter symbols. as its chemical symbol. The first letter of a chemical symbol is always capitalized. Any subsequent letter is in lowercase. It is important to follow this notation to avoid confusion: 1) while Co is the symbol for a metal, CO is the formula for a toxic gas, 2) mixture a blend of two substances No is a radioactive metal while NO is the formula for a common air pollutant. pure characteristic of a substance that It is worthwhile for students to learn the chemical symbols for the more com- cannot be divided into components without a chemical change mon and important elements. In many cases, this is straightforward, as the English chemical symbol a one or two letter name and the chemical symbol are based on the same word, such as O for oxygen abbreviation for an element and N for nitrogen. In a few select and well known exceptions, Latin names form 1 the basis of the abbreviations, including copper (Cu), gold (Au), iron (Fe), lead HENRY RACHLIN • BOOK DESIGN • 88 PARK AVENUE • ARLINGTON, MA • 02476 • hrachlin@comcast.net

Koch So, You Want to Be a Teacher ©2007 Houghton Mifflin 12 2 CHAPTER 00 Chapter Title CHAPTER ■ Pearl, Amanda, and Jessica talk about the excitement of reaching the children and recognizing that they “got it” as it related to new knowledge con- Teaching Stories struction. Pearl gets so immersed in the activities with her students that she forgets to take a bathroom break. ■ These teachers, typical of most, work actively on their preparation for teaching and are constantly challenging themselves to come up with novel ways to engage students in their own learning. They remind me that “to teach is to learn.” Pearl illustrates this idea when she explains her own process in solving a difficult mathematics problem as a learner and then going through it again as a teacher. WRITING and REFLECTION How Do You Feel About Teaching and Learning? Why do you think that Amanda is not very excited when the students all get 100 percent on a test? When Jessica states that the best times are when students “uncover new meaning” on their own, what do you think she means? Do you remember an “ah-hah” moment as a student? Can you describe it? What do you anticipate as the most exciting part of teaching? LEARNING PROJECT The One-Room Schoolhouse One-room schoolhouses dotted the American landscape for over a century. These early schools had one teacher for all the children, regardless of age. There is a wealth of knowledge about these early schools. You may be sur- prised to learn that some lasted well into the twentieth century, especially in more rural areas. FOCUSING QUESTIONS Explore and describe a one-room schoolhouse. Where was it? How many ◗ Why do you think most teachers enter the field? children did it serve? What is its history? What type of curriculum did it ◗ What do you think ae the most exciting aspects of teaching? have? Would you have liked to attend this school? Why or why not? ◗ What might be the most difficult challenges for teachers? Early Schoolbooks ◗ Who do you suppose offers teachers the most support? Generations of colonial students learned their alphabet from a device called a hornbook. Older students used the New England Primer and the McGuffey Readers, among other schoolbooks. Explore these early materials and describe their uses for students and teachers. T his chapter gives you a glimpse at the ways in which teachers from Many of today’s educational practices began when the country was young. For example, local control, compulsory education, and tax-support- ed schools are premises of today's public schools, and you have seen in this grades K–12 make their decisions to enter the field and what they chapter how early they originated. Then and Now experience as the most exciting andchallenging aspects of teaching. Many of the early conflicts exist today as well. Issues concerning race, social Their stories are designed to help you explore what Parker Palmer class, and gender inequities are evident in the disparities between today’s urban, suburban, and rural schools. Select one issue that dates back to (1998) calls the “inner landscape of a teacher’s life.” America’s early years and describe the ways in which it is reflected in the differences among modern-day urban, suburban, and rural schools. 5 HENRY RACHLIN • BOOK DESIGN • 88 PARK AVENUE • ARLINGTON, MA • 02476 • hrachlin@comcast.net

