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Plate Tectonics
   Drifting continents:

Theory of Continental Drift
   Alfred Wegener suggested that all
    continents were joined together at
    some time in the past. This is called
    the hypothesis of “continental drift”.
   According to continental drift,
    continents have moved slowly to their
    current locations.
   He called this large landmass as
    Pangaea (“all land”)
2012 updated plate tectonics new one use this one backup
Evidence
   1. Landforms

   2. Fossils

   3. Evidence from climate
    changing
Landforms
• Mountains in
  South Africa
  line up with
  mountains in
  Argentina

• Coal mines
  line up on
  different
  continents
Mountain Structures
   Similar rock structures are
    found on different continents.




   For example, parts of
    Appalachian mountains are
    similar to those found in
    Greenland and western Europe.
Appalachian Mountains
strike through the
eastern United States and
Canada then end at the
sea off of Newfoundland.
The Caledonides
Mountains are found in
eastern Greenland,
Ireland, Great Britain
and Norway.

These two mountain
ranges are the same age
with the same rock types
and structures.
Fossils
   Besides the puzzlelike fit of continents, fossils provided
    support for continental drift.
   For example: fossils of the reptile Mesosaurus have
    been found in South America and Africa.
   Another fossil that supports the continental
    drift is Glossopteris which has been found in
    Africa, Australia, India, South America,
    and Antarctica.
Climate Clues
   Fossils of tropical plants were found in Spitsbergen,
    an ice covered island in the Arctic Ocean (north of
    Norway).
Glacier Activity
   Glacial deposits and rock
    surfaces scoured and polished by
    glaciers are found in South
    America, Africa, India and
    Australia.
Why was it not accepted?
   Wegener could not provide an adequate
    explanation for the force that pushes or pulls
    the continents.
Although Wegener provided evidence to support his
hypothesis, he couldn’t answer two questions:

1. What was causing the continents to move?
     Wegener said that this force might be the rotation of Earth,
     however, physicists were able to show that this force was not
     great enough to move continents.
2. How were the continents moving?
  Wegener proposed that the continents were
  plowing through a stationary ocean floor. But, his
  peers argued that continents could not push through
  the ocean floor without fracturing, because crustal
  rock is too brittle. And no evidence of fracturing had
  been found.
And the rest of the story….
Undaunted by rejection, Wegener devoted the rest
of his life to doggedly pursuing additional
evidence to defend his theory. He froze to death in
1930 during an expedition crossing the Greenland
ice cap, but the controversy he spawned raged on.
However, after his death, new evidence from
ocean floor exploration and other studies rekindled
interest in Wegener's theory, ultimately leading to
the development of the theory of plate tectonics.
http://bumileluhur.blogspot.com/2011/01/this-dyniamic-earth-story-of-plate.html
The controversy continues!
Plate tectonics has proven to be as important to the earth
sciences as the discovery of the structure of the atom was to
physics and chemistry. Even though the theory of plate
tectonics is now widely accepted by the scientific
community, aspects of the theory are still being debated
today. Ironically, one of the chief outstanding questions is the
one Wegener failed to resolve: What is the nature of the
forces propelling the plates? Scientists also debate how plate
tectonics may have operated (if at all) earlier in the Earth's
history and whether similar processes operate, or have ever
operated, on other planets in our solar system.
     Will you be the one to solve the
               mystery?
Plate Tectonics
Seafloor Spreading




    Harry
    Hess
Mapping The
Ocean Floor




   Scientists began using sound waves on moving
    ships to map large areas of ocean floor in detail.
   Sound waves echo off the ocean bottom – the
    longer the sound waves take to return to the
    ship, the deeper the water is.
Mapping the Mid-Ocean Ridge

 Also known as the Mid-
  Atlantic Ridge
 Longest mountain

  chain in the world
 Divided by a trench
   Most is hundreds of meters under water, but part
    reaches above the ocean surface.
   It is almost twice as deep as the Grand Canyon.
   Iceland is part of the mid-ocean ridge
   In the early 1960s, Harry Hess proposed that hot,
    less dense material below Earth’s crust rises
    toward the surface at the mid-ocean ridges.
    Then, it flows sideways, carrying seafloor away
    from the ridge in both directions. This theory is
    known “seafloor spreading”.
   In 1968, a research ship, Glomar Challenger, began
    gathering rock samples from mid-ocean ridges.
   They made a remarkable discovery as they studied the
    ages of rock samples.
   The younger rocks are closer to the mid-ocean ridges
    and older rocks are farther from the ridges.
Evidence of Sea-Floor Spreading
   Molten Material




   Magnetic Stripes

   Drilling Samples
Magnetic Clues
   Iron-bearing minerals,
    such as magnetite, that
    are found in the rocks of
    the seafloor can record
    Earth’s magnetic field
    direction when they
    form.

