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From Service Busyness to Service Business - A
management perspective
Heiko Gebauer
Associate Professor
Department Innovation Research in Utility Sectors - Eawag: Swiss
Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology
University of St.Gallen (Switzerland)
Karlstad University (Sweden)
Increasing the service orientation in
manufacturing companies
Investments into the service business
Service paradox
Ad-hoc service
support
Dominated by
products
Value
contribution
Maintenance contracts
Performance-based
Business consulting
Integration services
Dominated by
services
Arguments for extending the service business
Marketing benefits
– Augmenting the product offering
– Intensity of customer relationship
– Lock-in effect for customers
– Long-term customer relationship (strategic partnerships)
Strategic benefits
– Differentiation opportunities
– Comparison of offerings is more complex
– Collaborative innovation between customer and supplier
– Services as entry barrier for competitors
– Service competencies more difficult to imitate
Financial benefits
– Higher margins (product: -1% to 3%; services: 5% to 20%)
– Stable source of revenue
– High installed base
– Size of the service market (service market 2 to 10x bigger than product market)
Example – IBM‘s move from products
toward services
Milestones
In 2001, Global Services (40.7%), Hardware (38.9%),
Software (15.1%), Global financing (4.0%), Enterprise
Investments/Other
• Management commitment
• Management and financial system
• Recruiting new and intensive training of
existing employees
• Incentive system for services
• Formulation & implementation of a
service strategy
• Creation of IBM Global Services as
strategic Business Unit
• Continuous service innovations (Network,
data storage, e-Business)
Revenues
in billion US dollar
Extension of the service business at
Bosch Packaging
Products to services Revenue shares
− Spare and wear parts,
field services and
modernizations
− Service level agreements,
extended warranty, and spare
parts packages
− Services for competitor products,
operational and outsourcing services
Services
Revenue Market share for
services
Customers
Third-party service
providers
45%
30%
25%
Machines and
systems
66%
34%
Hänggi, 2006
Complexity of the service business
Cognition can limit the extension of the service business
Parameter Product business Service business
Nature of demand More predictable, can
better forecast
Always unpredictable,
sporadic
Required response Standard, can be
scheduled
As soon as possible
Number of product
generations
Limited 10 to 15 times higher
Offerings Homogenous Heterogeneous
Network Multiple networks
Single network for all
services
Cohen et al. 2006
Identifying strategic paths through
visualizing service opportunities
Adapted from Sawhney, 2004
Recon-
figuration
Extension
How do service
opportunities
appear?)
Primary customer
activities
Where do service opportunities appear?
Supplementary customer
activities
SalesPre-Sales After-sales
Identifying strategic paths through
visualizing service opportunities
Adapted from Sawhney, 2004
Recon-
figuration
Extension
How do service
opportunities
appear?)
Primary customer
activities
Where do service opportunities appear?
Supplementary customer
activities
SalesPre-Sales After-sales
Exploitation or exploration: How to
approach the service opportunities?
Adapted from Sawhney, 2004, Fischer, Gebauer, Guanjie, Gregory and Fleisch(2010)
Reconfiguration
Extension
How do service
opportunities
appear?)
Primary customer
activities
Where do service opportunities appear?