Kirk Educating Exceptional Children 12e ©2007 Houghton Mifflin 6 CHAPTER 00 Chapter Title C H A P T E R 1 Children with Learning Disabilities to use his strength in art to bolster his self-esteem and build more social support his peers. Both Jason and Ray have learning disabilities and yet each is unique in their combination of strengths and challenges. Because of these differences each student with learning disabilities will need an individualized educational program, an IEP, to support his, or, her success in school. Later in the chapter we will explore how teachers and parents can work together with the child to promote success, but first we will take a look at how learning disabilities are defined by law. FOCUS QUESTIONS Defining Learning Disabilities How are learning disabilities, dyslexia, and attentions deficits defined? What are the specific chal- I T has been over thirty years since Samuel Kirk used the term “Learning Disabilities” to describe children who despite average, or, above intelligence seemed to be encountering problems with school (Coleman, Buysse, Neitzel lenges faced by individuals 2006). At that time Kirk believed that these children would likely be a very small subset of children with disabilities. Little did we know that children with learning disabilities with learning disabilities would become the largest group of students served and attention deficit hyper- by our special education programs. Current estimations indicate that 48% of activity disorders? the school aged children who receive special education are labeled as “LD” How does the Information (U.S. Department of Education, 2005). Processing Model help One possible explanation for the expansion is the way we have de- us understand learning fined learning disabilities. The Federal Register (2004) gives us the follow- disabilities? ing definition: What teaching/learning SEC. 602. DEFINITIONS. 29) SPECIFIC LEARN- strategies work well for ING DISABILTIY.- students with learning disabilities? (A) IN GENERAL.- The term ‘specific learning disability’ means a disorder in 1 or 2 more What technology is avail- of the basic psychological processes involved able to support academic in understanding or in using language, spoken, learning? or written, which disorder may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, How does having a child write, spell, or do mathematical calculations. with learning disabilities impact the family? (B) DISORDERS INCLUDE.- Such term includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. This is a theoretical definition and must be "operationalized" to help us actually identify students with learning disabilities. To operationalize Families of exceptional children play an important role in this definition most states developed formulas that early intervention. Parents can teach their children some of hinged on the discrepancies between intellectual the skills and learning tools that will later be reinforced in a abilities (IQ) and achievement, and/or, perform- school setting. ance. The magnitude of these discrepancies was 2 © Peter Hvizdak/The Image Work thought to indicate the degree of underlying dis- HENRY RACHLIN • BOOK DESIGN • 88 PARK AVENUE • ARLINGTON, MA • 02476 • hrachlin@comcast.net

Heisinger Managerial Accounting ©2010 Cengage Learning CHAPTER Implementing 1 Process Costing ANN WATKINS operates a company that produces wood desks used in classrooms throughout the world. Ann’s company, Desk Products Incorporated, maintains a competitive advantage over other similar companies by producing one particular desk in large quantities—4,000 to 8,000 desks per month—using a design that is universally accepted. This enables the company to buy materials in bulk, often leading to volume price dis- L EARNING O BJECTIVES counts from suppliers. Because the exact same desk is produced for all cus- 1. Compare and contrast tomers, wood materials are purchased pre-cut from suppliers. As a result, job costing and process Desk Products can limit the production process to two processing depart- costing. ments—Assembly and Finishing. The Assembly Department requisitions 2. Identify how product pre-cut materials and hardware from the raw materials storeroom, assem- costs flow through bles each desk, and moves the assembled desks to the Finishing Department. accounts using process The Finishing Department sands and paints each desk, and moves complet- costing. ed desks to the finished goods warehouse. 3. Understand the concept A new competitor recently began production of a similar desk and Ann of an equivalent unit. is concerned about whether Desk Products’ pricing is reasonable. Although 4. Use four steps to assign Ann’s company has a strong record of profitability, she does costs to products using not have a clear picture of how low prices can go before the desks the weighted average become unprofitable. She talks with the accountant of Desk Products, John method. Fuller, to investigate. 