   The magnetic alignment
    in the rocks reverses
    back and forth over time
    in strips parallel to the
    mid-ocean ridges.
Seafloor
Spreading
Subduction of Deep-Ocean
              Trenches

   Subduction is the
    process by which
    the ocean floor
    sinks beneath a
    deep-ocean trench
    and back into the
    mantle.
Subduction and Earth’s Ocean
   Subduction and sea-floor spreading can
    change the size and shape of the oceans.
   The ocean floor is renewed about every 200
    million years.
   The Pacific Ocean is shrinking; a trench swallows
    more oceanic crust than the mid-ocean ridge can
    produce.
   The Atlantic Ocean is expanding.
   There are only a few trenches in the Atlantic.
   The continental crust is attached to the ocean floor, so
    as the Atlantic expands and moves, the continents
    move with it.
Section 3:
           theory of Plate
              tectonicS
   In the 1960s, scientists developed a new theory that
    combined continental drift and seafloor spreading .
   According to the theory of plate tectonics, Earth’s
    crust and part of upper mantle are broken into
    sections. These sections are called plates, move on a
    plastic-like layer of the mantle.
Where did the theory come
               from?
   J. Tuzo Wilson combined Earth’s plates,
    continental drift, and sea-floor spreading into a
    single theory---PLATE TECTONICS
A Theory of Plate Tectonics
   Plate tectonics states that pieces of Earth’s
    lithosphere are in constant, slow motion, driven by
    convection currents in the mantle, and it explains
    the formation, movement, and subduction of
    Earth’s plates.
Basically….
   The plates on the lithosphere float on the
    asthenosphere, convection currents rise in the
    asthensophere and spread out beneath the
    lithosphere.



   http://youtu.be/ryrXAGY1dmE
   Earth’s crust and a part of upper mantle combined
    are the lithosphere.     (100km=62 mile thick)
   The plastic-like layer below the lithosphere is
    called asthenosphere. The rigid plates of the
    lithosphere float and move around on the
    asthenosphere.
Causes of Plate Tectonics
   Convection currents cause the movements of plates
   Hot, less dense liquid or gas is forced upward, as it
    reaches the surface, it cools down and sinks back
    down. This entire cycle of heating, rising, cooling
    and sinking is called a convection current.
   No plate can budge without affecting
    the other plates surrounding it!
2012 updated plate tectonics new one use this one backup
2012 updated plate tectonics new one use this one backup
Plate Boundaries
   When plates move, they can interact in several
    ways. Three different moving types of plates are:
                Plates moving apart (Divergent)
                Plates moving together (Convergent)
                Plates slide past each other (Transform)
 Faults break in Earth’s crust
  where rocks have slipped past each
  other.
 Plate boundaries are where the

  edges of different pieces of the
  lithosphere meet.
Gummy Time
   Boundary Activity
Transform Boundary
   Two plates slip past each other, moving in
    opposite directions. (Do not push or pull)
   Crust is neither created nor destroyed near a
    transform boundary.
   Earthquakes occur frequently along these
    boundaries.
Divergent Boundary
   Two plates move apart or diverge.
   Most occur at the mid-ocean ridge; they can also
    occur on land (poor Africa).
   A rift valley is a deep valley that forms along the
    divergent valley.
   The Great Rift Valley in Africa marks a deep
    crack in the African continent that runs for about
    3,000 km.
   When divergent boundaries develop on land, two
    of Earth’s plates pull apart.
Convergent Boundary
   Two plates come together or collide (converge)
   Results: earthquakes, trenches, volcanoes,
    mountains
   When two plates collide the denser of the two
    plates will sink or slide beneath the other.
3 types of convergent boundary
                 outcomes
1)    Oceanic crust meets continental crust:
   Oceanic crust meets oceanic crust:
   Continental crust meets continental crust:




   Example: Folded Mountains
The continents’ slow dance
   The plates move at slow rates about 1 to 10 cm
    per year.




http://youtu.be/hSdlQ8x7cuk
To prevent confusion
   Not all volcanoes
    occur at plate
    boundaries. For
    example, the
    Hawaiian islands
    formed from a hot
    spot volcano. As the
    Pacific plate moves
    across a fixed hot spot
    (mantle plume), new
    volcanoes (and
    islands) form.
Summary
    Theories:     Continental Drift     Theory of Plate
                      Theory              Tectonics

Forces of Plate   Cycle of            Ridge Push/Gravity   Slab Pull
Movement:         Convection                               ******
                  Currents
Types of Plate    Divergent           Convergent           Transform
Movement/
Interactions:
(Boundary)