Supplementary
customer activities
SalesPre-Sales After-sales
Exploration
•Radical improvement
•New value constellation
•Dynamic capabilities
Exploitation
•Incremental improvements
•Value-adding to existing value constellation
•Development of operational capabilities
Parameter Exploration
Example
Organisational
adaptation
Radical
Antecedents Dynamic capabilities
Value constellation
Creation of a new value
constellation
Value contribution
Short-term, significant
increase in service revenue
Exploration of uncontested service markets
Example - Hilti
Exploration
Fischer, Gebauer, Ren, Gregory & Fleisch, 2010
Exploitation of existing service markets
Example – Bosch Packaging
Fischer, Gebauer, Ren, Gregory & Fleisch, 2010
Exploitation
Parameter Exploitation
Example
Organisational
change
Incremental
Antecedents Operational capabilities
Value constellation
Improving existing value
constellation
Value contribution
Long-term, continuous
increase in service revenue
(15 to 30% in 10 years)
Service strategies
1) After-sales service provider
Value proposition
• Fast reactions to product failures
• Reasonable product prices
Business logic
• Reasonable product prices combined with high
margins for spare parts and repair
• Unscheduled service activities require fluctuation
in service demand, maximizing time at the
customer
Operational capabilities
• Planning and forecasting of spare parts demand
• Spare parts and repair center close to customers
• Service technicians act as reliable trouble-
shooters
• Technical competencies
• Cost or product center in product division
Services
• Spare parts
• Repair services and inspection
• Trouble-shooting & diagnose
services
Value proposition
• Prevention of product failures
Business logic
• High-quality products combined with fixed prices for
service contracts
• Schedules service activities (capacity utilization),
minimizing time at the customer (e.g. exchange of
modules instead of repair of components)
Operational capabilities
• Condition monitoring
• Risk estimation and pricing
• Regional spare parts and service centers
• Services as an independent strategic business unit
for services
• Service technicians act as performance enablers
• Communication & behavioral competencies
Services
• Service contracts
• Preventive maintenance
• Process-optimization
• Modernization
Service strategies
2) Customer-support service provider
Service strategies
3) Development partner
Value proposition
• Development competencies provide strategic
competitive advantages (strategic partnerships)
Business logic
• High-quality products combined with technical
construction and design
• Development of customer processes, in which
products are used
Operational capabilities
• Integrating R&D-teams (internal & external)
• Technical adviser and collaborative learning
• Communication and behavioral competencies
• Recruiting and training of employees
Services
• Design and construction
services
• Technical advice
• Feasibility studies
Service strategies
4) Outsourcing partner
Value proposition
• Continuous improvement of customer processes
Business logic
• Taking over of customer processes (e.g.,
maintenance or production)
• Pay-per-use or performance-based pricing
Operational capabilities
• Service-center at the customer
• Recruiting employees from the customer
• Balancing standardization and customization
• Risk estimation and pricing of risks
• Separate company providing outsourcing
services
Services
• Operational & outsourcing
services
• Taking-over maintenance
activities
Service strategies
5) Solution provider
Value proposition
• Collaborative development of innovative
solutions for customers
Business logic
• Combining different service strategies
• Learning curve by providing solutions
(economies of repetition)
Operational capabilities
• Operational excellence in each service
strategy (balancing and integrating)
• Flexibility in combining services, business
logic’s and value propositions
• Customer proximity to understand the
customer requirements
Customer-specific solutions
• Combination of products and
services
• Integration services
China as an important aspect of service
orientation
• China today / future most important single market
• Contribution of services is very little
• Challenges
– Chinese culture (Guanxi, Mianzi, Renqin) hinders service
orientation
– Customers consider services as „free“ and add-ons
– Insufficient quality in the basics for earned a living
through services (spare parts logistics)
• Solutions:
– Adaptation of human resource management to cultural
characteristics
– State-of-the art logistics solution (bonded / non-bonded
warehouse) and logistic processes (temporary borrowing,
post-custom clearance)
Gebauer, Kuzca & Wang, 2011
Conclusion and management questions
• Marketing, financial, & strategic benefits motivate manufacturing
companies to extend the service business
• Managing the service business entails high degree of complexity
• Management questions:
• Managers should define the most attractive service opportunities?
(which products, which customer activities should be supported through
services)
• Managers should decide on the strategic approach for services
(exploration or exploitation)
• Managers should align the business logic, value proposition, and
operational capabilities with the service strategies?
