Em swedenborg-the-animal-kingdom-two-volumes-first-and-last-pages-1744-1745-james-john-garth-wilkinson-1843-1844-the-swedenborg-scientific-association-1960

THE ANIMAL KINGDOM, CONS IDE RED ANATOMICAL.LY, PHYSICALLY, AND PHILOSOPHICALLY. BY EMANUEL SWEDENBORG, LATI:: )fEMBJ;R 01" Till>: KOVSl!; 010" NODl.ES IN TRB ROYAL »tF.r 01" aWEDEN, ASSEaaOR 01" THI ROYAL METALLlC COLl.EGlt 01" RWEJ)BS,FRLLOW OF TlfE ROYAL ACADE:KY OP acn:SCE5 or f)FSALA, AND QI" THB ROTAL .t.CA...DE3ofY 01" SCIEltC. OF STOCKHOLM, CORaUPO:fDING :MP.)fDRR OP TR8 l:lIlIrBIl.U,. ACADB)I! OF ICIBNeRS or ST. PETERSBUIG. TRANSLATED FROM THE LATIN BY JAMES JOHN GARTH WILKINSON, :oU::lIBER OP THE ROYAl. COLLEGE OF Sf)RGF,ON8 Of l.aNnOl<. VOLUME 1. LONDON: W. NEWBERY, 6, KING STREET, HüLBüRN; H. BAILLIÈRE, 219, REGENT STREET. OTIS CLAPP, SCHOOL STREET, BOSTON, UNITED STATES. 1843. Reproduced by Photo Otfset SWEDENBORG SCIENTIFIC ASSOCIATION J960

U KO PROVECTI SUMUS, UT RODIE AURIS ET OCULI SENSATIONEM VALDESUPRA SEIPSAM, AUT SUPRA NATURAJ.. E SUUM ACUMEN, PER ARTIFICIALIAORGANA EXALTARE SCIAMUS: JAM SUPEREST, UT ETIAM MENTEM, SEU AUDITUM ET VISUM RATIONALEM."-SWEDENBORG, ŒCONOMIA REGNI ANtMALIS,TR. II., N.207. "COGITATIO EX OCULO OCCLUDIT tNTELLECTUM, AT COGITATIO EX INTELLECTU :PERIT OCULUM." - SWEDENBORG, SAPIENTIA ANGELleA DE DIVINOAMORE, N.46. LONDON: PR1NTED BY VALTON AKD MITCHELL, Vardour·stlcet, Oxforcl·:-,trect.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. lAGE Preface to 1960 Photo Offset Edition v Translators Preface to Part 1. vii PrologueChap. T. The Tongue 17 II. The Lips, the Mouth, the Palate, and the Salivary Glands 59 Ill. The Phaqnx, the Œsophagus, and their Glands 86 IV. The Stomach and its Orifices 109 V. The Intestines 140 VI. The Mesentery and the Lacteals 186 VII. The Thoracic Duct and the Lymphatics 210 VIII. The Glands generally 224 IX. The Liver and the Gall-hladder 253 X. The Pancreas 306 XI. The Spleen . 328 XII. The Omentum 363 XIII. The Succenturiate Kidneys 392 XIV. The Kidneys and the Ureters 415 XV. The Urinary Bladder 457 XVI. The Peritonœum 481 Epilogue 510

PREFACE 10 1960 PHOTO OFFSET EDITION The Animal Kingdom has been out of print in the English language for more than a century. The publication of a new edition has long been contemplated by the Swedenborg Seien tific Association, whose journal, The New Philosophy, reports work during the early 1900s of a committee to revise Wilkin sons translation published in 1843-4. Unfortunately, this re vision was not completed. Nothing more has been done in the intervening half-century, and there seems little prospect at present for a new revision. Meanwhile, copies of the old edition have become progressively more scarce and fragile. In order.,to insure that a rising generation of scholars shal1 not be pre vented by scarelty of books from studying this important work, the Swedenborg Scientific Association herewith reproduces the Wilkinson translation by photo offset printing, omitting only lengthy and rather dated "Introductory Remarks by the Trans lator" (to the whole work) ; but retaining Wikinsons prefaces to Parts l, II and III, which contain bibliographie material. The reprinting of a translation now over one hundred years old is in itself a recognition of the ageless grace of Wilkinsons language and the veracity of his interpretation. The consistent purpose in Swedenborgs physiological works was to demonstrate the existence of the soul in the body and the intercourse between them. In pursuing this objective, he developed a number of different plans for arranging his various published and projeeted treatises into a comprehensive overal1 scheme. These plans have been described in detail by Alfred Acton in prefaces to his translations of several of Swedenborgs physiological works, especial1y in the Psychological Trans actions (1920, 1955), pages xxviii to xxxi; in Generation (Parts 4 and 5 of the Animal Kingdom series, 1912, 1928), pages 5 to 15; in A Philosophers Note Book (1931); in The Cerebrum (1938) ; and in the "third transaction" of the Economy of the Animal Kingdom, which was posthumously published (1918) and is general1y known under the title, The Fibre. Besides, Dr. Actons typed "Notes on the Life and Work of Emanuel Swedenborg" (covering the period up to the year 1744) con tain many reÏerences to Swedenborgs plans for future publications. One of the last of such plans Swedenborg prefixed to the Prologue to this first volume of the Animal Kingdom nnder the tit1e, "Index of Contents of the Whole Work," "whole work" referring to a comprehensive series of treatises of which the published volumes of the Animal Kingdom were to form the first two of seventeen "Parts." In the preface to his translation of Psychological Transactions, Dr. Acton pointed out that on

VI PREFACE TO 1960 PHOTO OFFSET EDrTlONgathering together the whole of Swedenborgs physiologicalwritings, published and unpublished, almost each of the "Parts"in this plan were found to be covered by some one or more ofhis works. These relationships were shown in tabular form, amodification of which, be1ow, lists the seventeen "Parts," followed by parentheses enclosing the names of correspondingwritten works.Inde;r of Contents of the Whole WorkParts 1-2 The Viscera of the Body. (A. K 1 and Il). JPart 3 The Heart, etc. (E. A. K., 1; The Red Blood.)Parts 4-5 Generation. (Generation; Origin and Propagation of the S onl.)Part 6 The Senses. (A. K III; The Soul; The Senses.) JParts 7-8 The Brains. (E. A. K., Il; The Brain.)Part 9 The Fibre. (The Fibre.) The Motor Fibre (Action.) The Animal Spirit. (The Animal Spirit; chapter in codex 65 on Brain.)Part 10 The Organism of Animal Motion. (Action.)Part Il Diseases of the Head. (Diseases of the Fibre; Tm-nsaction III in codex 65 on Brain.)Part 12 The Doctrine of Forms. (Chapter in The Fibre.) Order, Degrees, etc. (E. A. K., 1 fin.) Correspondence and Representation. (Hieroglyphic Key; Correspondences and Representations.) Modification. (Sensation; The Soul.)Part 13 Action. (Action.) External and Internai Sense. (The S oui; Sensation.) Imagination, Memory. (The Soul; Diseases of the Fibre. )Part 14 Affections and Disorders of the Animus. (The S ouI; Diseases of the Fibre.)Part 15 The Intellect and Rational Mind. (The S oui.)Part 16 The Sou. (The Soul; Way to a Knowledge of the Soul; Origin and Propagat-ion of the Soul.)Part 17 Concordance of systems respecting the Soul and body. (Harmony of Sonl and Body; The SOttl.) This photo offset edition of the Animal Kingdo11t is presented withol1t further editorial comment in the hope that theready availability of the work may stimuJate more widespreadstl1dy and appreciation of the significance to modern thoughtof Swedenborgs remarkable philosophical system. Swedenborg ScientificAssociation Bryn Athyn, Pa. October, 1960

TRANSLATORS PREFACE TO PART 1. lHE Regnnm Animale of Swedenborg, of the first Part of which, this volu~e is a translation, was published by the author in 1744 and 1745, and constituted the last of a series of works on thc natural sciences, which Swedenborg wrote previously to commencing his labors as a theologian. These works are related to each other in a certain order, as containing a successive evolution of principles j and the first part of the series is in some measure plCsupposed in the subsequent parts. Thus a full comprehension of the doctrines of the « Animal Kingdom" canscarcely be attained without an acquaintance with its precursors,-the Princïpia Rerum Naturalium, published in 1734, and the Œconomia Regni Animalis, published in 1740 and 1741.* Itmight, then, have been desirable to publish the translations ofthese works in the order in which Swedenborg published theoriginals j but as this would have involved considerable delay,it was considered expedient to issue immediately that workwhich happened to be ready for the press, and to trust to thereaders candor, to make some reservation in Swedenborgsfavor, until the whole of the materials on which to found ajudgment on bis daims are beforc the public. In no longperiod, this will be the case, inasmuch as the translations of * The translataI refels the reader ta his article, .. Swedenborg," in the PENNYCYCLOP..EDIA, fol a short account of the life and writings of Swedenborg, and forreferences ta the best works on those subjects.

vm TRANSLATORS PREFACE TO PART 1.the Principia and Œconomia* are virtually completed, and theirpublication will not be delayed beyond the time necessary toaccomplish the operations of the engraver. It is not intended to enter at present upon the merits anddemerits of Swedenborgs system. A critical Preface will comemost appropriately with Parts II. and III., when the translation of the Work is completed; at which time it is also the transla tors wish, to give a copious index, and a short biographical and bibliographical notice of the numerous writers referred to in the Worle. It may, notwithstanding, be useful to suggest, that the merits of the W ork lie in its principles and doctrines, and only secondarily in its details. The facts made use of by Swedenborg were, of course, the facts of his own day-the faets of perhaps the most illustrious anatomists who evel lived -but still imperfect, as the facts of our day will be imper fect in the year 1943. Principles, however, are immortal; and the roll of centuries, (supposing always that mankind is advancing steadily the meanwhile to higher enlightenment,) serves only to continu and establish them. They have, more over, a power of. eliminating and throwing off spurious facts, when such facts have served a provisional end, and more real data are prepared to take their places. The principles of Swe denborg, the translator believes, have this increasing root in the world, and this power: he believes that they are more tme now to the rational enquirer, than they could possibly be to the men of Swedenborgs own day:-that wherever he adopted false * The W orks stand thus in order and titles : Principia Rerum Naturalium, sive novorum Tentaminum Phœnomena Mundi Elementaris Philosophice explicandi. Cum figuris llmeis. Folio. Dresdœ et Lipsiœ, 1734. Œconomia Regni Animalis in Transactiones Divisa: Anatomice, Physice et Phi. losophice perlustrata. (Trans. I. II.) 4to. Londini et Amstelodami, 1740, 1741. Regnnm Animale, Anatomice, Physice et Philosophice perlustratum. (Partes I. II. III.) 4to. Hagœ Comitum et I.ondini. 1744, 1745.

