Merrill 1

Does Your Instruction Rate 5 Stars? First Principles of Instruction M. David Merrill Professor Utah State University

Case Study
Elements of Market Strategy
Brief Text
Graphic
Audio -- narrator reads text
Define Marketing Marketing is a word you hear or use almost daily. You probably know several ways the term is used. As you focus on writing a strategic marketing plan, be sure your team agrees on some common definitions, so you are all clear about what the plan is to accomplish. How would you define marketing?

Case Study
Elements of Market Strategy
Inserted Questions
Because competition changes the market so quickly, the smart move is to have an ongoing process in your business for developing your market strategy for each product or service.
Choose the statement below that's true.
__ Strategic marketing planning is primarily for larger companies.
__ Every business that wants to succeed should make marketing strategy a continuous process.

Course Evaluation
Content
Accurate, appropriate, tools
Design & Delivery
Web optimized?
Function?
Enhance learning?
Apply skills in simulations or scenarios?
Customize?
Relevant assessment?
Learning styles?
Navigation?
Value
Better than alternatives?
Worth the time and money?
www.onlinelearningguide.com

Under content they state:
"The information provided in the course is clear, but overall the lesson fails to engage. Although the concepts involved in a marketing strategy are covered, the course fails to give good, concrete steps and detail for when you actually sit down to make a strategic marketing plan. The result is limited retention and limited applicability."
Under Design and delivery they state:
"Interactivity is limited to learner assessments, which include feedback. Assessments are offered before, during, and following lesson units."
Under value they state:
"The course is fair value for managers, who need an introduction to marketing strategy."
They give the course 2 1/2 stars on their 5 star rating system.
Lguide.com evaluation

My Evaluation
Marketing concepts -- no examples
Assessment - remember information not application
Based on Effective Instructional Strategies
Not Problem-based
No Activation of previous experience
No Demonstration
No Application
No Integration
No stars!
Introduction to Marketing is ineffective instruction.

First Principles of Instruction
Many instructional design theories and models have fundamental underlying principles in common?
A principle is a relationship that is always true under appropriate conditions regardless of program or practice.

Levels of Design Theory
Instructional design theory, as represented in Reigeluth (1999), varies from basic descriptive laws about learning to broad curriculum programs that concentrate on what is taught rather than on how to teach.
Do all of these design theories and models have equal value?
Are all of these design theories and models merely alternative ways to approach design?
Do these design theories and models have fundamental underlying principles in common?
If so, what are these underlying principles?

Principles, Programs, Practices
Practice -- a specific instructional activity
Program -- an approach consisting of a set of prescribed practices.
Principle -- a relationships that is always true under appropriate conditions regardless of program or practice.
Practices always implement or fail to implement underlying principles whether they are specified or not.

Instructional Practice
What is an instructional practice? It is what a given designer or trainer/teacher does to implement instruction.
A given instructional principle can usually be implemented via a wide variety of practices.
If a given practice fails to implement the relevant underlying principle there will be a decrement in learning.

Instructional Programs
What is an instructional program?
It is prescribed set of instructional practices.
Instructional approaches may facilitate the implementation of one or more instructional principles.
If the practices prescribed by the program do not implement underlying principles, then there will be a decrement in learning.

Example Program with Practices
Lewis, Watson, Schaps (In Reigeluth) Social, Ethical, and Intellectual Development -- Education’s Full Mission
Program
Literature Based Reading
Practices
Select books rich in social and ethical themes (content)
Partner Reading
Read aloud
Promote values (e.g. Ask “How can we help our partners?”)
What are the prescriptive principles required?

Example Program with Practices
Kovalik & McGeehan (In Reigeluth)
Program
Integrated Thematic Instruction (ITI)
Practices
Create a year long theme, monthly components, weekly topics
Select a physical location or event (field trip)
Identify key points (statement of concept, significant knowledge or skill)
Write inquiries and assessment
“ Using a topographical map of our area, determine the boundaries of our watershed. Draw a map to scale. Include our school, major roads, and a dozen other well known reference points.”
Very broad setting for learning.
What are prescriptive principles involved?