More information can be found in following book
Thank you very much for your attention
If you have any further questions, please
contact me:
heiko.gebauer@eawag.ch

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Florence management-presentation

  • 1. From Service Busyness to Service Business - A management perspective Heiko Gebauer Associate Professor Department Innovation Research in Utility Sectors - Eawag: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology University of St.Gallen (Switzerland) Karlstad University (Sweden)
  • 2. Increasing the service orientation in manufacturing companies Investments into the service business Service paradox Ad-hoc service support Dominated by products Value contribution Maintenance contracts Performance-based Business consulting Integration services Dominated by services
  • 3. Arguments for extending the service business Marketing benefits – Augmenting the product offering – Intensity of customer relationship – Lock-in effect for customers – Long-term customer relationship (strategic partnerships) Strategic benefits – Differentiation opportunities – Comparison of offerings is more complex – Collaborative innovation between customer and supplier – Services as entry barrier for competitors – Service competencies more difficult to imitate Financial benefits – Higher margins (product: -1% to 3%; services: 5% to 20%) – Stable source of revenue – High installed base – Size of the service market (service market 2 to 10x bigger than product market)
  • 4. Example – IBM‘s move from products toward services Milestones In 2001, Global Services (40.7%), Hardware (38.9%), Software (15.1%), Global financing (4.0%), Enterprise Investments/Other • Management commitment • Management and financial system • Recruiting new and intensive training of existing employees • Incentive system for services • Formulation & implementation of a service strategy • Creation of IBM Global Services as strategic Business Unit • Continuous service innovations (Network, data storage, e-Business) Revenues in billion US dollar
  • 5. Extension of the service business at Bosch Packaging Products to services Revenue shares − Spare and wear parts, field services and modernizations − Service level agreements, extended warranty, and spare parts packages − Services for competitor products, operational and outsourcing services Services Revenue Market share for services Customers Third-party service providers 45% 30% 25% Machines and systems 66% 34% Hänggi, 2006
  • 6. Complexity of the service business Cognition can limit the extension of the service business Parameter Product business Service business Nature of demand More predictable, can better forecast Always unpredictable, sporadic Required response Standard, can be scheduled As soon as possible Number of product generations Limited 10 to 15 times higher Offerings Homogenous Heterogeneous Network Multiple networks Single network for all services Cohen et al. 2006
  • 7. Identifying strategic paths through visualizing service opportunities Adapted from Sawhney, 2004 Recon- figuration Extension How do service opportunities appear?) Primary customer activities Where do service opportunities appear? Supplementary customer activities SalesPre-Sales After-sales
  • 8. Identifying strategic paths through visualizing service opportunities Adapted from Sawhney, 2004 Recon- figuration Extension How do service opportunities appear?) Primary customer activities Where do service opportunities appear? Supplementary customer activities SalesPre-Sales After-sales
  • 9. Exploitation or exploration: How to approach the service opportunities? Adapted from Sawhney, 2004, Fischer, Gebauer, Guanjie, Gregory and Fleisch(2010) Reconfiguration Extension How do service opportunities appear?) Primary customer activities Where do service opportunities appear? Supplementary customer activities SalesPre-Sales After-sales Exploration •Radical improvement •New value constellation •Dynamic capabilities Exploitation •Incremental improvements •Value-adding to existing value constellation •Development of operational capabilities
  • 10. Parameter Exploration Example Organisational adaptation Radical Antecedents Dynamic capabilities Value constellation Creation of a new value constellation Value contribution Short-term, significant increase in service revenue Exploration of uncontested service markets Example - Hilti Exploration Fischer, Gebauer, Ren, Gregory & Fleisch, 2010
  • 11. Exploitation of existing service markets Example – Bosch Packaging Fischer, Gebauer, Ren, Gregory & Fleisch, 2010 Exploitation Parameter Exploitation Example Organisational change Incremental Antecedents Operational capabilities Value constellation Improving existing value constellation Value contribution Long-term, continuous increase in service revenue (15 to 30% in 10 years)