TRANSLATORS PREFACE TO PART I. IXfacts, they furni.shed a worse basis for his system than the moresolid materials of modern discovery. An example of this occursin the Chapter on the Kidneys, where the principle stated togovern the urinary series is confirmed by the recent observationsof Mr. Bowman better than by the hypothetical structureassigned to the parts previously, in the absence of experimentalevidence. It would be easy to multiply instances of the samekind, but the intention is, not to write a commentary, butrather to warn the reader against confouncling principles withsupposititious facts, and throwing away the former, when thereis only ground for rejecting the latter. It is not enough, then, in perusing Swedenborgs Work,that the reader should question the details borrowed from the older anatomists and physiologists: another dutY still devolvesupon hi.m, supposing these details are proved in sorne importantinstances to be erroneous; the duty, namely, of enquiring how far Swedenborgs principles do or do not square with the better details of the present day. The translator directs attention to the doctrines mentioned in the Prologue (n. 14), and illustrated throughout the Work; particularly to the DOCTRINE OF SERIES AND DEGREES, which, according to Swedenborg, "when taken in conjunction with experience, is the path to an intimate knowledge of nature" (Œcon. Regn. An., Tr. l, n. 628). The application of this doctrine to the living body is perhaps the most important object of study presented in the following Treatise. There is besides a variety of particular subjects on which the " Animal Kingdom" is of considerable import to the physiologist. It may be sufficient to indicate, that it contains new views upon the philosophy of forros and forces; and especially, upon the universality of the spiral form in the organic creation; and the grounds and reasons of that universality: also, upon the effect of the respiratory movements in the body generally; and upon the motions of the viscera and organs. Its doctrines respecting

x TRANSLATOItS PREIACE ra PART 1.the permeaùility of tissues, the circulation of serum in theseraus membranes, and the functions of those membranes, andrespecting the nature and office of the cellular tissue, and ofthe lymphatic system, are well worthy thc attention of aIl thosewho are engaged in studying the living body. The impediments, however, to a right understanding ofSwedenborgs views, can scarcely be overrated. Those viewsdiffer as much from the current views, as rational astronomy,which regards the sun as the centre of its system, differs fromsensual astronomy, which upon the clear evidence of vision,recognized the earth as the centre. The sphere of the sensesand the sphere of reason, are not merely distinct, but antagonist: and it is on1y by an inversion of phenomena that wcpass into the region of causes. The naked eye cannat see truth,nor can the eye assisted ùy the microscope: but the rationalmind is its proper organ, accommodated to the rays of its supersensual light. The doctrines of truth may indeed correct theappearanccs of the senses, and be found in agreement with,and be confirmed by, those appearanees, when so correeted:but they cannot agrec with, or be confirmed by, a chaos offaets. But at the present clay, there is a morbid dread of doctrines and princip1es: and as a nceessary consequence, it istaken for granted, that the scnses themse1ves are the organs oftruth, and that any imperfection of insight will one day bercctificd by sorne kecner eye, or better microscope. This stateof mind is, indeec1, diamctrically opposite to the spirit of Swedenborgs writings; and it may prove extremely clifficult forthose who arc under its influence, to accord any measure ofappreciation ta, or derive any advantage from, the presentWork. l1oreover, it is easy ta forescc that Swedenborgs style willprove an obstacle to many. N everthcless, the translataI hasanxiously songht to prcscfC it in the English version. Thcreason is, that thc mode of spcaking by figures, is not an ex

TRANSLATOltS PREJACE TO PART 1. Xlcrescencc, lying mcrely in language, but is the indication of agreat principle :-the principle, that there cxist a universalAnalogy and Correspondency throughout nature and humansociety in aIl thcir spheres j and that thus one thing not onlyrnay be used, but in certain cases even ou.ght to be used as thetcrm and exponcnt of anothcr. The popular prejudice against Swedenborgs theologicalworks may also cause a reaction against his scientific works.This is a subject upon which the translator cannot dwell.Therc is only one way to discuss prejudices and to substitute intheir place acts of judgment j namely, by each individual carefully examining evidence for himself. But the "Animal Kingdom," has 11 distinguishing featurewhich, it is hoped, will conciliate ail parties, and commend theW ork, pro tanto, to aIl: l mean the citations from the oldanatomists j-flom those who were the original geniuses in thisfield of observation. These citations must give the Work sornevalue to even the lover of mere facts, particularly since it ,vauldappear, that medical learning is undergoing a reyival in thiscountry j and that the works of the old worthies-the Patristiclore of medicine-will now for the first time be populaJizedto the profession in English translations. l allude to the projected labors of the SYDENHAM SOCIETY j which, although retrospective, seem, to me, at least, to be of the utmost importance for the advancement of anatomical and mcdical science. With respect to the citations above alluded to, the tran:,latorhas to make the following acknowledgment of obligations. Inthe passages from Winslows Exposition Anatomique, he has compared Swedenborgs Latin translation* with Douglass Euglish * It appears that Swedenborg himself translated the passages cited from Vinslow,from French into Latin. The only Latin translation of Winslows E:c.uositionAnatomique with which 1 am acquainted, (Expositio Anatortlica Structurœ UorporiRHUrtiani, Jac. Benigni fVinstow,-e Gallico Latine vérsa, P"ancq(urti et llipsiœ,)was not published till 1753; and moreover, it is very differellt from Swedellborgstranslation.

Xll TRANSLATORS PREFACE TO PART I. one,* and availed himself, wherever it was practicable, of the assistance, and for the rnost part, of the phraseology, of the latter: when any discrepancy occurred between the Latin and English versions, he has alwayï, had recourse ta the French ori~~nal. In rendering the passages from Heister, he has derived considerable aid from the English translation of the Compendium Anatomicum, published at London in 1752.t In thecitations from Boerhaave, sorne hints have been adopted froman ~English paraphrase of the Institutiones Medieœ, published at 1London in 1724.+ In the passages from Swammerdams Biblia Naturœ, the translation by Sir John Hill, and others, has beenas far as possible followed.§ These are ail the instances, so faras present recoilection serves, in which the translator is directlyindebted to the labors of others. With the exception of the passages from Winslow, the wholeof the quotations have been compared verbatim with the corresponding -passages in the works of the authors; and referenceshav,e been appended throughout, to enable the reader to referimmediately to the originals. The numerous references madeby :Swedenborg himself have been strictly verified, excepting inthree or four instances, where it was found impossible to procurethe works cited, or eIse, to find the passages: to the unverifiedreferences the mark :E is adjoined. It is to be observed, that the numbering of the paragraphs * "An Anatomical Exposition of the Structure of the Human Body. ByJaml:s Benignus Winslow. Translate<! from the French original, by G. Douglas,M.D. 4to. London, 1733." t "A Compendium of Anatomy. By Laurence Heister, M.D. Translatedfrom the last edition of the original Latin. 8vo. London, 1752." : "Cursus Medicinœ; or a complete Theory of Physic. Done principally fromthe admirable Institutions of the leamed H. Boerhaave. By John Crawford, M.D.8vo. London, 1724." 1 am aware that there is a better English version of Boer.haave than Crawfords, but 1 had not easy access to it. § "The Book of Nàture; or the History of Insects. By John Swammerdam,M.D.. Translated from the Dutch and Latin original edition, by Thomas Flloyd,revis ld and improved by Notes from Reaumur and others. By John Hill, M.D.FoiJ, London, 1758."

rUANSLATORS PREFACE TO PART r. Xllldoes not correspond in the latter part of the Volume, with thenumbering of the original. In the original, both the thirteenthand fourteenth Chapters commence with n. 266, apparentlybecause our author had at one time intended Chap. XIV. tostand first, and had afterwards altered his intention, withouthaving changed the numbering. Another error is also superadded, and next to n. 266, in Chap. XIV., we find 217, 218,219, &c.,-proceeding through the Work. Thus a series of sixtYnumbers is repeated twice. Reference from the latter parts ofthe Work to the former becomes, on this account, extremelydifficult and uncertain, and the translator has therefore venturedto correct the numbering throughout. It may also be mentioned, that the typographical errors in the original are exceedingly numerous, and so important, that the certainty of thetranslation may sometimes have been endangered by them.* Inthe present Volume the translator is indebted to his printersfor he believes a very opposite condition with respect to correctness. The reader will find frequent re(erence made to Parts of the"Animal Kingdom" which were never published by Swedenborg.tThe present Work was indeed the mere beginning of the coursewhich he had prescribed for himself. There is reason to supposethat these Parts were not written; but among the authorsMSS., preserved in the Library of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Stockholm, there are several physiological Treatises,t * And accordingly, our author appended an Advertisement (Monilum) to PartIL, stating that there were many typographical errors in the Work, and requesting"the benevolent reader to correct them for himself." He pleaded in excuse, thatthey were owing to his having been "more intent upon things than words." "Plures [errores), dum Rebus non Verbis intentus fui, visum et calamum meumprœterlapsi sunt." t See "The Authors Index of Contents of the whole Work." ~ These Treatises are as follow : 1. Fragmenta de Œconomiâ Regni Animalis et de ipso Regno Animali, interquœ reperitur Tractatus de Partibus Generationis utriusque Sexus, et de ProcessuGenerationis.

XlV lIUNSLATORS PREFACE TO PART 1.the contents of which will doubtless serve to tin up some portions of his design. A ward respecting the principles which have guided thetranslataI in the execution of this first part of his undertaking.He has strivell ta the best of his ability ta givc a faithful translation, and, as one means ta this end, ta divest the ,Vork of Latinidioms as far as possible. But in cases where he was either certain that particular phrases, although stiff and peculiar, werenot indebted for their peclùiarity ta the genius of the Latinlanguage, or where he strongly suspected this ta be the fact,in snch cases, he has felt it safe ta adhere ta the original, andta put precedent, custom and style, out of sight. And furthermore, as the technical language of that clay wasgeneraUy the result of certain theories respecting the uses of thethings named, he has seldom felt himself caUed upon ta alterthe scientific terms of the Work into those now in use. It may,however, perhaps be advantageous ta give a glossary of thoseterms with Parts II. and III.13, Store Street, Bedford Square, London, June 29, 1843. 2. Œconomia Animalis, seu Transactiones de utràque parte homini>, de Cerebro,Medullâ Oblongatà et Spinali, de Nervis, analytice, physice, philos0lhice demonstrata; &c., p. 760. 3. De Mechanismo Animœ et CorporÎs. 4. De Spiritu Animali, p. 24. 5. De Sensatione, seu de Corloris Passione, cap. XIII. 6. De Actione, cap. XXXV. 7. De Sensu Communi, ejusque influxu in animam. 8. De Musculis Faciei. 9. De Aure Humanâ.

THE ANIMAL KINGDOM, CONSIDEREDANATOMICALLY, PHYSICALLY, AND PHILOSOPHICALLY. PART 1. THE VISCERA OF THE AllDOMEN, OR THE ORGANS OF THE INFERIOR REGION.