5. Prepare a production Ann: John, as you know, we have a new competitor that is aggressively cost report for a going after our customers. It looks like we will have to lower prices processing department to compete. It would help if I knew the cost of each desk produced. with no transferred-in John: Although we don’t track production costs for each individual desk, costs. we do track costs for batches of desks as they go through the two 6. Prepare a production production departments—Assembly and Finishing. cost report for a Ann: We are able to track costs for each department? processing department with transferred-in John: Yes! costs. Ann: This would really help in looking at our efficiency in each depart- 7. Assign costs to products ment, particularly if cost cuts are needed to remain competitive. using the first-in-first- John: We use a process costing system that assigns costs to each batch of out method (Appendix desks produced, and results in a cost per unit as the products move 4.1). through the Assembly Department and Finishing Department. Ann: Excellent! Can you get me this cost information for last month? John: Sure, I’ll put together a production cost report for you by the end of the week. Desk Products Inc. is used as an example throughout the chapter to explain how process costing systems work. 4 6 HENRY RACHLIN • BOOK DESIGN • 88 PARK AVENUE • ARLINGTON, MA • 02476 • hrachlin@comcast.net

Kennedy The American Pageant 12e ©2009 Cengage Learning PART TWO Mapping the New Continent T he youthful financier’s first objective was to bolster the national credit. Without public con- assume the debts of the states, totaling some $21.5 million.The secretary made a convincing case for Building the fidence in the government, Hamilton could not secure “assumption.” The state debts could be regarded as a the funds with which to float his risky schemes. He proper national obligation, for they had been incurred therefore boldly urged Congress to “fund” the entire in the war for independence. But foremost in Hamil- New Nation national debt “at par” and to assume completely the debts incurred by the states during the recent war. “Funding at par” meant that the federal govern- ton’s thinking was the belief that assumption would chain the states more tightly to the “federal chariot.” Thus the secretary’s maneuver would shift the attach- ment would pay off its debts at face value, plus accu- ment of wealthy creditors from the states to the fed- mulated interest—a then-enormous total of more than eral government. The support of the rich for the $54 million. So many people believed the infant Trea- nationaladministration was a crucial link in Hamil- 1776–1860 sury incapable of meeting those obligations that government bonds had depreciated to ten or fifteen cents ton’s political strategy of strengthening the central government. on the dollar. Yet speculators held fistfuls of them, and States burdened with heavy debts, like Massachu- when Congress passed Hamilton’s measure in 1790, setts, were delighted by Hamilton’s proposal. States they grabbed for more. Some of them galloped into with small debts, like Virginia, were less charmed. The rural areas ahead of the news, buying for a song the stage was set for some old-fashioned horse trading. depreciated paper holdings of farmers, war veterans, Virginia did not want the state debts assumed, but it and widows. did want the forthcoming federal district*—now the Hamilton was willing, even eager, to have the new District of Columbia—to be located on the Potomac government shoulder additional obligations. While River. judgment. He, like other Founding pushing the funding scheme, he urged Congress to E mbattled France, its hands full in Europe, wanted no war. An out- witted Talleyrand realized that to fight Fathers, realized full well that war must be avoided while the country the United States would merely add was relatively weak. one more foe to his enemy roster. The Adams unexpectedly exploded a British, who were lending the Ameri- bombshell when, early in 1799, he cans cannon and other war supplies, submitted to the Senate the name of were actually driven closer to their a new minister to France. Hamilton wayward cousins than they were to be and his war-hawk faction were again for many years. Talleyrand enraged. But public opinion—Jeffer- therefore let it be known, through roundabout channels, sonian and reasonable Federalist alike—was favorable that if the Americans would send a new minister, he to one last try for peace. America’s envoys (now three) would be received with proper respect. This French furor brought to Adams a degree of found the political skies brightening when they reached Paris early in 1800. The ambitious “Little Corporal,” the F PO personal acclaim that he had never known before—and Corsican Napoleon Bonaparte, had recently seized dic- was never to know again. He doubtless perceived that tatorial power. He was eager to free his hands of the a full-fledged war, crowned by the conquest of the American squabble so that he might continue to redraw Floridas and Louisiana, would bring new plaudits to the the map of Europe and perhaps create a New World Federalist party—and perhaps a second term to himself. empire in Louisiana. The afflictions and ambitions of But the heady wine of popularity did not sway his final the Old World were again working to America’s advan- Republicanism Triumphant Artists often used classical motifs to celebrate the triumph in America of republicanism—a form of government they traced back to ancient Greece and Rome. 2 7 HENRY RACHLIN • BOOK DESIGN • 88 PARK AVENUE • ARLINGTON, MA • 02476 • hrachlin@comcast.net