Instructional Principles
What is a principle? It is a relationship that is always true under appropriate conditions regardless of program or practice.
Parsimony would dictate that there should be only a few instructional design principles that can support a wide variety of instructional programs and practices.

Premise: Many instructional design theories and models have fundamental underlying principles in common?
Agenda: Identify these underlying first principles?
A principle is a relationship that is always true under appropriate conditions regardless of program or practice.

Hypotheses
Learning from a given program will be facilitated in direct proportion to the implementation of these first principles.
Learning from a given program will be facilitated in direct proportion to the degree that these principles are explicitly implemented rather than haphazardly implemented.

Method of Inquiry
Analyze instructional theories and models to extract general first principles.
Identify the cognitive processes associated with each principle.
Identify empirical support for the principles.
Describe the implementation of the principles in a variety of different instructional theories and models.
Identify prescriptions for instructional design associated with these principles.

Areas of Investigation Automated Instructional Design First Principles of Instruction Meta-Mental Models Instructional Design Models Knowledge Objects Cognition & Mental Models

Cognition -- A Simplified View
Associative Memory
Propositions
Rules
Automation
Schematic Memory
Schemata
Mental Models
Problem Solving
Data Structures + Processes Declarative + Procedural

Some Cognitive Principles
Isolated actions and operations processed by associative memory.
Information-about processed by associative memory.
Problem solving requires schematic memory
New schema are built by tuning and restructuring existing schema.
Mental models operate on tasks and problems.
Problem solving is selecting a mental model and processing the new information via the mental model.
Mental models develop slowly via successive tuning and restructuring
Problems of conceptualization, planning, and interpretation are processed via mental models.

Cardinal Principles of Instruction
The Cognitive Structure Principle
… the development of that cognitive structure that is most consistent with the desired learned performance.
The Elaboration Principle
… incremental elaboration for increased generality and complexity
The Learner Guidance Principle
… active cognitive processing
The Practice Principle
… monitored learner performance with feedback

Learning is facilitated when …
the learner is engaged in solving a real-world problem .
new knowledge builds on the learner’s existing knowledge .
new knowledge is demonstrated to the learner.
new knowledge is applied by the learner.
new knowledge is integrated into the learner’s world.

First Principles of Instruction Problem Activation Demonstration Application Integration

Bransford -- Star Legacy The Challenges Generate Ideas Multiple Perspectives Research & Revise Test Your Mettle Go Public Look ahead Reflect back

McCarthy 4-MAT 1 2 3 4 Meaning Conceptualizing Operationalizing Renewing Connect, Examine Image, Define Try, Extend Refine, Integrate share, dialogue, reflect acquire knowledge, understand theory act, practice, tinker adapt, re-present, share, renew WHY? IF? WHAT? HOW?

Andre -- Instructional Episode
Activate phase
activate preexisting knowledge or motivational structures
Instruction phase
types of information provided
how learners are encourages to process information and relate it to preexisting knowledge
Feedback phase
types of performances that are encouraged
types of information provided as a result of the learner’s performance

Problem
the learner is engaged in solving a real-world problem.
The learner is engaged at the problem or task level not just the operation or action level.
the learner solves a progression of problems.
the learner is guided to an explicit comparison of problems.
Problems promote acquisition, elaboration, and use of mental models rather than only associative memory.

Activation
the learner is directed to recall, relate, describe, or apply knowledge from relevant past experience that can be used as a foundation for the new knowledge.
the learner is provided relevant experience that can be used as a foundation for the new knowledge.
Activates a mental model appropriate for restructuring or tuning.

Demonstration
the learner is shown as well as told.
the demonstration is consistent with the learning goal.
the learner is directed to relevant information.
the learner is shown multiple representations.
the learner is directed to explicitly compare alternative representations.
media plays a relevant instructional role.
Instantiates the mental model.