THE ANIMAL KIN GDOM. PART r. PROLOGUE. 1. NOTHING whatever is more to be desired, or moredelightful than the light of truth; for it is the source of wisdom.When the mind is harassed with obscurity, distracted by doubts,rendered torpid or saddened by ignorance or falsities, and truthemerges as from a dark abyss, it shines forth instantaneously,like the sun dispersing mists and vapors, or like the dawn repelling the shades of darkness. For truths in the intellect orrational mind are analogous to lights and rays in ocular vision;falsities that have the appearance of truth are analogous to unreal or phosphoric lights; doubts, to clouds and shadows; andignorance itself is thick darkness and the image of night: thusone thing is represented in another. 2. The faculty of apprehending the goodness of aU forms,consequently also the secret delights of truth, is inherent and asit were connate in our senses, both external and internaI. Theear, although untutored, apprehends, and in some degree feels,the measures, the harmony, and the melody of tunes; for themind is straightway affected in a corresponding manner: theeye spontaneously apprehends the beauties of nature, and thegraceful and harmonic connexions between different objects : thetangue apprehends the agreeable qualities of viands and wines ;and the nostrils, the fragrancies of various odors. So the rational mind, that is, the intellect, unhesitatingly distinguishesthe truths of things, and the forms consonant ta the order ofnature,-at once to the nature of the universe, and to that ofthe intellect itself; for they sweetly sooth and please, and caUforth deeply-hidden affections; wherefore, whenever a truth VOL. I. B

2 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.shines forth, the mind exults and rejoices :-a proof that a certain superior mind or soul, (which imparts to its mind, that is,to our rational faculty, a faculty inferior and subject to it, thepower of perceiving, thinking, judging, and deeiding,) at sueh .times becomes kindlier, more free, as if liberated from chains,more active, more present in its influence, and closer in its correspondence. For the soul, which flows with its light inta thesphere of the inteliectual mind, has order and truth in it, andthus, by virtue of its vcry nature, it feels, approves, and indicates, in a certain nniversal manner, the presence of whateveris congruous or harmonie. What appears thus connate, is,however, an affection only, not a particular idea; since aIl particular ideas are learnt and formed by way of the senses andtheir organs. 3. To rightly-constituted minds, truths are not only pleasing,but also ineffably delightful, containing in them, as it were, thecharms of aIl the loves and graces. This they dcrive from theirvery fOlm, that is, from the detcrmination and consent of particnlar things or corresponding ideas; for a truth is never absolutely single or simple, although after its fonnation, and thecoalescencc of its parts, it may appear to be so: on the contrary,a truth is a fitting combination of an infinity of other truths,that is, of an infinity of distinct idcas and notions. A truth isa conclusion and a judgment resulting from the orderly disposition of many things. :Purthermore, aIl harmony is of such anature, that when particulars or ratios are properly placed accordillg to it, they become united, and fûrm a unity ; as in thecase of symbolic or algebraic equations, whcre many terms ornumbers are connected together by signs, but which, although divisible into many when regarded in their own series, or com· bination of series, are nevertheless represented as single andsimple. This is equally the case with the forms of aIl things inthe universe; which, bceause they are compounds resulting from an infinity of other things, properly subordinated and co-ordinatcd, are therefore real beings, of which attributes, qualities, modes and mutations may be predicated, Such are truths: thc morc Humcrous the truths that form the one truth, and the more constant and ccrtain, the greatcr is the briIliance, the beanty, and the loveliness of the light of that üuth which they forro.

PROLOGUE. 3 4. Hence it is evi<1ent, that one truth is never opene<1 with-out an infinity of other truths being also opencd ; inasmuch asthe one is the conclusion of aU the others; and fmther, thatthe conclusion-thus derived from the others-is not a truthexcept relatively to those numberless truths which constitute,that is, form and determine it. Thus a truth, to be such, mustnot be truc in itself simply, or in the conclusion alone, but inthose things and their connexion from which the conclusion isderived: whence every circumstance and eyery different modifi-cation varies the thing itself. Rowbeit, l admit the existenceof absolutely constant and immutable truths, both natmal andmoral, and pre-eminently, of spiritual truths; indeed, of aUthose that arc in harmony with the perfect order of the universe.But in the animal kingdom-in man considered as a microcosm-there are as many different kinds of order, and as manydifferent states, as there are subjects and human minds variouslyapproximating to, or receding from, the order of the universe ;for human minds are the objects into which order and truthfiow, and the suhjects by which the infilLX is received. Rencethe multitude of dubions, uncertain, and shifting opinions onevery subject: whereby knowledge is confuscd, the will per-plexed, and om minds are brought into suspense respecting theplainest truths, and induced to contend wi.th each other respect-ing them: thus truth is endangered; for it is placed in jeopardywhenever it is made a subject of contention. The consequenceis, that the truths in the rational mind do not deserve to becalled truths, but prineiples only, as} in<1eed, it is usual tocall them. 5. l have set out, indeed, by speaking respecting truths,but this is a subject sufficient to fill a volume; nor does itbelong to this place to consider what truth is, but rather, howWc should investigate it. lhis must be om present bnsiness andlabor. 6. There are two usually-received ways or methods for dis-covering truths j the synthetic and the analytic.The synthcticcommences from principles and causes, and passes therefrom tophenomena and effects j thus proeeeding from the prior to theposterior} from simple to compounds, from superior to inferior,from interior to exterior j or, "hat amounts to the same thing,from a universal to singulars, consequently ta experience, to TI 2

4 THE ANIMAL KING DOM.confirm prior things. The analytic method, on the other hand,rises from phenomena and efiects to causes, and evolves from them principles; ,consequently evolves universals from the expe rience of singulars, interior things from the exterior, simples from compounds, in a word, the prior from the posterior. Thus analysis as a method of proceeding is the inverse of synthesis. 7. Synthesis, which begins its thread of reasons from causes and principles, and évolves and unwinds it until it reaches the efiects of the causes, and the phenomena resulting from the principles, assumes some particular principle familiar and favor able to the intellect as formed by previous ideas; and however susceptible this principle may be of doubt or controversy, synthesis seizes it as a truth, and lays it down; and thus presumed,defines and disengages it, and confirms it, first rationally, nextempirically. Should any thing adverse appear, synthesis polishesaway, represses and removes it, until at length the truth cancome upon the stage, naked at first, but afterwards bedecked andornamented; exactly in imitation of the inverse method ofanalysis,which is called also the regula falsi, or rule of falseposition. And synthesis, in reality, is nothing but a pOOl,precocious, and vague analysis; it gives out nothing more thanwhat has crept into the intellect, and among the intellectualideas, by way of the senses, from a few phenomena of experience, without any general bond to connect them; and for themost part in the first impetuosity of the judgment. The hastyconceptions thus formed at the minds first glance, are termedopinions, conjectures, hypotheses; whence come systems. 8. This has been the received and established method forages past, from the very infancy of philosophy, through its laterand maturer development; and now also it endures and flourishes by the favor of our contemporaries, being adopted exclusively even at the present day in reasonings on the causes ofthings, which are naturally abstruse and profound. Tt is alsopleasing, and wonderfully accommodated and in a manner akinto human minds; it enables each mind to indulge its own tastes,to favor its own state, and to assent to an order, whose laws areproclaimed as truths, n. 4. And we are very easily impelledand carried away into ideal games of this kind, inasmuch asthey are races of our thoughts frOID assumed starting-places tothe very goals we desire to reach. This also pimps to self-love

PROLOGUE. 5 and self-glory, for as. nothing properly belongs to us but the produce of our own minds, when these have conceived any thing, and supported it by plausibilities, we suppose we have divined the pure reality, opened the true Delphos or heaven itself, unlocked oracles which the gemus of our predecessors never penetrated, and, in a word, earned an indisputable palm of victory. But those who commence with this species of scho lastic exercitation, that is, who set out relying on mere reason ing, not fortified by the sure patronage of experience, will never, as 1 think, attain the goal; for they begin from the goal, and.hurry to the starting-place; thus they bend their course outwards instead of inwards, contrary to the order which the nature of the human mind prescribes for the discovery of theoccult and unknown. 9. But granting, for arguments sake, that any of the chiefsor nùers of the learned world, commencing from synthesis, may have perhaps taken the false for the true, but with the intention of afterwards eliciting from it purer truths, by means of analysis, or the rtÙe of false position, and of correcting, perfecting, andpolishing it, like the sculptor working the rude marble :-Teil methen, 1 pray, which of them has thus followed the rules ofanalysis? vVhich of them afterwards has wrought and correctedthe visions. and appearances he imbibed and predetermîned,perhaps in the very dawn of thought, and which were adverseto the truth? Instead of this, have not they aU, as experienceshews, sought the confirmation of the false, and not of thetrue? For while the will is directed to the false, it is constantlydetained in those things also that confirm it, or are conformableto it. Rence the presumption becomes more and more confirmed by plausible arguments, until at last it has the samepower of persuasion as the truth itself. For whenever affirmativereasoning is applied to a preconception, an infinity of particulars,ail voting the same way, fly to its assistance,-both the decreesof ratiocinative philosophy, and the phenomena of the world,laid hold of in the fallacious light of the senses. Indeed, thereis nothing but may form a constituent part in different series ofreasonings, if not directly, at least obliquely; as a single partic1e of salt may form an ingredient in an infinity of savors, anda single color in an infinity of pictures: and one thing may beengrafted on another, as brauch upon branch; thus the legiti

6 THE ANIMAL KINGDOJLmate upon the spurious: so that falsehood assumes the form oftruth, and the measure of the fiction increases by meditation.At length, when the phantom is led forth upon the theatre ofwhat is cailed the learned world, multitudes run to it, passionately admire it, favoT and applaud it; nay, numerous connoisseurs embeUish it with paint and new decorations, so thatit looks like a phantom no longer, but like a beautiful Venus,or a Delphian virgin. Vhatever is now poured from its mouth,you are to regard as the voice of destiny, or the responseof an oracle. But ail things have their àay ; ·among the rcst,the produce of the human faculties,-particularly those misshapell offspring, the monsters of hypothesis. They are conceived, they are born, they grow to maturity, they grow old,at last they die. But from the ashes of each new oncs rise ;and every hydra-head that is lopped off by the youthfulHercules, produces hundreds of others: whence spectres ofsimilar brood prevail for ages, and, like enchantresses, distractthe human mind perenniaUy. Hence errors, mental obscurity,faUacics, and stIÏfe; civil wars between the soul and the body;scholastic contentions about straws and trifies; the fiight andexile of truths; and stupor and thick darkness in those verythings where the light is most briUiant: and this to such anextent, that the very altars and their sacred fire are contaminated; which is the reason why the philosophy of the humanmind is salemnly prosclÏbed in the divine records. Ali thesethings fiow from that single source,-we mean, from the habitand the propensity of reasoning syntheticaily. 10. The power of divining true principles by the mind alone,and of descending therefrom, in the path of certainty, through their consequences, to posterior things, belongs exclusively to higher beings and powers; to spirits, angels, and the Omni scient Himself, who indeed inhabit the brightest light, and dweU in essential truth and wisdom. They see aU things, in one complex, as at once beneath them and within them: they view the last things from the first, the lowest from the highest, the outermost from the innermost; in a word, ail the circum ferences from the centre; eonsequently, the very effeets of the world, from their causes. Not so human minds, which derive from the senses, or absorb thraugh the senses, aU the mate rials which they have ta reason upon.For we arc barn in dense

PROLOGUE. 7ignorance; lU process of time organs arc opencd for us, and,vays prepared, and images themselves are sublimated, until they become ideas, and at length reasons; which when connectedinta series, are blought under the inspection of the reasoningpower. Thus by slow degrees only, judgment is developcd andreason displayed. This then is mans only way of attainingtruths, sa long as his soul lives in the body. Can you tell meby synthesis or a priori, before seeing the viscera or examiningthe interior parts, what is contained within the animal body?Can you predict that it contains the liver, the mescntery, thekidneys, the heart, the arteries, and an infinity of other things;still less that they are connected together in one way, and in noother? Must you not rather, likc a blind man, affiictcd withcataract and suffusion, present ta yourself Indicrous imaginations, and c1rcam dreams, at which you yourself, when youshaH have looked into them, must ultimately either blush orlaugh? Dut aIas! wc are sa puffed up with self-conceit, thatwc seem to ourselves ta be not in the outmost, but in the inmost; to he standing, not on the earth, but in the sky; and inno faint or uneertain light, but in the brightest radiance; nay,in heaven itself, whence we descend before we ascend, and wherewe even build our airy palaces; not knowing, that our veryheight must aggravate the peril of our fall. This, as we beforesaid, is the cause and the source of the insanities of the humanmind. Sa mach for synthesis, now for analysis. Il. Analysis commences its web of ratiocination from thefacts, effcets, and phenomena which have entered through thebodily senses, and mounts ta causes, and causes of causes; thêLtis, ta the simple prineiples of the mind; and thus unwinds thethread of the web. In the first place it searches for certain andevident materials, and collecting thcm from aIl quarters, heapsthem together, and again selecting them from the heap, rcducesthem skilfully into order. Furthermore, it imbibes all thesciences wherewith nature has assisted the human mind, andnot in memory ouly, but in heart, and learns them for the sakeof their application. Enriched with as it were these treasures,and aided thereby, the mind girds hersclf ta her task, and beginsto work and ta huild. If the monnment she is essaying ta construct may be compaled with a palace, a mansion, or a pyramid,she may be said now to lay the foundation first, then to laise the