Processes or      Sea-floor           Subduction           Earthquakes
Types of          Spreading           (Volcanoes) and
Movement                              Mountains
(Results):

Stress:           Tension             Compression          Shearing
Faults:           Normal              Reverse              Strike Slip
Cookie Time
   Boundary Activity

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2012 updated plate tectonics new one use this one backup

  • 1. Plate Tectonics Drifting continents: Theory of Continental Drift
  • 2. Alfred Wegener suggested that all continents were joined together at some time in the past. This is called the hypothesis of “continental drift”.  According to continental drift, continents have moved slowly to their current locations.  He called this large landmass as Pangaea (“all land”)
  • 4. Evidence  1. Landforms  2. Fossils  3. Evidence from climate changing
  • 5. Landforms • Mountains in South Africa line up with mountains in Argentina • Coal mines line up on different continents
  • 6. Mountain Structures  Similar rock structures are found on different continents.  For example, parts of Appalachian mountains are similar to those found in Greenland and western Europe.
  • 7. Appalachian Mountains strike through the eastern United States and Canada then end at the sea off of Newfoundland. The Caledonides Mountains are found in eastern Greenland, Ireland, Great Britain and Norway. These two mountain ranges are the same age with the same rock types and structures.
  • 8. Fossils  Besides the puzzlelike fit of continents, fossils provided support for continental drift.  For example: fossils of the reptile Mesosaurus have been found in South America and Africa.
  • 9. Another fossil that supports the continental drift is Glossopteris which has been found in Africa, Australia, India, South America, and Antarctica.
  • 10. Climate Clues  Fossils of tropical plants were found in Spitsbergen, an ice covered island in the Arctic Ocean (north of Norway).
  • 11. Glacier Activity  Glacial deposits and rock surfaces scoured and polished by glaciers are found in South America, Africa, India and Australia.
  • 12. Why was it not accepted?  Wegener could not provide an adequate explanation for the force that pushes or pulls the continents.
  • 13. Although Wegener provided evidence to support his hypothesis, he couldn’t answer two questions: 1. What was causing the continents to move? Wegener said that this force might be the rotation of Earth, however, physicists were able to show that this force was not great enough to move continents.
  • 14. 2. How were the continents moving? Wegener proposed that the continents were plowing through a stationary ocean floor. But, his peers argued that continents could not push through the ocean floor without fracturing, because crustal rock is too brittle. And no evidence of fracturing had been found.
  • 15. And the rest of the story…. Undaunted by rejection, Wegener devoted the rest of his life to doggedly pursuing additional evidence to defend his theory. He froze to death in 1930 during an expedition crossing the Greenland ice cap, but the controversy he spawned raged on. However, after his death, new evidence from ocean floor exploration and other studies rekindled interest in Wegener's theory, ultimately leading to the development of the theory of plate tectonics. http://bumileluhur.blogspot.com/2011/01/this-dyniamic-earth-story-of-plate.html
  • 16. The controversy continues! Plate tectonics has proven to be as important to the earth sciences as the discovery of the structure of the atom was to physics and chemistry. Even though the theory of plate tectonics is now widely accepted by the scientific community, aspects of the theory are still being debated today. Ironically, one of the chief outstanding questions is the one Wegener failed to resolve: What is the nature of the forces propelling the plates? Scientists also debate how plate tectonics may have operated (if at all) earlier in the Earth's history and whether similar processes operate, or have ever operated, on other planets in our solar system. Will you be the one to solve the mystery?
  • 18. Mapping The Ocean Floor  Scientists began using sound waves on moving ships to map large areas of ocean floor in detail.  Sound waves echo off the ocean bottom – the longer the sound waves take to return to the ship, the deeper the water is.
  • 19. Mapping the Mid-Ocean Ridge  Also known as the Mid- Atlantic Ridge  Longest mountain chain in the world  Divided by a trench
  • 20. Most is hundreds of meters under water, but part reaches above the ocean surface.  It is almost twice as deep as the Grand Canyon.  Iceland is part of the mid-ocean ridge
  • 21. In the early 1960s, Harry Hess proposed that hot, less dense material below Earth’s crust rises toward the surface at the mid-ocean ridges. Then, it flows sideways, carrying seafloor away from the ridge in both directions. This theory is known “seafloor spreading”.