Tognozzi Ponti ©2004 Houghton Mifflin 1 11 ~ Chapter Title Chapter Title ~ 1 1 6 ~ Capitulo 00 C AC PA I P T I OT LO OL O ~ 1 GR A M M AT I C A & C O . Chapter Title C A P I T O L O Communicative Communicative I Il passato prossimo Cronache italiane? Cronache italiane? Objectives Objectives The passato prossimo expresses a completed past action, usually an action Communicative concluded in a precise time frame. The passato prossimo is also used to Cronache italiane? Objectives describe ¥ Narrate and ¥ Narrate and describe events in the past past events in the describe a past occurrence whose effects continue in the present. ¥ Narrate and describe ¥ Summarize and talk ¥ Summarize and the past events in talk Ho aspettato all’aeroporto per tre ore. I waited at the airport for three about news events events about news hours. ¥ Summarize and talk ¥ Talk about Italian news- news- ¥ Talk about Italian about news events Ho sempre amato viaggiare. I’ve always loved to travel (and FPO Internet Café Café FPO Internet papers papers and magazines and magazines ¥ Talk about Italian news- still do). FPO Internet Café Indirizzo: http://italian.college.hmco.com/students Indirizzo: http://italian.college.hmco.com/students papers and magazines In English the passato prossimo can be expressed in three ways. Attività: � S fogliando le pagine pagine di un giornale�. Attività: � S fogliando le di un giornale�. Indirizzo: http://italian.college.hmco.com/students Abbiamo letto il giornale. We read the newspaper. In classe: StampaSilfogliando le pagine di un giornale�. che hai portaloportalo in In classe: Stampa il breve riassunto dell�articolo Attività: � breve riassunto dell�articolo che hai letto e letto e in We have read the newspaper. classe. classe. Presentalo, spiegando le ragioni per cui ti � sembrato interessante. Presentalo, spiegando le ragioni per cui ti � sembrato interessante. We did read the newspaper. In classe: Stampa il breve riassunto dell�articolo che hai letto e portalo in classe. Presentalo, spiegando le ragioni per cui ti � sembrato interessante. � Formation A 1] The passato prossimo is formed with the present tense of the auxiliary Donna. . . verb essere or avere plus the past participle of the action verb. Dillo ad Aspettare Andare alta voce! ho sono hai sei + andato/a ha è abbiamo + aspettato siamo avete siete + andati/e hanno sono 2] Regular past participles are formed by adding the participle ending (-ato, - Donna. . . uto, -ito) to the end of the verb. Dillo ad Infinitive Ending Past Participle alta voce! appetare – ato aspettato ricevere –uto ricevuto partire –ito partito Most first conjugation verbs (verbs ending in -are) are regular. * The verbs costare and durare are always conjugated with essere even though they can take a direct object. Ex: Comprare quella casa le è costato un occhio della testa. Quel discorso è dura- Photo caption. Photo caption. to un’ora. Photo caption. 1 1 1 HENRY RACHLIN • BOOK DESIGN • 88 PARK AVENUE • ARLINGTON, MA • 02476 • hrachlin@comcast.net

Waner Applied Calculus 5e 2010 Cengage Learning 2 CHAPTE R 2 REVI EW 126 Chapter 2 Nonlinear Models Non–Linear Models KEY CONCEPTS Case Study Checking up on Malthus 2.1 Quadratic Functions and Models Alternative form of an exponential function: p. 137 A quadratic function has the form p. 114 Finding the exponential regression curve p. 137 In 1798 Thomas R. Malthus (1766–1834) published an influential pamphlet, later The graph of is a parabola p. 115 expanded into a book, titled An Essay on the Principle of Population as It Affects The x-coordinate of the vertex is . 