8 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.waUs, and surrounding the edifice with ladders and scaffolds,graduaily to carry it to the roof or summit. Whatever is nowwanting to complete the fitness and coherence of the whole,-as posts, rails, gates, tiles, and the like, is superadded afterwards. Thus the mind, keeping along the path of analysis,founds and rears her palace, not in the air, or in an atmospheretoo high for her, which is not her element, and where there isno support, still less foundation; but on the solid ground. 12. This is the only way to principles and truths-to highand almost to heavenly things-and no other appears to be opento us earthborn men; yet truly it is a most toilsome and extensive one, if we enter it with the intention of searching out thetruth by aU the truths which enter into it, that is, of exploringaU the truths which form the one truth, and of connecting themtogether, or concatenating them, in one general bond. In thiscase evidently we must lay the broadest foundation-we mustcompare aU things together carefuliy, and embrace them in onedesign. We must also make ourselves thoroughly masters of aUthe sciences, doctrines, and arts, which the work will requirefor its completion: nay, from those already known, we mustgenerate and discover others: for by these means the work isconstructed, and the mind led directly to the summit. In aword, we must cultivate acquaintance with aU the muses. Tothese requisites we must add an innate love of truth, an eagerdesire of exploring it, a delight in finding it, and a natural giftand faculty of meditating thoughtfuUy and distinctly, and ofconnecting reasons together acutely: also of recalling the mindfrom the senses, from the lusts of the body, the enticements ofthe world, and its cares,-ail which things are distracting forces,-and of keeping it in its own higher sphere, until it has summedup its reasons, and carried its thoughts to their conclusion. Inproportion as by these means we ascend to truths, in the sameproportion truths descend to us. Above ail things it behoves themind to be pure, and to respect universal ends, as the happinessof the human race, and thereby the glory of God: truth is theninfused into our minds from its heaven; whence as from its proper fountain it ail emanates. " Plato used frequently to say"so the philosopher relates-" that when his soul was engaged incontemplation, he seemed to enjoy the supreme good, and incredible delight: that he was in a manner fixed in astonishment,

PROLOGUE. 9acknowledging himself as a part of a higher world, and asfeeling his own immortality with the greatest assurance andlight: at length, that his understanding, wearied with this contemplation, relapsed into fantaiiY, and that he became sorrowfulas the light decreased. That again leaving the body, and returning to the former state, he found the soul abounding with light,and this light now Rowing into the body." And again, "Thesoul, freed as it were from the body, ascends and is enlightened;descending again, it is obscured, but it is afterwards purifiedand reascends." But this may perhaps appear like a mere fable,to those who have not experienced it. )3. When at length, under the conduet of such an analysis,we have been carried up to the principles of things, we maythen properly for the first time commence, or rather return,from principles, and put them forth, as of sufficient authority,by a clear and intelligible definition: for the mind now looksround the whole world as from a mirror, and contemplates aIlthings in a universal manner. Ladders are constructed, andsteps interposed, whereby we may equally descend and ascend.These ladders are so many concatenated series of truths, bywhich we are enabled to steer our course, or to go and return,whithersoever it pleases us. But these very truths, explored bythis means, if we must confess it, nevertheless remain stillintermixed and entangled ,vith ignorance and twilight shades,being, therefore, after aIl, only appearances of truths; for themind is never absolutely purified from the fallacies of the senses,it is never removed from them or placed beyond them, during itsconjunetion with the body. 14. l have now, therefore, ventured to attempt this methodof discovering truths, at present deeply hidden under a veil ofhypotheses. And the proper time has arrived; for a rich storeof experience is at hand; an accumulated heap sufficient toenable us to build a palace; a luxuriant field where our sicklesmay reap an abuudant harvest; a table where we may enjoy themost sumptuous banquets. N or do l think we ought to waitany longer, lest haply experimental knowledge should be overtaken by age, night, and obliviou; and the arts and sciences becarried to the tomb; for unless l mistake the sigus of the times,the worlds destinies are tending thithcrwards. Thc followingthen is a summary of my intended work.

10 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. l intend to examine, physically and l)hilosophically, the wholeAnatomy of the Body; of all its Viscera, Abdominal and Thoracic; of the Genital Members of both sexes: and of the Organsof the five Senses. Likewise, The Anatomy of all parts of the Cerebrum, Cerebellum,Medulla Oblongata, and Medulla Spinalis. Aftewards, the cortical substance of the two brains; andtheir medullary fibre; also the nervous fibre of the body; andthe muscular fibre; and the causes of the forces and motion ofthe whole organism: Diseases, moreover; those of thc headparticularly, or which proceed by defluxion from the Cerebrum. l purpose afterwards to give an introduction to RationalPsychology, consisting of certain new doctrines, through theassistance of which we may be conducted, from the materialorganism of the Body, ta a knowledge of thc Soul, which isimmaterial: these are, the Doctrine of Forms: the Doctrine ofOrder and Degrees: also, the Doctrine of Scries and Society:the Doctrine of Influx: the Doctrine of Correspondence andRepresentation: lastly, the Doctrine of Modification. From these doctrines l come ta the Rational Psychologyitself; which will comprise the subjects of action; of externaland internal sense; of imagination and memory; also, of theaffections of the animus. Of the intellect, that is, of thoughtand of the will; and of the affections of the rational mind:also, of instinct. Lastly, of the Soul; and of its state in the Body, its intercourse, affection, and immOltality; and of its state whcn thcbody dics. The worle to concJude with a Concordance of Systems. 15. From this summary or plan, thc reader may see, thatthe end l propose to myself in the work, is a knowledge of thesoul; since this lenowledge will constitute the crown of my stu dies. This then my labors intend, and thither they aim. Forthe soul resides and acts in the principles, not of the body only,but also of the universal world; inasmuch as it is the supreme essence, form, substance, and force of the microcosm; and appoints, establishes, and governs the arder thereof, of itself and byits own nature; consequently, it i8 in the spherc of truths. Forthese reasons, the soul has engaged the l)rofound atteution ofnearly all hurnan minds, ever since the infancy of philosophy;

PROLOGUE. 11and still holds them in suspense, division, and perplexity. Butas yet, her mode of being and her nature are almost absolutelyunknown j and such is the general state of doubt and hesitation,as to preclude aIl distinct thinking. This has given rise to somany obscure guesses on the subject,.-it has caused so manyclouds to coUect round it, that all hope of discovery is nearly atan end. In order, therefore, to follow up the investigatioll) andto solve the difficulty, l have chosen to approach by the analytieway j and l think l am the first who has taken this courseprofessedly. 16. To accomplish this grand end l enter the circus, designing to consider and examinc thoroughly thc wholc wodd ormicrocosm which the SOlÙ inhabits j for l tlrink it is in vain toseek her anywhere but in her own kingdom. Tcll me, whereelse can she be found, than in that system to which she is adjoined and injoined, and where she is represcnted, and momentarily exhibits heIself to contemplatioll? The body is her image,resemblance, and type j she is the model, the idea, the head,that is, the soul of the body. Thus she is rcpresented in thebody, as in a mirror, l am, therefore, resolved to examinecarefully the whole anatomy of her body, from the hecl to the head, and from part to part j and for the sake of a closer ap proach, to examine her very brain, whcre she has disposed herfirst organs j lastly, the fibres also, and the other purer organicforms, and the forces and modes thencc resulting. 17. But since it is impossible to climb or leap from the or ganic, physical, and material world-I mean, the body-imme diately to the soul, of which neither matter, nor any of the adjuncts of matter are predicable, (for spirit is above the com prehensible modes of nature, and in that rcgion where thc significations of physical things perish) j hence it was necessary to lay down new ways by which l might be led to her, and thus gain access to her palace,-in other words, to discover, dis cngage, and bring forth, by the most intense application and study, certain new doctrines for my guidance, which are (as my plan shews) the doctrines of forms, of order and degrees, of series and society, of communication and influx) of eorrespond ence and represcntation, and of modification j thesc it is my intention to present in a single volume, under the title of An Introduction to Rational PsycltolofJY

12 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 18. When this task is accomplished, l am then admitted asit were by common consent to the soul, who sitting like a queenin her throne of state-the body-dispenses laws, and governsaH things by her good pleasure, but yet by order and by truth.This will be the crown of my toils, when l shall have completed my course in_ this most spacious arena. But in oldentime, before any racer c01ùd merit the crown, he was commanded to run seven times round the goal, which also l havedetermined here to do. 19. Not very long sinee, l published the Economy of theAnimal Kingdom, a work divided into distinct treatises, buttreating only of the blood, the arteries, and the heart, and ofthe motion of the brain, and the cortical substance thereof j andbefore traversing the whole field in detail, l made a rapid passage to the soul, and put forth a prodromus respecting it. Buton considering the matter more deeply, l found that l had direeted my course thither both too hastily and too fast,-afterhaving explored the blood only and its peculiar organs: l tookthe step, impeHed by an ardent desire for knowledge. But asthe soul aets in the supreme and innermost things, and does notcome forth until aH her swathings have been successively unfolded, l am, therefore, determined to allow myself no respite,until l have run through the whole field to the very goal-untill have traversed the universal animal kingdom, to the sou!.Thus l hope, that by bending my course inwards continually, lshaH open aH the doors that lead to her, and at length contemplate the soul herself: by the divine permission. 20. But l know it will be whispered in my ear by many ofthe most accomplished philosophers of the day, that it is vainand useless to enter the recesses and interiors or"the humanbody, with a view to arriving at the soul, inasmuch as the verythings which are far below her, and objects of ocular vision, asthe organic parts of the body, their modes, sensations, and actions, are not only obscure to our sight, but are even fallacious unller close scrutiny and investigation. Moreover, the human intellect cannot penetrate or know itself even j how then shouldit penetrate the SOlÙ, which inhabits a still higher or superior region? for those things that are superior, inhabit a light inac cessible to the inferior j and if we rasMy approach it too nearly, designing to enter it, wc shall either cover ourselycs with shade,