  • 22. In 1968, a research ship, Glomar Challenger, began gathering rock samples from mid-ocean ridges.  They made a remarkable discovery as they studied the ages of rock samples.  The younger rocks are closer to the mid-ocean ridges and older rocks are farther from the ridges.
  • 23. Evidence of Sea-Floor Spreading  Molten Material  Magnetic Stripes  Drilling Samples
  • 24. Magnetic Clues  Iron-bearing minerals, such as magnetite, that are found in the rocks of the seafloor can record Earth’s magnetic field direction when they form.  The magnetic alignment in the rocks reverses back and forth over time in strips parallel to the mid-ocean ridges.
  • 26. Subduction of Deep-Ocean Trenches  Subduction is the process by which the ocean floor sinks beneath a deep-ocean trench and back into the mantle.
  • 27. Subduction and Earth’s Ocean  Subduction and sea-floor spreading can change the size and shape of the oceans.  The ocean floor is renewed about every 200 million years.
  • 28. The Pacific Ocean is shrinking; a trench swallows more oceanic crust than the mid-ocean ridge can produce.  The Atlantic Ocean is expanding.  There are only a few trenches in the Atlantic.  The continental crust is attached to the ocean floor, so as the Atlantic expands and moves, the continents move with it.
  • 29. Section 3: theory of Plate tectonicS  In the 1960s, scientists developed a new theory that combined continental drift and seafloor spreading .  According to the theory of plate tectonics, Earth’s crust and part of upper mantle are broken into sections. These sections are called plates, move on a plastic-like layer of the mantle.
  • 30. Where did the theory come from?  J. Tuzo Wilson combined Earth’s plates, continental drift, and sea-floor spreading into a single theory---PLATE TECTONICS
  • 31. A Theory of Plate Tectonics  Plate tectonics states that pieces of Earth’s lithosphere are in constant, slow motion, driven by convection currents in the mantle, and it explains the formation, movement, and subduction of Earth’s plates.
  • 32. Basically….  The plates on the lithosphere float on the asthenosphere, convection currents rise in the asthensophere and spread out beneath the lithosphere.  http://youtu.be/ryrXAGY1dmE
  • 33. Earth’s crust and a part of upper mantle combined are the lithosphere. (100km=62 mile thick)  The plastic-like layer below the lithosphere is called asthenosphere. The rigid plates of the lithosphere float and move around on the asthenosphere.
  • 34. Causes of Plate Tectonics  Convection currents cause the movements of plates  Hot, less dense liquid or gas is forced upward, as it reaches the surface, it cools down and sinks back down. This entire cycle of heating, rising, cooling and sinking is called a convection current.
  • 35. No plate can budge without affecting the other plates surrounding it!
  • 38. Plate Boundaries  When plates move, they can interact in several ways. Three different moving types of plates are:  Plates moving apart (Divergent)  Plates moving together (Convergent)  Plates slide past each other (Transform)
  • 39.  Faults break in Earth’s crust where rocks have slipped past each other.  Plate boundaries are where the edges of different pieces of the lithosphere meet.
  • 40. Gummy Time  Boundary Activity
  • 41. Transform Boundary  Two plates slip past each other, moving in opposite directions. (Do not push or pull)  Crust is neither created nor destroyed near a transform boundary.  Earthquakes occur frequently along these boundaries.
  • 42. Divergent Boundary  Two plates move apart or diverge.  Most occur at the mid-ocean ridge; they can also occur on land (poor Africa).  A rift valley is a deep valley that forms along the divergent valley.  The Great Rift Valley in Africa marks a deep crack in the African continent that runs for about 3,000 km.  When divergent boundaries develop on land, two of Earth’s plates pull apart.
  • 43. Convergent Boundary  Two plates come together or collide (converge)  Results: earthquakes, trenches, volcanoes, mountains  When two plates collide the denser of the two plates will sink or slide beneath the other.
  • 44. 3 types of convergent boundary outcomes 1) Oceanic crust meets continental crust:
  • 45. Oceanic crust meets oceanic crust:
  • 46. Continental crust meets continental crust:  Example: Folded Mountains
  • 47. The continents’ slow dance  The plates move at slow rates about 1 to 10 cm per year. http://youtu.be/hSdlQ8x7cuk
  • 48. To prevent confusion  Not all volcanoes occur at plate boundaries. For example, the Hawaiian islands formed from a hot spot volcano. As the Pacific plate moves across a fixed hot spot (mantle plume), new volcanoes (and islands) form.
  • 49. Summary Theories: Continental Drift Theory of Plate Theory Tectonics Forces of Plate Cycle of Ridge Push/Gravity Slab Pull Movement: Convection ****** Currents Types of Plate Divergent Convergent Transform Movement/ Interactions: (Boundary) Processes or Sea-floor Subduction Earthquakes Types of Spreading (Volcanoes) and Movement Mountains (Results): Stress: Tension Compression Shearing Faults: Normal Reverse Strike Slip
  • 50. Cookie Time  Boundary Activity