Application
the learner is required to use his/her new knowledge to solve problems.
this problem solving activity is consistent with the learning goal.
the leaner is shown how to detect and correct errors.
the learner is guided in his/her problem solving by appropriate coaching that is gradually withdrawn.
Enables the student to restructure and tune the mental model.

Integration
the learner can demonstrate his/her new knowledge and skill.
the learner can reflect-on, discuss, and defend his/her new knowledge.
the learner can create, invent, and explore new and personal ways to use his/her new knowledge.
Promotes association among mental models and increased generalizability.

Gardner -- Multple Approches to Understanding --
“ You’ll never understand the theory unless you [publicly] apply it.” p. 74
Activation
Entry points. “… one begins by finding a way to engage the students and to place them centrally within the topic.” p. 81 Defines different types of entry points.
Telling analogies. “..come up with instructional analogies, drawn from material that is already understood.” P. 82

Gardner (cont.)
Demonstration
“… portray the topic in a number of ways.” p. 85
Application
… [provide] many [and varied] opportunities for practice.” p. 86
Integration
“… display one’s comprehension … in a publicly justified manner.”

Nelson Collaborative Problem Solving
Build readiness -- (Activation)
Form and norm groups
determine a preliminary problem definition
define and assign roles
Engage in an iterative collaborative problem solving process -- (Application)
finalize the solution
Synthesize and Reflect -- (integration)
Assess products and processes

Jonassen -- Constructivist Learning Environments
The model conceives of a problem … as the focus of the environment, … Jonassen, 1999
Modeling -- demonstration
Coaching -- application
Scaffolding -- sequence of cases
Related cases
worked examples
multiple perspectives
selectable information just-in-time
cognitive (knowledge construction tools)
task representation tools
performance support tools
information gathering tools
Provoke reflection, Perturb Learner’s models -- integration

van Merriënboer -- 4C/ID Principled Skill Decomposition Development of Learning Environment Algorithmic Methods Prerequisite Knowledge Heuristic Methods Supportive Knowledge Part-Task Practice Prerequisite Information Whole-Task Practice Supportive Information Rule Automation Schema Acquisition Analysis Design recurrent skills non-recurrent skills procedures specific rules facts concepts plans principles Heuristics SAPs conceptual models goal-plan hierarchies causal models mental models available during practice available before practice

Schank -- Learning by Doing
The first step … is determining ... a mission that will be motivational for the student to pursue. Shank, et al, 1999
Goal Based Scenarios
Goals -- process and content
Mission -- real-world problem
Cover story -- the problem to be solved
The role --
Scenario operations -- application
Resources -- stories -- contextualized demonstration
Feedback -- learner guidance

Findings to date
Are the theories we have reviewed fundamentally different?
NO!
All theories incorporate some of these principles.
No theory includes all of these principles.
Some theories include principles or prescriptions not on our list of first principles. (Area for further investigation).
No theory includes a contrary principle or prescription.

How do these theories differ?
Implementation details differ.
Detailed discussion beyond scope of this presentation.
Principle(s) emphasized differs
Bransford -- phases of learning
McCarthy -- phases of learning and learning styles
Andre -- learning episodes
Gardner -- public exhibition of understanding & kinds of intelligence
Nelson -- collaboration
Jonassen -- problem solving in learning environments
van Merriënboer -- problem solving sequence of cases & sequencing of supporting information
Schank -- problem solving (cases) & stories

Conclusion
There are first principles of instruction that are similar regardless of theory or philosophical orientation.
Hypothesis: failure to implement these first principles in the programs and practices will cause a decrement in learning.
Much remains to be done in articulating these first principles and tracing their role in different theories.

Ask me a question. Thank You ! Visit our web site www.id2.usu.edu Join our web conference www.webconf.org

Merrill 1

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