PROLOGUE. 13as when the eye gazes on the sun, or perish outright, like agarment thrown into the flames of an altar. Add to this, thatthe idea that might apprehend the soul, and the speech thatmight express her, are both wanting; for nothing that is adequate to body and matter, is adequate to the sonI; she is neithercorporeal nor material; consequently, she is entirely abova thatspecies of intelligence which receives its notions by means of theforms, predicates, and adjuncts of matter-as is the case withthe human intellect; and expresses them by the same means-asis the case with human speech. Whenèe possibly it may beinferred, that it is unprofitable, and absolutely foolish, for anyone to attempt ascending thither. But these arguments mayproperly be met by a few opposite ones. Inasmuch as the sonIis the model, the idea, the first form, the substance, the force,and the principle of her organic body, and of ail its forces andpowers; or, what amounts to the same thing, as the- organicbody is the image and type of its sonI, formed and principled tothe whole nature of the souls efficiency, it follows, that the oneis represented in the other, if not exactly, yet quite sufficientlyto the life; and that an idea of the sonI is suggested to themind by elevating the forms of singulars, and extracting fromthem a higher meaning, and by analogies and eminences, as willbe seen in our doctrines of forms, of order and degrees, of correspondences and representations, &c. Thus, by the body, weare instructed respecting the sonI; by the sonI, respecting thebody; and by both, respecting the truth of the whole: and inthis way we are led to an ample knowledge of the animalkingdom. 21. l shall agai~ suppose an objection made, to the effect,that the huroan mind appears to be interdicted from prying intothose things which transcend or exceed the present state; conse quently, into the soul, which guards the threshold of a sacredtemple with three recesses; for the way to celestial, spiritual,and divine things, leads to the sonI, through the sonI, and fromthe sonI. The reason of the interdiction is, that ail those thingswhich transcend our present state, are matters for faith and notfor intellect: as for instance, that the sonI exists, that it is aspiritual essence, that it is intimately united to the body; thatit is affected by the rational mind according to the state andinflu.--;;: of the active principles thereof; that when freed from its

14- THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.chains, it will posscss immortal life, and either be happy in theassembly and kingdom of the blessed, or unhappy and accursedin a hellish and demoniac region; not to mention other thingsof similar import. The province of reason or intellect consistsexclusively in considering and inquiling what is reasonable,profitable, and bccoming in society, or in the civil and moralworld; and what lS proper to be done in the kingdoms below it,the animal, the vegetable, and the mineraI. Let the intellectbe contented with this its lot, and not aspire to higher things,which, inasmuch as they are sanctuaries and matters of revelation, exist to faith only. FUlthermorc, faith is banished as soonas ever the intellectual power endeavors to open the doors to itsmysteries; for the intellect most commonly abolishes aIl faith indivine things; and what is received by the intellect, i8 notreceived by faith, that is to say, not by such a faith as elevatesus above oursclves. And those who are inspired by a divinefaith, completely despisc the assistance of confirmatory arguments; perhaps they will laugh at this very book of mine,for where there is faith, what need is there of demonstration;as where there is sight, what need is there to talk of light.Thus faith is above aIl demonstration, because it is above aU thephilosophy of the human mind. 22. l grant this: nor would l persuade any one who comprehends these lùgh truths by faith, to attempt to comprehendthem by his intellect: let him abstain from my books. Whosobelieves reyelation implicitly, without consulting the intellect,is the happiest of mortals, the nearest to heaven, and at oncea native of both worlds. But these pages of mine are writtenwith a view to those only, who never belicvc any thing but whatthey can receivc with the intellect; conseqnently, who boldlyinvalidatc, and are fain to deny the existence of aH superemincnt things, sublimer than thcmselves, as the soul itself, andwhat foHows thcrcfrom-its life, immortality, heaven, &c., &c.These things, perhaps, since such persons do not pcrceive them,they reject, classing thcm among cmpty phrases, entia ratianis, phantasms, trifies, fables, conceits, and self-delusions; andconsequently they honor and worship nature, the world andthemselves j in other respects, they compare thcmselves tobrutes, and think that thcy shaH die in the same manner asbrutes, and their sonls exhale and cvaporate; thus thcy rush

PROLOGUE. 15feaTlessly into wickedncss. For these persons 0111y 1 amanxious; and as l said before, for them l indite, and to theml dedicate my work. For when l shaIl have demonstratedtruths themsclves by the analytic method!, l hope that thosedebasing shadows, or material clouds, which darken the sacredtemple of the mind, will be dispersed: and thus at last, underthe favor of God, who is the sun of wisdom, that an access willbe opened, and a way laid down, to faith. My ardent desireand zeal for thi.s end, is what UTges and animates me. 23. Let us then gird up OUT loins for the work. Experienceis at OUT side with a full horn of plenty. The nine virgins arepresent also, adorned with the riches of nearly two thousandyears: l mean, aIl the sciences, by whose abundance, powers,and patronage, the work is constructed. The sciences are inùe-terminatc and of no profit or advantage, unless they be appliedand mwc subservient to uses. Vhat is a knowledge of num-bers, ratios, figures, and forms, in arithmetic and gcomctry,apart from its benefits in civillife ? What are the philosophi.caisciences, with their preùicates, qualities, modes, and accidents,without they have refercnce to reality? AlI things, at thepresent day, stand provided and prcpared, and await the light.The ship is in the harbor; the saiis are swelling; the east wind biows j let us weigh anchor, and put forth to sea.

CHAPTER XVI. THE PERITON.iEUM. 308. HEISTER." The peritonœum is immediately subjacent andadherent to the transverse muscles of the abdomen. It is a thin,smooth, and lubricous membrane, investing the whole internaI surfaceof the abdomen, and most of the abdominal viscera, and eontainingthe latter as it wcre in a bag. It is also connected with the diaphragm,and with all the viseera of this region. It entirely encloses the stomach,intestines, mescntery, omentum, liver, spleen, and pancreas, which are,therefore, said to be lodged in a duplicature of thc peritonœum. Thekidneys, ureters, reccptaculum ehyli, and great vcssels of the abdomen,&c., are covered only on thcir Bl1terior part; and the bladder only onthe superior part; differently from what is thc case in brutes. Theperitonœum consists of two laminœ; the umbilical vesscls lie bctweenthem, and in many places they are eovcred Vith a cellular substance.It forms the ligaments of the liver, and of the umbilieal vein andarteries, the various ligaments of t.he intestines, the broad ligaments ofthe uterus, &e. It scnds two processes out of the abdomen, whiehenease the spermatie vesscls and the testiclcs. In regard to these weare tu observe, 1. Thcir sillgular passage between the muscles of theabdomen. 2. The hiatus visible in the abdomen of the dog, but wanting in the human subjeet. 3. The septum separating the testicles onthe upper part. Also the involucra of the round ligaments in females ;and their diveltieula. Nuek has delineated these in his Adeno,!}raphia;fig. 39, 40. The arteries and vcins of the pcritollœum eome from theepigastrie, mammary, lumbar and phrenic vessels; ta these some addIymphatics. The nerves come from the phrellie, dorsal, lumbar andsacral nerves. Some writers have alsa mentioned glands in the peritonreum, but they are not observable in the natural state of the mem- VOL. 1. CHAY. XVI. 1 1

482 THE ANIMAL KING DOM.brane. Uses,-l. 10 enclose the contents of the abdomen; for whenthe peritonœum is dilatcd unduly, wounded, or ruptured, they fall ontof thcir proper places, or hemia arises. 2. 10 give an external coat toalmost all the parts contained in the abdomen; whieh are thereforegenerally said to have their external membrane from the peritonreum.3. 10 form the processes of the peritonreum, and the tuniea vaginalis of the testes." (Comp. Anat., n. 206.) 309. WINSLOW." The xiphoid cartilage of the sternum, the car· tilaginous portions of the last pair of true ribs, those of the first four pairs of false ribs, all the fifth pair, the five lumbar vertebrœ, the ossa innominata and the sacrum, form the bony sides of the cavity of theabdomen. The ùiaphragm, the muscles of the abdomen in particular,the quadrati lumborum, psoas, iliaci, the muscles of the coccyx andrectum, form thc chief part of the circumference of this cavity, andits internaI surface is lineù by a membrane termeù the peritonœum.As aùùitional or accessory to these we may Iikewise add sorne portionsof the sacro-Iumbales, longissimi dorsi, vertebrales, glutœi, &e. Thecavity of the abdomen is of an irregularly oval shape, but still syrnmetrieal. (Exp. Anat., Tr. du Bas· Vent., n. 19,20, 21.) 310. "Having carefully removed the muscles of the abdomen, thefirst thillg we discover is a very considerable membranous covering,which adheres immediately to thc internaI surface of the transversemuscles, and of all the rcst of this cavity; and involves and invcstsits ·iscera as in a kind of bag. This membrane is termed peritonœum.It is of a pletty close texture, and yet flexible, and capable of verygreat extension, after whieh it easily regains its ordinary size; as wesec in pregnancy, dropsies, corpuleney and repletion. It seems to bemade up of two portions, one internaI, the other external, whieh havebeen looked upon by many anatomists as a duplicature of two distinctmembranous laminœ. But properly speaking thc internaI portion alonedeserves the name of a membranous lamina, as being the main body ofthe peritonœum. The external portion is no more than a kind offibrous or follieular apophysis of the internaI; and may properly cnoughbe termed the cellular substance of the peritonœum. The true membranous lamina, commonly ealleel the internaI lamina, is very smooth,and polished on that side whieh is turned to the eavity and viscera ofthe abùomen; and continually moistcned by a serous fluid dischargcdthrough almost impcrceptible porcs. These porcs may bc seen bysprcading a portion of the peritonœum on the end of the finger, andthen pulling it tight on all sides; for then the pores arc dilated, andsmall drops may be obscrved to mn from them, even without the microscope. The sources of this fluid are not as yet well understood ;

THE PERITONJEUM. 483perhaps it cornes out by a kind of transudation or transpiration, likethat which wc observe in animaIs .ncwly killed. The whitish corpus-cules found in diseased subjects are no proof of the glands which sorneanatomists place there in the natural state. The cellular substance orexternal portion çf the peritomeum adheres very closely to the partswhich form the inside of the abdominal cavity; and is not everywhereof equal thickness: in sorne places it is in very smaH quantity;· andscarcely any appears at the tendinous or aponeurotic portions of thetransverse muscles, and on the lower surface of the diaphragm. In aHother places it is thieker, and forms eells expandecl into fine laminœ orleaves, which in sorne cliseased subjects become so large and thick as toresemblc so many distinct membranes. In sorne places this substance iscxactly like membrana adiposa, being filled with fat; as round the kid-neys, and along the fleshy portions of the transverse muscles, towhich it adheres. It entirely surrounds sorne parts, as the bladder,ureters, kiclneys, spermatie yessels, &e.; in these places it is eom-monly but improperly termed, the duplicature of the peritonœum.Besides these differenccs in thickness, the cellular substance has severalelongations, whieh have been called, productions of the peritonœum.lwo of these accompany and invest the spermatie cords in males, andthe vaseular cords, commol1ly called the round ligaments, in females.Therc are other two which pass under the ligaments of Fallopius, thatis, the tendil10us ligaments of the abdominal muscles, Vith the cruralvessels, which they cover, aud they are gradually lost in their coursedownwards. To these four elongations of the cellular substance of theperitonœum, we may add a fifth, which is spread on the neck of thebladder; and perhaps a sixth, which accompanies the rectum. Allthese prolongations pass out of the abdominal cavity, and may betermed extcrnal, to distin~uish them from others that remain in theabdomen, and are called interna!. The great blood-vessels, that is,the !torta and vena cava, arc likewise enclosed in this cellular substanceof the peritonœum. lu a word, it involves, immediately and sepa-rately, aU the parts and organs which are commonly said to lie in theduplicature of the peritonœum. The true lamina or membranous por-tion of the peritonœum, is connected by the cellular substance to theinternaI surface of the abdominal cavity; but in the human subject, itcloes not naturally accompany the cxternal elongations of that substance;it ouly covers the origin or basis of these elongations, without any interruption or alteratioll of its own surface or level at these places. It hasl1evertheless elongations of its own, but they are very different from those of the cellular substance; fol they run from without inwards ;that is, they aclvance from the convex side of the great bag of the peri- TI2