  • 12. Service strategies 1) After-sales service provider Value proposition • Fast reactions to product failures • Reasonable product prices Business logic • Reasonable product prices combined with high margins for spare parts and repair • Unscheduled service activities require fluctuation in service demand, maximizing time at the customer Operational capabilities • Planning and forecasting of spare parts demand • Spare parts and repair center close to customers • Service technicians act as reliable trouble- shooters • Technical competencies • Cost or product center in product division Services • Spare parts • Repair services and inspection • Trouble-shooting & diagnose services
  • 13. Value proposition • Prevention of product failures Business logic • High-quality products combined with fixed prices for service contracts • Schedules service activities (capacity utilization), minimizing time at the customer (e.g. exchange of modules instead of repair of components) Operational capabilities • Condition monitoring • Risk estimation and pricing • Regional spare parts and service centers • Services as an independent strategic business unit for services • Service technicians act as performance enablers • Communication & behavioral competencies Services • Service contracts • Preventive maintenance • Process-optimization • Modernization Service strategies 2) Customer-support service provider
  • 14. Service strategies 3) Development partner Value proposition • Development competencies provide strategic competitive advantages (strategic partnerships) Business logic • High-quality products combined with technical construction and design • Development of customer processes, in which products are used Operational capabilities • Integrating R&D-teams (internal & external) • Technical adviser and collaborative learning • Communication and behavioral competencies • Recruiting and training of employees Services • Design and construction services • Technical advice • Feasibility studies
  • 15. Service strategies 4) Outsourcing partner Value proposition • Continuous improvement of customer processes Business logic • Taking over of customer processes (e.g., maintenance or production) • Pay-per-use or performance-based pricing Operational capabilities • Service-center at the customer • Recruiting employees from the customer • Balancing standardization and customization • Risk estimation and pricing of risks • Separate company providing outsourcing services Services • Operational & outsourcing services • Taking-over maintenance activities
  • 16. Service strategies 5) Solution provider Value proposition • Collaborative development of innovative solutions for customers Business logic • Combining different service strategies • Learning curve by providing solutions (economies of repetition) Operational capabilities • Operational excellence in each service strategy (balancing and integrating) • Flexibility in combining services, business logic’s and value propositions • Customer proximity to understand the customer requirements Customer-specific solutions • Combination of products and services • Integration services
  • 17. China as an important aspect of service orientation • China today / future most important single market • Contribution of services is very little • Challenges – Chinese culture (Guanxi, Mianzi, Renqin) hinders service orientation – Customers consider services as „free“ and add-ons – Insufficient quality in the basics for earned a living through services (spare parts logistics) • Solutions: – Adaptation of human resource management to cultural characteristics – State-of-the art logistics solution (bonded / non-bonded warehouse) and logistic processes (temporary borrowing, post-custom clearance) Gebauer, Kuzca & Wang, 2011
  • 18. Conclusion and management questions • Marketing, financial, & strategic benefits motivate manufacturing companies to extend the service business • Managing the service business entails high degree of complexity • Management questions: • Managers should define the most attractive service opportunities? (which products, which customer activities should be supported through services) • Managers should decide on the strategic approach for services (exploration or exploitation) • Managers should align the business logic, value proposition, and operational capabilities with the service strategies?
  • 19. More information can be found in following book
  • 20. Thank you very much for your attention If you have any further questions, please contact me: heiko.gebauer@eawag.ch

Editor's Notes