2.3 Logarithmic Functions and Models the Future Improvement of Society. One of his main contentions was that popula- The y-coordinate is p. 115 The base b logarithm of x: means p. 143 2.2 Exponential tion grows geometrically (exponentially), while the supply of resources such as x-intercepts (if any) occur at p. 115 Common logarithm, , and natural logarithm, p. 144 Functions and food grows only arithmetically (linearly). Some 200 years later, you have been The y-intercept occurs at p. 115 Change of base formula p. 144 Models asked to check the validity of Malthus’s contention. How do you go about The parabola is symmetric with respect to the vertical line Solving equations with unknowns in the exponent p. 145 doing so? through the vertex. p. 115 A logarithmic function has the form p. 145 2.3 Logarithmic Sketching the graph of a quadratic function p. 116 Graphs of logarithmic functions p. 146 Functions and Application to maximizing revenue p. 117 Logarithm identities p. 147 Models Application to maximizing profit p. 118 Application to investments (how long?) p. 147 2.4 Logistic Functions Application to half-life p. 148 Finding the quadratic regression curve p. 120 and Models Exponential growth and decay models and half-life p. 150 KEY CONCEPTS 2.2 Exponential Functions and Models Finding the logarithmic regression curve p. 150 An exponential function has the form p. 126 REVIEW EXERCISES Recognizing exponential data p. 127 2.4 Logistic Functions and Models CASE STUDY EXERCISES A logistic function has the form p. 156 Roles of the constants A and b in an exponential function p. 128 TECHNOLOGY GUIDES Finding the exponential curve through two points p. 130 Properties of the logistic curve p. 157 Application to exponential growth (epidemics) p. 130 Logistic function for small x, and the role of b p. 158 Application to compound interest p. 132 Application to epidemics p. 158 Application to exponential decay (carbon dating) p. 133 Finding the logistic regression curve p. 159 The number e and continuous compounding p. 134 REVIEW EXERCISES T indicates exercises that should be solved using technology 17. T (1, 2), (3, 4), (4, 3), (5, 1) In Exercises 1–10, sketch the graphs of the quadratic functions, indicating the coordinates of the vertex, the y-intercept, and the 18. T (1, 2), (3, 4), (4, 3), (5, 1) x-intercepts (if any). HINT [see Example 1]. 19. Trade with China The following chart shows the value of 1. f (x) = 4x 2 – 12x + 9 2. f (x) = 4x 2 – 12x + 9 U.S. trade with China for the period 1994–2004 ( represents 1994). HINT [see "Features of a Parabola", p. 115] 3. f (x) = –x 2 – 4x + 9 4. f (x) = 4x 2 – 12x + 9 5. f (x) = 4x 2 – 40x + 50 6. f (x) = 4x 2 – 10x + 100 3 7. f (x) = 4x 2 – 12x + 9 8. f (x) = 4x 2 – 12x + 9 Graduates (millions) 2.8 2.8 9. f (x) = 4x 2 – 12x + 9 10. f (x) = 4x 2 – 12x + 9 2.7 2.75 2.6 2.6 2.5 2.5 Photo credit. In Exercises 11–14, for each demand equation, express the total 2.4 revenue R as a function of the price p per item, sketch the graph 2.4 of the resulting function, and determine the price p that maxi- 2.2 mizes total revenue in each case. Online you will find: 2 Section by section tutorials 11. f (x) = 4x 2 – 12x + 9 12. f (x) = 4x 2 – 12x + 9 1993 1996 1999 A detailed chapter summary Year 13. f (x) = 4x 2 – 12x + 9 14. f (x) = 4x 2 – 12x + 9 A true/false quiz a. If you want to model the trade figures with a function of Additional review exercises T In Exercises 15–18, use technology to find the quadratic re- the form Graphers, Excel tutorials, and other resources gression curve through the given points. (Round all coefficients to four decimal places.) HINT [see Example 5] f (x) = 4x 2 – 12x + 9 Optional sections: Inverse Functions 15. T (1, 2), (3, 4), (4, 3), (5, 1) would you expect the coefficient to be positive or nega- Using and Deriving Algebraic Properties of Logarithms tive? 16. T (1, 2), (3, 4), (4, 3), (5, 1) 117 HENRY RACHLIN • BOOK DESIGN • 88 PARK AVENUE • ARLINGTON, MA • 02476 • hrachlin@comcast.net

Boyer Management ©2009 Cengage Learning 16 CHAPTER 6 PART XX � Part Title Last H1 Head 16 CHAPTER 00 � Chapter Title 17 Wal-Mart’s inventory reduction reflects its strategy of cutting costs and improving margins by pruning the range of items offered in stores. Steps taken to reduce inven- Independent Demand Inventory PA R T I Part Title tory include revising its distribution system to facilitate more frequent delivery to stores of fast-moving items such as toilet paper, light bulbs, and garbage bags. The LEARNING OBJECTIVES company also seeks to reduce store inventory that isn’t on shelves, including back room stock, stock on overhead shelves, and stock in off-site warehouses. The link- � Learn reasons for/against having inventory. age between Wal-Mart’s actions and those of its many suppliers provides an excel- � Learn basic inventory types. lent illustration of the bullwhip effect where decisions of one part of the supply � Understand and calculate the Economic Order Quantity. chain ripple through the entire system. � � Apply Continuous Review and Periodic Review Systems. Inventory is the physical store of any item or resources used in an organization. The policies and procedures that monitor levels of inventory and determine PA R T II Part Title when to place an order make up the inventory management system. The objective of an inventory system is to specify: 1 When items should be ordered. The Wal-Mart Effect 2 When quantity of the item should be ordered. W