M~4 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.tonœum, into the eavity of that bag; sorne more, sorne less, and alsoin different manners; as if the sides" of a large bladder Vere pushed inwards in various places into its cavity. Of these internaI elongationssome are simply folded, like a duplicature; others are expanded likeinverted bags or sacculi, to eontain sorne viseus; sorne begin by a simple duplicature, and end in a divarication or cavity, which likcwisecontains some organ: sorne are alternately extended in the form ofsimple duplicatures and of eavities; and lastly, sorne form only aslight eminence on the inner surface of the great cavity of the peritonœum. To the first species- of these elongations, we may llfer themembranous ligaments, such as those of the liver, colon, &c. W"esel the second species in the external membrane of the liver; the third,in the mesentery; the fourth, in the mesocolon; and the fifth, over thekidneys and nreters. Besides the extemal elongations of the cellularsubstance of the peritonœum, it has the same number of internaI elongations as the true membranous lamina, whieh lie between aH theduplieatures, and line the insides of ail the cavities, or the sides nextthe viscera. (Ibid., n. 22-38.) l must here observe that three of theumbilical ligaments are iuvested by a falciform membranous productionor duplieaturc, whieh thc peritonœum sends into the cavity of the abdomen." (Ibid., n. 42.) 311. VERHEYEN." The peritonreum is a thin, soft, and dilatable membrane. As cxtended naturally, its figure is oval, corresponding in length and breadth to the abdomen. It is double throughout,and manifestly so from the umbilicus to the os pubis, in females particnlarly, iu whom it is also thickcr than in males. Its external smfaceis somcwhat rough and fibrous, on account of its connexion with themnscles. The internai surface is smooth, and covered with an unctuoushumor. Anteriorly, it is connected to the muscles of the abdomen;superiorly, to the diaphragm; inferiorly, ta the os pubis and ischium ;laterally, to the os ileum; posteriorly, to the sacrum, and the lumbarvertcbrœ, particularly the first and third. Superiorly, where it is conneeted to the diaphragm, it is perforated by the gnllet, the vena cava,and the nerves of the par vagum. Inferiorly, by the rectum and thevagina; and at any rate one lamina of it by the urethra: anteriorly, inthe fœtus, by the umbilieal vessels; but as thcse yessds shrivel afterbirth, and beeome very mneh attenuated, and moreover as the peritonœum is closely eonnected to them, therefore this perforation i5 notIlotieeable in adults. But that the peritomenl11 is not so strong thereas in other parts, is lvident from the facility with which it is thererelax cd and perforated by the action of prete1l1atural forces, as by theair in tympanitis, by the serous f1uid. in ascites, &e. TIll extcrior

THE PERITONiEUM. 485 lamina, at its under part, sends down two proeesses in the male to the scrotum; thcsc contain the spermatic vessels; in the female they enclose the round ligaments of the uterus. . In the scrotum they dilate, and constitute the tunica vaginalis testis. These proeesses arise at the sides, and slant dowIlwards to the front.... In dogs they form simplemembranous tubes, opening each by a large aperture into the cavity of the abdomen. In the human subjeet we find no openings of the kind ;because the spermatie veins and arteries, from their origin, lie in aduplicatwe of the peritonreum, and the processes are made up of theexternal lamina only, the internaI lamina bcing placed ovcr their ori-fices, and being very thick and firm in this situation. JiIoreover, indogs, these proeesses are altogether free inside, so that when air isblown into them, it immediately passcs throllgh them. In the humallsubject they eontain a nllmbcr of membranous partitions, which conneetthe spermatie vessels to each other, alld to the sides of the proeesses ;so that searcely any eavity can be seen, sllfIicient to hold the air, unlessone be formed by the dilatation of the membranes, or .their preter-natural separation. In the vicinity of this part, dangcrous and oftenfatal herniœ occur; we mean at the place where the iliac veins andarteries pass to the thighs; for if the peritonreum be dilated, or whatis a very uncommon occurrence, ruptllred, a small portion of the ileumdescends, and becomes adherent to the neighboring parts; and by suehadhesion 1 have secn a small portion of the ileum entirely closed up, andthe patient miserably dying, having for many days previously had noalvine exeretions, but at last vomiting feculent matter from the mouth.1 find a case of this kind also recorded by Nuck. The peritonœumreceivcs arteries and veins superiorly from the marnmary and phrellievessels; inferiorly, from the epigastric and sacral vesscls; also, a fewlittle branchcs from the spermatie vessels; laterally, from the inter-costal and the lumbar vessels. Its llerves come from the lumbar andsacral portions of the spinal cord, and from thc intercostal and phrenienerves." (COlp. JIum. Anal., tract. ii., cap. vii.)

ANALYSIS. 312. THE animal body,which, according to a common modeof speaking, is also a kind of whole, a nniverse, microcosm orkingdorn, is most distinctly divided into integral parts, members, viscera or organs; these again into lesser organic parts;and these ultimately into least parts, simple parts, and unities (a).fhis whole with its members and parts, is divided as it wereinto regions, hollow chambers, and cavities. The cerebrum inhabits the highest chamber; the heart and Inngs inhabit therniddle chamber; the stomach, intestines, liver, &c., the lower,and the genital organs, the lowest charnber. Each charnber issurrounded by a common membrane; the highcst or cerebralcharnber, by two membranes or meninges; the middle or thoracic chamber, by the pleura; the lower or abdominal, by theperitomeum; the lowest or scrotal chamber, by its own peculiarsheath or ~apsule: all together are surrounded by one mostgeneral membrane; that is, by the skin. These common membranes or coverings are distinctly separated from each other, and (listinctly connected with each other, and communicate, inthe exact proportion in which the organs they enclose are digni fied in office and act in sqciety. Each of these four coverings also makes common, special, and particular cause, with the viscera and members which it folds in its ernbrace. But in orderto understand the manner whereby the Common or General acts (a) The lesser organic parts are the miliary glands, or least glandular acini, in which the viscera of the chest and abdomen for the wostpart terroinate internally. But the simple parts are the vascular andother similar threads of whiéh these glandular termini themselves areconstructed.

THE PERITONAlUM. 487 upon the parts of the whoIe, it is neeessary ta understand aisothe arder by whieh the Universal flows into them. }<irst of ail,however, the terms, urUversai and generaI, must be dcfined; foran obscure notion of the meaning of the term gcneral, and anindistinct notion of the meaning of the term universal, cntan-gles, involves and confuses the oue with the other; althoughthe human rational mind,-mistress of philosophy,-is perfeetlyacquainted with bath then: essences, and when left ta herselfand to her own powers, we being uneonseious the while, inordinary speech and expression, she very rarely substitutes thcone for the other (b). 313. A UNIYERSAL is that whieh cxiste and aets univcrsaUyin the whoIc, and in aU parts of the wItole. Or to makc thismore apprchensibIe, instcad of the whole, let us assume somelimitcd universe or kingdom, or sorne partieular body (c), as for (0) That the human rational mind is in its own nature when engaged in ratiocination or philosophy, is very evident from the circumstance, that an philosophical science is derivcd flom it, as from its ploper fountain: fol to construet a philosophy is nothing mOle than to give the best attention to the operations of ones own mind, and from its modi ope7andi to draw forth that which wc are to bring into our code, in the form of precepts, laws, and axioms: thus wc learn this high science from our very selves. This affords a plain proof that something fiows in from above into the thoughts of the rational mind,and gives it the faculty of distributing thc objects of the memory intotrue analytic orders, and of digesting the things belolV it into rationalquantities. A proof also that there is something below the rationalmind, which Hows in with objects, as instruments and materials forconstructing similar analytic edifices: which facnlty thus cndeavors tobe instructed by its superior faculty, by means of a kind of store drawnforth by it, and disposed into the form of science. But on these sub-jects we must refer the reader to our Psyehology. (c) This rule has a most extensive range of applications: it appliesnot only to the whole circumambient VorId, whieh wc tenu propcrlythe universe, and to our organic animal body, which may also be tcrmeda universe, world, or microcosm, or even a kingdoll1; but also to an em-pires and forms of government; to paltieular societies; to cvcry imli-vidual man; to ail his actions, sensations, laws, sciences, arts, and crenspeeches and conversations: in a worù, to cverything which is a subjcet

488 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.instance, the human animal body. Here, thè Universal Essenceis that which is universally present, potent, active, consciousand provident, in the whole body, and in ail its members, viscera, or organs (d), and in their lesser organic parts, and lastly,in the least or simplest particles of these parts. Thus a universaI is recognized by its presence, potency, activity, consciousness, and providence (e). In the hmnan microcosm, the sou! is such a universal; the simplest fibre being the universal radius ofits determinations (f). 314. Every whole, whether it be a universe, a microcosm, a kingdom, or a body, &c., has its proper superior universal, inferior universal, and ultimate or lowest universal (g). That which is superior, is also prior, interior, simpler, and moreat aIl, or has in it a form that derives its essence, nature, and qnalityfrom the order according to which nniversals flow in, and from the manner according to which the general circnmscribes the series. For thepresent we had better confine ourselves to the subject before us, to wit,the human organic body; we thereforc use terms adapted thereto; butwhich must be immediately transmuted into other tcrms when theseuniversal rulcs are applied to other subjects. (d) Mcmbers, viscera, and organs are here !l.ssumcd as synonyms;although, properly speaking, they mean distinct things. (e) By providence we here mean that circumspection and prudencewhereby we contrive and provide for ourselves in the present and forthe future. In the very operation of the rational mind we have sufficientl) plain proofs of this kind of providence. (f) On these subjects we refer the reader ta the Part on the Cortical Substance and Medullary Fibre of the Cerebrum; and to the Parton the Soul. (g) Where the degrees of universality are still more numerous, theymay perhaps be subdivided differently; namely, into a supreme, a superior, an inferior, a sub-inferior, and an ultimate universal. In thehuman animal body thcre is a universal to which we ought to assign astill lower placc than the third; we mean the motive muscular fibre,which is constructed by the blood-vessels; but at present we are Ullwilling to e~.tend our exposition of universals ta this point; for the firstrudiments of the doctrine are aIl that can properly be given here, whereour purpose is limited to explailling clearly what is meant by the termgeneral, as preparatory to shewing what uses the peritonreum affords asa general membrane.