  1. Ergänzung der Produktorientierung mit der Dienstleistungsorientierung als Ausweg aus der Beschränkung bisheriger produktorientierter Geschäftsmodelle. Weg zur Dienstleistungsorientierung verschiedene Entwicklungsstufen. Historisch – Dienstleistungswüste, Produktverkauf hiess noch Vertrieb und es ging eher darum Kunden ausreichend viele Produkte zur Verfügung zu stellen und Nachfrage zu befriedigen. Vertriebsfunktion zur Vertriebs/Service-Funktion gewandelt, Service-Funktion –ad-hoc unterstützung. Waschmaschinen läuft aus oder Fernseher ist kaputt. Dann Servicetechniker bezahlt man für Reparatur und Ersatzteile (Fixpreis oder variable ja nach Aufwand). Service-Funktion in Marktorganisation aktiv versucht Dienstleistungen zu verkaufen. Typisches Beispiel sind Serviceverträge für eine bestimmten Zeitraum 1 oder 2 Jahre, alle Servicetätigkeiten und Ersatzteile für einen bestimmten Festbetrag. Serviceveträge findet man heute auch teilweise bei Waschmaschinen (V-Zug), Werkzeugmaschinen). Weitere Ausbau hat jedoch ein Risiko, statt die Dienstleistungswüste in einen Dienstleistungsgarten zu verwandeln. Einen Garten der gut gepflegt ist und einen schönen Ertrag erwirtschaften, landen Sie im Dienstleistungsdschungel. Dienstleistungsdschungel heisst, die ausuferndes Dienstleistungsangebot, mangelnde Kostentransparenz, Kunden verlieren die Übersicht über das Dienstleistungsangebot und den –nutzen. Am Ende investieren sie in das Dienstleistungsgeschäfts, aber die erwarteten Return-on Investments in den Dienstleistungsbereich sind geringer als erwartet. Vermeidung des Dienstleistungsdschungels durch Professionelles und systematisches Dienstleistungsmanagement Service als strategisches Instrument und Wandel zu Performance-based Geschäftsmodellen oder pay-per-use. Beispiel Flugzeugturbine, GE & Rolls-Royce neue Turbinengeneration, günstiger im Unterhalt, und leichte Verbesserung der Leistung, niemand wollte aber die Turbine, Marktflop. Kurz vor dem Scheitern. Ausweg Power-by-the hour. Bezahlung nur für die Verfügbarkeit und die Nutzung der Turbine. Revolution der gesamten Wertschöpfungskette in der Luftfahrt. Boeing und Airbus umgangen, Konzept gemeinsam mit Fluggesellschaften, (Power-by-the-hour – Anstieg ins Finanzierungsgeschäfts für Flugzeuge, Boeing und Airbus erwirtschaften bis heute nur circa 2-3% der Umsatzes mit Dienstleistungen. Turbinenhersteller bis zu 50%. Solchen strategischen Erfolgen von Dienstleistungen stehen jedoch auch strategische Risiken gegenüber. Konsequenz solcher Risiken sehr gut bei Herstellern von Kopiergeräten und Druckern erkennbar. Bereich professionelle Drucker. Performance-based oder pay-per-use. Bezahlung pro Kopie oder gedruckte Seite. Dunkle Seite (Risiko/Gefahr) bei diesem Geschäftsmodell ist Verändertes Kundenverhalten und erzeugte Preistransparenz. Kunden erkennt kaum Qualitätsunterschiede. Gedruckte Seite HP = Xerox, Kopie von Canon = Sharp, kaum qualitative Unterschiede. Kunden erkennt nur, eine Seite 7 Rappen oder 6 Rappen. Kaufentscheid rein vom Preisabhängig. Kostenführerschaft als notwendige Erfolgsposition. Ruinöser Preiswettbewerb, fast keines der Unternehmen wirklich Profitabel war, Verlagerungen in Niedriglohnländer und Zusammenschlüsse. Eventuell Form erklären.
  2. Unterschiede Nicht lagerbar Wert entsteht in der Erbringung Kann damit ohne grosse Zusatzkosten gut auf Kunden angepasst werden Marketing Kundenbindung / Interaktion / Abhängigkeit Löst zusätzliche P-Verkäufe aus Strategie Know-how über Kunde / Gemeinsame Entwicklung = Eintrittbarriere Schwer imitierbar Finanziell Siehe Folie
  3. IBM – Extremfall / Paradebeispiel für den Wandel von einer Produkt- zur Dienstleistungsorientierung. IBM vor 20 Jahren, Technologiesprünge (verschlafen), Mainframes, zu spät im PC Geschäft, Software-Trend (verschlafen), 90 und 91 erste Entlassungen, einmalig bis dato in IBM Firmengeschichte. Zerschlagung des gesamten Konzerns, in sogenannte IBM Baby Blues, in Anlehnung an Baby Bells, Auflösung der Telefongesellschaften in den USA. Titelblätter des Economist und Fortune setzten eine grosses Fragezeichen hinter den zukünftige Entwicklung von IBM. Erste Turn-arounds mit der Fortführung der Produktorientierung gescheitert. Einmalig war dann Berufung von Louise von Gerstner in auf dem Posten des CEO. Aussenstehender, Service-Bereich. Mit ihm kam ein extremes Commitment zum Wandel im Geschäftsmodel von der Entwicklung, Produktion und Verkauf von Mainframes zu Wertgenerierung für Kunden mittels Dienstleistungen. Ganze Management & Finanzsystem wurde radikal an die Rahmenbedingungen für Dienstleistungsorientierung angepasst. Extreme Mitarbeiterfluktuation und –ausbildung. Jahr mit 10‘000 neuen Mitarbeitern im Servicebereich. Formulierung einer Dienstleistungsstrategie und die Gründung von IBM Global Service sind weitere Meilensteine auf dem Weg von IBM zum Dienstleister. Durch Strategie und Organisation wurden die notwendige Voraussetzungen geschaffen, für kontinuierliche Service Innovationen. Mittels Service Innovationen Aufbau neuer strategischer Geschäftsfelder. Ergebnis all dieser Meilensteine 2001, Service-Umsatz, grösster Umsatzanteil. Kurz darauf – Verkauf der Laptop-Sparte an Lenovo. Einmalig, IBMs Registrierung an New York Stock Exchange.