al-Mart became the world’s largest retailer in large part because of its excellent management of inventory. The These two decisions need to be made both for manufacturing and services. In manufacturing, types of inventory include raw materials, work-in-process, finished goods, component parts, and supplies. In services, inventory refers to tangible goods that are sold as part of the service and maintenance, repair, and company has annual sales of over $300 operating (MRO) supplies that are necessary to keep the business running. billion and operates more than 3,500 stores in the U.S. and more than 2,500 R EASONS TO CARRY INVENTORY stores in 15 other countries, including PA R T III Part Title Japan, Nicaragua, the United Kingdom, and Brazil. Wal-Mart employs over 1.3 mil- ALL organizations (including companies that utilize lean production and com- lion people in the U.S. and an additional panies like Google that sell “virtual” products) carry some inventory, for the fol- half million in other countries, and the lowing reasons: company is the largest employer in both 1 Setup and Ordering Cost Producing an item involves two steps: setting up the U.S. and Mexico. The scale of Wal- the materials and resources necessary to produce the item and doing the Mart’s operations and the number of actual processing or transformation of the item. Setup or Ordering Cost is inventory decisions made on a daily basis the cost in time or money to prepare all necessary materials and resources for production. Processing cost is the cost in time or money to machine, are astounding. With over 6,000 stores assemble, or transform an item. As an example, if you want to change one and at least 10,000 SKUs at each store, Wal-Mart’s inventory light bulb in the chandelier in your foyer, the setup time (cost) might be 5 Wal-Mart manages at least 60 million individual stocking locations— which leads to at reduction reflects its strate- minutes – this is the time involved in getting out a ladder, finding a light gy of cutting costs and least a quarter of a million line item orders per day. bulb, and preparing any necessary tools. The processing time for actually PA R T IV Part Title improving margins by pruning the range of items changing the light bulb might then be 10 seconds. The time(cost) to The tremendous impact Wal-Mart has on its suppliers via its inventory decisions has change one light bulb is 5.16 minutes (5 minutes setup + 10 seconds pro- offer-ed in stores. Steps been dubbed “the Wal-Mart Effect.” When Wal-Mart announced a major effort to taken to reduce inventory cessing). To change all 10 light bulbs would require a total of only 6.67 reduce its inventory costs by $6 billion in 2006, or 20% of its yearly total, suppliers include revising its distri- minutes (5 minutes setup plus 10*10 seconds processing). This is one of the took notice. Wal-Mart accounts for 10% to 30% of many suppliers’ sales, including bution system to facilitate reasons that maintenance people in office buildings often change all light giants like Kellogg’s, Procter & Gamble, and SaraLee. Battery maker Spectrum Brands more frequent delivery. bulbs at once—the other is that it increases reliability in terms of when the lights work. In general, the higher the demand for a good or service, the Inc. suffered a 28% drop in stock market value on April 6 after blaming inventory greater the incentive to increase order size to spread order/setup cost over reductions tied to Wal-Mart’s cutbacks. Wal-Mart accounts for 18% of Spectrum’s total more units. Setup cost is generally used in manufacturing situations where sales and 16% of P&G’s. The correction of Wal-Mart’s inventory also affects shippers, physical steps need to be taken to prepare for an order. Ordering cost is used with estimates of a $300 to $400 million reduction in freight revenue. Swift when purchasing items from a supplier or retailer because of the time or cost necessary to initiate and process the order when received. 16 HENRY RACHLIN • BOOK DESIGN • 88 PARK AVENUE • ARLINGTON, MA • 02476 • hrachlin@comcast.net

Eiteman Multinational Business Finance 11e ©2007 Pearson/Addison-Wesley 48 Chapter 3 The Balance of Payments Typical BOP Transactions International transactions take many forms. Each of the following examples is an interna- CHAPTER 31 tional economic transaction that is counted and captured in the U.S. balance of payments:  Honda U.S. is the U.S. distributor of automobiles manufactured in Japan by its parent company, Honda of Japan.  A U.S.-based firm, Fluor Corporation, manages the construction of a major water treat-  ment facility in Bangkok, Thailand. The U.S. subsidiary of a French firm, Saint Gobain, pays profits (dividends) back to its The Balance of Payments parent firm in Paris.  