THE PERITONiEUiI. 489perfect j in other words, more present, more potent, more active,more intelligent, and more provident. The inferior universalderives its essence and its possibilities from the superior j consequently depends upon it, in the same way as an agent dependsupon its power, or a cause, upon its principle. If the superioruniversal in the human body, is the simplest fibrc, which isacted upon by the soul immcdiately Ch), then the proximatelyinferior umversal is the fibre immediately derived from this,the nervous fibre of the body,-which is acted upon by theanimal spirit (i), and the remotely inferior universal, or thelowest of the three, is the artery and vein, which are acted uponby the blood. In the human body, these are the three umversaIs, which derive, produce, form and generate ail things. 315. In the living body, the derivation, production andgeneration of the inferior and ultimate univcrsal cssenccs fromthe supcrior or supremc, are as follows :-flom the supreme universaI is derived a proximately inferior univer:sal (k) j by this (h) This will be shewn in the Part on the Fibre and on the Sou!. (l) In the same Part we shall have to explain what the nervousfibre is in its primary fonn, that is, in its principlcs; taking for ourguides microscopic obscrvations, and the cxpericnce of cffccts anù phenomena. (k) To wit, the nervous fibre in its simple form, which resemblesthe purest vcssel, and conveys what are t€rmed the animal spirits.This fibre mIes univcrsally in the body, and indeed, more universallythan the blood-vessel; for the nenous fibre absolutely enters, fonns,constitutes, and aetuates the blood-vessel; as may be seen from thenumberless nervous fibrcs which accompany the vcssels, particularlythe artcries, constantly ùip into their membranes, and cven constructtheir very canals. Yct still the nervous fibre rules less universally thanthe simplest or first fibre of all, which latter produces the nervous fibreas the executrix of its commanùs: for whatever the nervous fibre, regarded in its primary form, posscsses, it derives from a prior fibre,the first of the body,-which we have termed above, the universalradius of the souls dcterminations. The nervous fibre cannot be fromitself, nor jet exist immecliately in a pervious state: the little membrane with which it is surroundcd must inevitably be derived from a fibre prim to itsclf. Wc are obliged to use the tcrm delived, because no other expresses our meaning, or squares in all respects with the

490 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.means, a kind of new principle is formed, which may be termedthe corporeal and material principle (l), from which a still inferior or ultimate universal is produced (m) : by this means againthe whole body, with its members, and their parts, is formed (n).mode of formation of this fibre, which mode is a sort of modificationof the primitive force. (l) Respecting this new principle, or respecting the origin of thenew fibre whieh must be termed the corporeal fibre, wc sha11 speak inthe Part on the Organs of the Senses, (when we come to treat of theskin, or of the sensorium of touch,) and also in the Part on the Fibres.The corporeal fibres are what grow or proceed from the most minuteglandular forms almost resembling in appearance the cortical glands ofthe cerebrum, in the extremes of the body particularly; that is, in theskin, and in othcr parts also; and which are so very numerous anclsma11, that they resemble true nervous fibres or capillary vessc]s. Thesernost subtly organic forms, constructed by the nervous fibri11œ in thecxtreme goals of the kingdom of the body, are as it were rea11y newprineiples formed in the body, and produce little emissary ducts asfibres, which latter therefore ought to be termed corporeal and materialfibres. These glands in the ultimates of the kingdom correspond tothe cortical glands of the cerebrum and cerebeHurn. But we shaH treatof them more at length in the Part before mentioned. (m) To wit, the blood-vessel. It will be proved in the sequel, thatthe first or innermost membrane of the arterics is composed entirely ofthese corporeal fibres; for the innermost coat of the artery is what istermed the nervous coat, next to which is the muscular coat. But thatwhieh is the innermost is also the first, and always derives its originfrom the fibres formed by the before-mentioncd purest glandular formsof the body. This will be proved both from the experience of microseopists, and by phenomena and effects when unfolded to their firstcauses; also by comparative, and finaHy by rational, anatomy. (n) That the organic body, with aH its members and parts, is wovenand constructcd by the blood-vessels and their rarnifications,-this is apoint established beyond a11 question; inasmuch as myriads of vesselsare seen under the microscope in spaces only a few Enes in iliameter,and may be even injected, particularly by the Ruysehian mcthod. Theproximate formation of the body, then, must be ascribed to thc bloodvessels. But the blood-vessel itself dcrives this power and dctcrmination from the nervous fibre, which enters into the composition of the blood-vesscl; and this fibre obtains its power and deterrnination from thc simplest fibre, from which a1so it isdclivcd. Or if we substitute

THE PERITON iEUiI. 491When this gyre and course of formation are accomplishcd, thenthe ultimate universal passes to the supreme univrrsal, and entersinto absolute and intimate union with it (0); anù thus the inferior universal proceeds from both Cp). 316. A GENERAL is the summary and complex of parts andsingulars; as a number is the complex of several unities, andan equation, of several analytic ratios. N ow in order that singulars may be kept in mutuai association in their complex, it isnecessary that they have a common bond or tie; and in theliving body, the coats, membranes and coverings constitute suchbonds. Inasmuch as this bond represents a common or generalcause, we, therefore, in the present case, term it a general, anùcontrast it with a universal; in which sense, a general is whatthe blood, the animal spirit, and the soul, in the place of the fibres, itwill amount to the same thing; for the fibre is the instrumental actingcause, and the blood, &c., the principal acting cause, and each tworespectively, in the most harmonious manner, make one unanimouscause. This formation respects not only the organic form of the body,but also whatever gives it the power of acting according to this itsform. (0) In the Part on the Cerebrum and the Cortical Substance, it willbe demonstrated in the plainest manner, that the innermost membraneof the artery, (whieh,as we said abovc, is generated by the corporealfibres,) in the cerebrum, unites with, and absolutdy insinuatcs itselfand plunges into, the cortical glands, which arc the principles or beginnings of the simplest or superior universai fibres, and the parts fromwhich the proximate or nervous, that is, the inferior universal fibrcs,are put forth: so that this uitimate or lowest universal fibre-the arterial vessel-passes at last to the first of all the fibres, and enters intothe closest union with it. Hence there is a perpetuaI cirde from theIast things to the first, and from the first to the last, and everythingthroughout is held in perpetuaI connexion,-so long as it is not detachedor separated, but forms a part within this gyre. (P) For if the last fibre-the fibre of the third arder-unites withthe first, and this, in the very beginnings or prineiples of the fibres,that is to say, in the cortical glands, from which the nervous fibre-theinferior universal fibre-or the animal spirit, is produceù, then the consequence is, that this nervous fibre proceeds from both. That such isreally the case, will be proved to even sensible ùemonstration in thewhole progress of our analyses.

492 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.contains and distinguishes a universe, its integers, and singulars (q): or speaking more definitel), and substituting thebody and its members for a universe, integers, and singulars,a general is that which embraces, demarcates, limits aud connects (r) the body, any region thereof, any members of thisregion, or any parts of these members. A general, therefore,is recognized from its being the complex, limit and nexus ofthose things which are associated. 317. The Universal gives the essence, and determines it; theCommon Bond defines and bonnds it. Thus from both togethcrexists the finite and limited entity termed a substance, whichsubsists by itself distinct from other things, and is the suhjcct ofaccidents; quality being predieated of its form, and nature, ofits power and activity. 318. There are, then, as many general limitations andboundings, as there are essential parts, or determinations ofessentials (s). The most general is that which involves and COID (q) These are mere indeterminates-general, universal, integers,singulars; but this definition, educed, according to the analytic method,from determinate and finite things, is here prefixed solely for the sakeof order and inteUigibility. . (1) That which circumscribes the aggregates of things, not onlycontains and embraces them, but also divides, demarcates, and distinguishes them from contiguous things, as weU as limits them withrespect to shape, and connects them. For if every quantity he similarlycircumscribed and distinguished, that is to say, the lesser quantitieswhich constitute the larger, they must of course be connected with thelarger, and this cannot be accomplished excepting by prolongationsfrom the most general covering. This is the case not only with theviscera of the body, but also with the muscles, with aU the motivefibres, and even with the nervous fibres, the common fasciculus whereofis covered with a membrane which in like manner detaches or gives offfilaments and little membranes, that connect the lesser fascieuli, andeven the very fibres, with the entire nerve. It may therefore be regarded as a law, and it is particularly manifest in the brail1. (s) The fibres are determinant of the above-mcntioned triple order.For the soul, the animal spirit, and the blood, are the veriest essencesof the body, and by means of the fibres and vessels de termine aUthiugs. The coats of the latter are thc instrumental causes, which

THE PERITONJEUM. 493prehends thc lholc j thc Jcss gcneraJ is thnt which comprchendsa part thercof j and so on. If we appJy thcsc limitations andboundings to the coverings of the body, then the skin, whichsurrounds and encloses the whole body, is the most gencral: themcninges of the brain, the pleura of the chest, the peritonreumof the abdomcn, and the skin and dartos of the scrotum, arethe less gcneral: the stillless gcneral are the integuments of therespective viscera, Olgans or membels: the still Jess general arethe tunics of theil organic parts: and the least general are thelittle membranes of the singuJals of the parts. Rencc it appears, that in this sensc a gencral is morc univcrsal in proportion as it is less gcncral, bccausc in this proportion it is moresimpIc, more internaI, and nearcr to aU the esscntials of itsbody (t). 319. The gencral coverings, which are many in the bodywhieh is one, communicate with cach other exactly in proportion as the visccra or organs cnclosed by thcm aet in society: orinversc1y, the mcmhers of one rcgion communicate with themembers of anothcr hy means of thcil coverings, cxactly in proportion to the gcncral or universal charactcr of theil object.lhus thc cercbrum, by its fibrcs and by its vessels, by mcans ofunited with the principal causes make one cause. The viseera, organs,members, glands, and muscles, from their greatest mass to their leastparts, are the dctcrminations of thcse essentials. The detenninationitsclf proeeeds from the nature of the soul,-the ens unùJelsale of thebody. But what the determinations arc, it is the province of anatomyand physiology to teach us. (t) Universality may be predicated of ail things which increase anddccrcase in order, and by degrecs; consequently of the membranes orcoverings. Ail the membranes, whether they contain fluid or continuous matters, are instrumcntal causes, and make one cause with theirprincipals. Thc coats of the vesscls, as we bcfore indicated, are theinstrumcntal causes of the fluids permeating them and acting as principal causcs. So also the coats of the viseera and organs are instrumcntal muscs, respcctively to the agents which they surround andcnclosc, whcthcr thcsc agents be fibres or vessels, or eongcrics of sueh ;consequently the coats come undcr the notion of univcrsality, in asimilar manner.

494 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.the meninges (u), communicates with an the members, boththoraeic, abdominal, and genital. The heart, by its blood, bymeans of the arterial vessels; and the lungs, by their motion,by means of the vertebrre, the ribs, the muscles, the œsophagus,the diaphragm, and the pleura, communicate with both thecranial, the abdominal, and the genital members. The stomach,the intestines, the liver, and the other viscera under the septum,by their chyle, and their blood that is to be, by means of thevenous vessels, the thoracic duct, the diaphragm, and the peritonreum, communicate with the members above and below them. 320. The common covering produces itself in order, intoail its viscera, and from the viscera into all their parts, andparts of parts, ail the way to the very innermost; with a viewto keeping them an in connexion; to giving all things distinctlimits; to properly distributing among all, the powers and actions of their supcriors, according to the nature of their functions; and to reducing the forces and motions of an to oneconstant standard; and thus repressing impetuosity, quellingdisturbances, and like a balance, equalizing· the vibrations ofthe scales. Therefore the peritonreum produces itself, or putsforth from itself frrena and ligaments, whereby it binds down,coerces and suspenùs the viscera of this region: from these itproceeds further, and by capsules, penetrates to the i11ner most and deepest things (x), and by similar chains and bits, (u) The prineiples or beginnings of the nerves,-the primitive faseieuli of the fibres of the eerebrum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata, andmeduIla spinalis,-are eovered by the pia mater, at the first thresholdof their departure from their natal soil. These fascieuli, again unitedor eompacted into a nerve, arc eovered by the dura mater on the secondthreshold, that is, when they reaeh the cranium or the vertebrœ; andthus they proceed into the kingdom of the body. (See Baglivi, Specimen quatuor Librorum de Pibra Motrice.) But they unfold and evo!vethese eoats, in an order eorresponding to the explication and evolutionof the fibres. The venous ehannels also-the jugulaI veins of the eerebrum and eerebellum-likewise borraw and bring with them their coatsfrom the dura and pia mater. The respective parts which the fibres andblood-vessels of the two brains play in the body, will be shewn in the]lrOper places. (x) That the peritonœum passes aIl the WlY to the minutest glands