  4. Offensichtliche Ausbau des Angebots, treibt Umsatzwachstum durch Dienstleistungen Konkurrenz – Drittanbieter, ehemalige Mitarbeiter, Instandhaltungsspezialisten, Kostenstrukturen, Bilfinger Berger
  5. Investitionszyklen sind vorhersagbar. Planmässige Wartungen, Reparaturen, unplanmässige Instandsetzung Beispiel – Service-Level-Agreement, oder Performance-Contracts, stark auf Kunden zuschneiden Geschichte - Chemieanlagen R&D-Netzwerk, Zuliefernetzter, teilweise für einzelne Produkte verschiedende Netzwerk, DL ein Netzwerk
  6. Once unique skills have been identified companies can bundle service to potential strategic paths Visualization of strategic paths Dimensions / Questions Examples – Magna – seats / drive systems
  7. Once unique skills have been identified companies can bundle service to potential strategic paths Visualization of strategic paths Dimensions / Questions Examples – Magna – seats / drive systems
  8. Wertbeitrag anfangen – Reduktion Produktumsatz, Anteil der Dienstleistungen nimmt schnell zu Andere Wertkonstellation, nicht mehr Verkauf über Qualität der Zerspannungswerkzeuge bei argumentierbaren Preisen, sondern effektive Kosten für den Werkzeugeinsatz. Kunde bezahlt werkzeuge die wirklich gebraucht werden und die zu Aufträgen passen. Dynamische Fähigkeiten –Fähigkeit ein Unternehmen zu verändern, neu auszurichten, neue Geschäftfelder zu erobern. Wahrnehmen der Chancen und Risiken, Richtiges Dimensionieren des neuen Geschäftsmodells, Bsp. Entsorgung – wie gross schneidet man das Leistungspaket, Durchsetzung der Veränderung im Unternehmen, Pilotkunde, Motivation der Mitarbeiter radikale Veränderung mitzumachen, gleichzeitig das bestehende bewahren. Radikal – Veränderung der Verkaufstaktik, Umgehen der direkten Kunden (Erstausrüstung, Distributoren), Um so eine Radikale Veränderung zu schaffen braucht es dy
  9. Beispiel für die Ausschöpfung des bekannten, nochmals Bosch. Versuch mit Dienstleistungen inkrementell wachsen. Nutzungsphase mit Dienstleistungen wie Ersatzteile, Modernisierungen, Reparaturen, Inspektionen, usw. Voraussetzungen sind eher der Ausbau der operativen Fähigkeiten mit diesen Dienstleistungen Geld zu verdienen, Management der Dienstleistungsorganisation. Prozesse zur Steuerung der Mitarbeiter, usw. Geringe Änderung an der Wertkonstellation im Markt für Verpackungsmaschinen. Es geht immer noch um die Qualität und Zuverlässigkeit der Verpackungsmaschinen und die Unterstützung der Qualität und Zuverlässigkeit mit Verpackungsmaschine mit Dienstleistungen.
  10. Risiko – Kundenprozesse entwickeln, mit hohen kosten und Aufwendungen. Kosten entstehen durch die Zeit Entwicklungsingeneure verbringenn, um Lösungen für den Kundenprozess zu konzipieren. Risiko besteht darin, das Kunden für diese Entwicklungsdienstleistungen nicht zahlen, sondern sie als Teil des Kaufprozesses ansehen. Entwicklungsaufwendungen nicht verrechenbar. Refinanzierung ist gefährdet, wenn Kunde Produkt nicht kauft. Wichtig – Teil des Wertversprechens ist Partnerschaften, Resourcen der internen Entwicklung & externen Entwicklungsprojekten Partnerschaften und Entwicklung vollständiger Kundenprozess bedarf hoher Glaubwürdigkeit. Glaubwürdigkeit nur erreichbar, wenn Entwicklers als technische (neutrale) Berater sehen. Als Berater empfehlen sie nicht einfach, sondern lernen gemeinsames lernen zwischen Kunden und Entwicklungsteam, welche technischen Lösungen existieren und möglich sind. Initiierung und Aufrechterhaltung dieser Lernprozesse zwischen Kunden und Entwicklungsteam bedingen natürliche Kommunikations- und Verhaltenskompetenzen. Zu den Kommunikationskompetenzen zählen, die
  11. Frage – wo sehen sehen sie spezielle Herausforderungen bei Dienstleistleistungsorientierung in China. Erklärungsansatz – Umsatz- und Gewinne bei Dienstleistungen sehr gering Verrechnungsansatz – 200 Dollar – 20 Dollar, Ersatzteilgeschäfte unter Druck, Piraten (Alternativanbieter) Tandem-Konzepte Teilbeitritt von China zur WTO) 2007 rechtliche Umstellung der Import- und Exportvorschriften. Kombiniertes verzolltes und zollfreilager