Daimler-Chrysler, the well-known German/American automobile manufacturer, purchases a small automotive parts manufacturer outside Chicago, Illinois. I nternational business transactions occur in many different forms over the course of a year. The measurement of all international economic transactions between the residents of a country and foreign residents is called the balance of payments  An American tourist purchases a small Lapponia necklace in Finland. (BOP).1 Government policymakers need such measures of economic activity in order to evaluate the general competitiveness of domestic industry, to set exchange  The U.S. government finances the purchase of military equipment for its NATO (North rate or interest rate policies or goals, and for many other purposes. Multinational Atlantic Treaty Organization) military ally, Norway. businesses use various BOP measures to gauge the growth and health of specific  A Mexican lawyer purchases a U.S. corporate bond through an investment broker in types of foreign trade or financial transactions against the home country. Cleveland. Home-country and host-country BOP data are important to business man- This is a small sample of the hundreds of thousands of international transactions that agers, investors, consumers, and government officials because the data influence occur each year. The balance of payments provides a systematic method for classifying these and are influenced by other key macroeconomic variables such as gross domestic transactions. One rule of thumb always aids the understanding of BOP accounting: “Follow product, employment, price levels, exchange rates, and interest rates. Monetary the cash flow.” and fiscal policy must take the BOP into account at the national level. Business managers and investors need BOP data to anticipate changes in host country eco- The BOP is composed of a number of subaccounts that are watched quite closely by nomic policies that might be driven by BOP events. BOP data might be important groups as diverse as investment bankers, farmers, politicians, and corporate executives. These for any of the following reasons: groups track and analyze the two major subaccounts, the Current Account and the Capital/Financial Account, on a continuing basis. Exhibit 3.1 provides an overview of these • The BOP is an important indicator of pressure on a country’s foreign exchange major subaccounts of the BOP. rate and thus on the potential for a firm trading with or investing in that country to experience foreign exchange gains or losses. Changes in the BOP may predict the imposition or removal of foreign exchange controls. Fundamentals of Balance of Payments • Changes in a country’s BOP may signal the imposition or removal of controls Accounting over payment of dividends and interest, license fees, royalty fees, or other cash The BOP must balance. If it does not, something has not been counted or has been counted disbursements to foreign firms or investors. improperly. It is therefore incorrect to state that the BOP is in disequilibrium. It cannot be. • The BOP helps to forecast a country’s market potential, especially in the short The supply and demand for a country’s currency may be imbalanced, but supply and run. A country experiencing a serious trade deficit is not as likely to expand demand are not the same thing as the BOP. A subaccount of the BOP, such as the mer- imports as it would if it were running a surplus. It may, however, welcome chandise trade balance, may be imbalanced, but the entire BOP of a single country is always investments that increase its exports. balanced. There are three main elements of the actual process of measuring international economic activity: 1) identifying what is and is not an international economic transaction; 2) 1. The official terminology used throughout this chapter is that of the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Because the IMF is the primary understanding how the flow of goods, services, assets, and money create debits and credits source of similar statistics for balance of payments and economic performance by nations worldwide, its language is more general than other terminology such as that employed by the United States Department of Commerce. to the overall BOP; and 3) understanding the bookkeeping procedures for BOP accounting. 47 HENRY RACHLIN • BOOK DESIGN • 88 PARK AVENUE • ARLINGTON, MA • 02476 • hrachlin@comcast.net

Waldman Industrial Management 3e ©2007 Pearson/Addison-Wesley 32 CHAPTER 3 Alternate Theories of Firm Behavior 3 group attempting a takeover, keeping in mind that the group has an incentive to reveal only information favor-able to their attempt. Because of these costs, the threat of takeover is unlikely to be a completely effec- tive constraint on managers. Exactly how much room managers have for non–profit- maximizing behavior is an empirical question. We will examine the evidence shortly. The product market may also constrain managers’ behavior. A firm that is not maximizing profits faces the possibility of being forced out of a competitive market as Alternate Theories long as at least some other firms in the industry are striving for the highest possible profits. A highly competitive market, therefore, disciplines a firm to mini-mize costs and pick the profit-maximizing output level. of Firm Behavior Finally, we note that in addition to the “sticks” of stockholder revolt and take-over threats, “carrots” may also encourage managers to maximize profits. One such incentive is to tie executive compensation to profits through bonuses or stock options. A study of compensation and stock holdings of 461 top executives in U.S. corporations found that executives’ stock holdings averaged thirteen times their annual salary plus T hroughout this book we will spend much time analyzing the actions of firms in oligopolistic industries and examining the consequences of those actions for market behavior and performance. How is price set in an oligopoly? What factors deter- bonus.35 Presumably, these executives are well aware of the link between the value of their companies’ stock and their own wealth. Theory cannot tell us conclusively whether an assumption of profit maximiza- mine expenditures on advertising? Do firms in an oligopoly spend propor-tionately tion is realistic. It is necessary, therefore, to turn to a consideration of the vast quan- more or less on research and development than firms in a competitive industry? tity of empirical work on managerial incentives and performance. Before considering these questions, it is necessary to examine the structure of a modern firm and look carefully at the important assumption of profit maximization. APPLICATION 3.4 Throughout the review of the economics of perfect competition and monopoly in A Measure of Economies of Scope Chapter 2, we assumed that firms maximized profits. Now it’s time to question Economists have developed a measure of the degree of economies of scope analogous to whether this assumption makes sense for real-world firms. the measure of economies of scale, S. Call this measure SC: C(q1,0) + C(0,q2) – (Cq1,q2) SC = 3.1 The Neoclassical Firm C(q1,q2) What SC measures is the relative increase in costs that would result from producing particular quantities of two goods separately rather than together. Larger economies of scope Suppose that at the beginning of your first microeconomics course, your professor had result in larger values of SC. asked you to name some firms. Your list might have included General Motors, Kodak, Microsoft, Xerox, Coca-Cola, and Procter & Gamble. All of these firms are among the largest U.S. Industrial Corporations as ranked by Fortune. You probably noticed in your microeconomics course that a “firm” in economic theory appeared to be quite different from these real-world large corporations. Microeconomists usually model a firm as a single entity with a clear goal that it 3.4 Empirical Evidence pursues without any wasted effort. The traditional neoclassical firm is represented by a production function that summarizes the relationship between inputs and output Despite the voluminous empirical evidence on the issues discussed in this chapter, the given the current technology. Regardless of industry structure, each firm is assumed to major issues remain unsettled. In this survey of the empirical literature, we ex-plore maximize profits, making it possible to precisely predict its output and pricing deci- the testable hypotheses that emerge from the theoretical literature and at-tempt to sions. Because all firms are assumed to maximize profits, any differences in perform- summarize the current “bottom line” on each issue. ance—such as across industries or over time within the same industry—must be the In part there is a lack of consensus because the issues are difficult to test. Most of result of factors external to the firm, such as the structure of the market or technolo- the available evidence comes from statistical tests. The data are often poor and a care- gy. As we saw in Chapter 2, for example, economic theory predicted that the price set ful test requires many explanatory variables. For example, the list of ex-planatory vari- by a monopolist would be above the perfectly compet-itive price for that same indus- ables in one comprehensive study on profitability includes the pro-portion of com- try. The higher monopoly price resulted from the difference in industry structure mon shares held by the top five managers, the control position of outside owners, the 1 3 HENRY RACHLIN • BOOK DESIGN • 88 PARK AVENUE • ARLINGTON, MA • 02476 • hrachlin@comcast.net

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