THE PEJUTONiRUM. 4·95curbs the very parts or unities of the viseera,-for examp1e,of the liver and spleen,-and subjeets and devotes them to itsown general goverument, and to the government of the whole. 321. lhe members of the abdomen are kept bound andgUalded by the general bond of the peritomcum, and by the stillmore general bond of the diaphragm, closely and thoroughly,in proportion to theu priority of place, as determined by theirdignity of office, and to theu uscfulncss in the kingdom; andthis, according to the cause Wh1Ch thcy, undertake in theunanimous society. On this aecount, the stomaeh (y), the or glandular vesicles of the liver, by means of the capsule whieh proeeeds from tbe very ligaments put forth by the peritonreum and the diaph ragm, sec the Chapter on the Liver, n. 207 (0), anù n. 209. That it passes likewise to the glandular vesieles of the spleen, sec n. 212; and tothose of the suprarenal glands, sec n. 275 (8) and (u). That the peritonœum passes in a diffcrcnt way into every different member enclosedin the eavity of the abdomen, and wherefore, will be shewn prcsently. (y) Among thc visccra of the abdomcn, the STOMACH plays theprincipal part, and indeed is the principal; for it is a kind of wheel oraxis to the whole machine, and al! the othcr viseera, (whieh are eithereontinuous with it, as the intestines, mescntery and omentum, or whiehstand around it,) arc its 1055er wheels and pulleys. The offices of ailthe memhers of this regioll commence from, anù rcvolve round, thiswhecl or axis: whieh is the reason that the stomaeh is more immediately exeited and disposed by, and dependent upon, not only the 1eritonreum, but also the sllpcrior chamber eontaining the lungs, and thesupreme ehamber containing the brain: primàrily, by the immediateimmersion of the œsophagus in thc universal gorge and eavity of thestomaeh; for whatevcr the œsophagus, in its passage through thethorax, ùcrivcs from the pleura, from the mcdiastinum, and, in fine,from the diaphm.gm, it eommunieates unreservedly to the entire stomach. Aeeording to n. 82 (in the Chapter on the Œso1hagus), thattube "hrings togcther and unites the lowest things and the highest; itconneets ail things bclonging to the tOllgue and the palate, to themOllth and the lips; eonsequently to the temples, the eheeks and thefOlehead; also to the nares and the emnium, and thercby to the eerebrum; in a word, to the head ; as wel! as ail things helonging to theehest-in short, aU things abole the dia1hragm-with ail things belonging to thc abdomen, or with ail beneath the diaphragm; in larticulaI, with the stomach, by means of its coats, extcrnal and internaI;

496 THE ANIMAL KING DOM.liver (z), and the renal capsules (a), are eonneeted to both bondsin the closest manner j but the pancreas, the spleen and theand by means of its passage down the mediastinum and through thediaphragm.... And as it connects the substances of parts, so itconnects their particular and general forces." And according ta n. 83,"Thc œsophagus also puts forth certain motions, which pass uninterruptedly through the stomach, and ultimately through aIl the viscerasubjacent and appended to it; in a word, it constantly impresses, notthe cardiac, but the altemate respiratory motions of the lungs," &c.The stomach derives its most external coat from the peritonœum, as aresult of its connexion with the diaphragm; respecting which, Winslowsays, "The first or external coat [of the stomachJ is simply membranous, being one of the internaI prolongations or continuations of thcperitonœum. This appears evidently at the coimexion of the superiororifice with the diaphragm, where the external coat of the stomach isreally continuous with the membrane that lines the inferior surface ·ofthe diaphragm" (n. 88). In order that there may be no interruptionof continuity between the superior chamber, the peritonœum, and thestomach, there also mns forward a ligament close undcr this very membrane, along both the small and great cnrvatures, which ligamentcommunicates, repeatedly and throughout, with aIl the muscular fibres,and thus with the interior coats. Respecting this ligament, and itsconnexion with the common coat, see Winslow above, n. 88. Alongtlûs same ligament, from the insertion of the œsophagus on the furtherside of the diaphragm, pour in and extend the grand nerves of the cerebcllum-the sympathctic nerves-that is to say, thc par vagum, withthe fibres of the intercostal nerve; by which means, the stomach ismade to act completely under the command and at the beck of thelungs, the head, and the cercbellum: besides which, the general motion of the lungs, (by means of the diaphragm,) during every act of therespiration, communicates itself to, and associates itself with, the similar general motion of the stomach. The stomach, as we before remarked, like a great wheel sets in motion the lesscr wheels of theabdomen, and performs almost the same office internally, in the middleof the abdominal cavity, as the peritonœum performs externally, or atthe sides thereof: and by the meeting of the two, the othcr viscera, asintermediates, are kept steadily i.:J. their statcd motions and forces. Inorder to strengthen this association, the stomach has the omentumbound down and connccted to it, and closely inserted along its greatcurvature; and by this means it has aIl the abdominal viscera thatassist it in its functions, attached ta it, and tied up with if For one

.rnE PEIUTON1IW,1. 497omentum, not 80 closely (b): most closely also, the receptuculumchyli, the ihoraclc duet, the aorta and the vena cava, the emul-border of the omentum is connected to the great curvature of the sto-mach; the other, to the great curvature and convexity of thc colon;and the commissure of the two is fixed on the right side to the commonligamcnt of the duodenum and colon, and to the neighboring parts ofthese intestines; on the left side, to the longitudinal fissure of thespleen, to the extremity of the pancreas, and to the convexity of thegreat curvature of the stomach. The omentum is connected also to thememLranous ligament wh1ch supports the ductus cholidochus, and bythe loblllus Spigc1ii it is continued to the trunk of thc vena portœ. SeeVil1s10w abovc, on the omentum, n. 252. To say nothing of the in-testines, (which are continuons with the stomach,) in that they arc con-ncctcd in all110st theirwholc cxtcnt to thc peritonœul1l, and cxternallyto the stomach aIso, by the omentum, as we said above. (z) The liver cornes next to the stomach, in the dignity, neeessity,and useflllncss of its office; for the liver 1S the end and complemcnt oft.he works of all the abdominal viscera, as the stomach is the beginning.All the chyle that is forwarded by the stomach and intestines into theinferior eava, as well as all the venous blood which irrigates this region,is collccted in the channels and streams that discharge themselvcs intothe vena portœ. Thus the liver together with the mesentery, hasequally as extensive and important dutics as the stomach together withthe intestines. The liver conveys its chyle into the iuferior vena cava;the mesentery conveys its chyle into the superior vena cava. Thus theliver and the mesentery have this province divided between them: forwhich reason not only the live 1, but also the mesentery and the recep-taculum chyli, are so closely connccted, both to the peritonœum, and,by meaus of thc diaphragm, to the superior ehamber: thus the liver isaLsolutely subject. to the motions of both, or, if you will allow the me-taphor, it lies bound, like a janitor at agate, with the bits and chainsof both the thora.x and abdomen. "The convexity of the liver," saysWinslow, "is connected to the diaphragm by tnree ligamcnts, whichare only continuations of the membranous lamina of the peritonœum.. . . The right ligament sometimes connects the great lobe to the carti-lages of the false ribs; and the left ligament, or that of the small lobe,is often double, and advances towards the middle liga,ment. The middleligament begins bclow, in the great fissure of the liver, near the emi-nenees called portœ.... It is fixed all along the upper and inner partof the sheath of the right rectus abdominis muscle, in an oblique VOL. I. CRAP. XVI. K K

498 TUE ANIMAL KING DOM.gent and spcrmatic vesscls (c). From this common obligation 01IJoad} that is to say, From thc ligamcnts put Forth by thc perimanner. The liver is likewise connccted to the <liaphragm, not byligament, but by a broad and immediate adhesion, without the intervention of the peritonreum, which is only folded round this adhesion, toform the external membrane of the body of the liver" (n. 194). Henecit appears, that the liver is so tied up to, and suspended by, the peritonreum and the diaphragm, that it can scarcely open 01 raise itsclf atall, exeept aeeording to the breath and respiration of both thesc parts;and thus, should it happen to he earried away by any irregular motion,shonld any rush of hostile blood take place iuto its chambers, then, bymeans of these bonds, the attack would be cheeked at the first onset,and ledueed to the natural staudard of the pulmonic motion; under theauspices of whieh all things proceed aeeording to the tenor of nature.Moreoyer, the common or extemal membrane of the liver, which is acontinuation or appendage of the peritonreum, is propagated iu thefarm of capsules, and penetrates to the minutest vesicles 01 glands, andcovers and completes these likewise, as wc shewed in the Chapter onthe Liver. (a) The renal capsule8, like the lier, were among the few membersthat had a kind of command and leadership, and administered a partof the government of the kingdom, in the primeval, natural, or uterinestate; eonsequently they must be numbered with those organs, whiehif they do not now excel in dignity of office, yet once did excel : andthis is the reaSOIl why they likewise are bound with both bonds,-vitha common bond derived from the peritonreum, and with a still morecommon bond derived from the diaphragm. They are in faet so eloselyconneeted to the peritonreum that lines the inferior iurface of the diaphragm, that they may easily be overlooked by enquirers, accordillg tothe aecount of Eustachius. See above, n. 270. (h) The case is otherwise with the 8pleen, pancrea8 and O1nentU11l,not one of which, so far as l am aware, is immediately eonnected tothe peritonreum, still less subneeted to the diaphragm; but only meclio.tely, by ligaments, to the intestines, and by the omentum; whereforethese must be counted as members of inferior rank and clignity, andwhieh merely assist and subserve the stomaeh, intestines, and liver.lhat this is their character, is suffieiently evident from the faet thatthey may be exeised, and the proeesses of chylification and sanguifieation go on in their own way notwithstancling. With respect to thespleen, it has been extirpated in lIumberless cases. Vith respect to

THE PERIlONJ]WM. l·!)Utowcum and the diaphragm, we lllay inf(;l and nnderstalld, whatauthority e~èCh organ possesses as a mernber in the empire;and from the influx of blood thlough the vesse}s, wc may inferwhat the same organ administers, and what dignity and purpleit wears. The organic parts likewise, as the glands" and otllersimilar minute structures in the remote recesses of the severalviscera, communicate by capsules, vessels, and nerves, with thecommon integument, and thcreby with the peritomeum and thediaphragm,-cach according to the dignity of its cause andoffice. 322. In proportion as any of the members of the abdomenare 1008e in their attachments, or more slightly hcld, confinedand bridled by the genelal bond of the peritonœum, in thesame proportion they are more apt and frequent to rush intopreternatural modes and motions, and they are more difficult tothe pancreas, sce Mangetus, Theatr. Anat:, cap. De Pancleate. Withrespect to the omentum, and the result which followed when Galen removed it from a gladiator, see n. 255. (c) Respecting the use and neccssity, and consequent dignity ofoffice, of the leceptaculum chyli and thoracic duct, see Chapters VI.and VII. The receptaculum, therefore, is almost doubly connected totheperitonœum, and planted close to the extremity of the diaphragm.The thoracic duct, as it rises along the vertebral column toward thesubclavian vein, is covered by the pleura: so that both thcse parts areabsolutely in the common bond. The same may be said of the yreata/·tery, and vena cava; the inferior prolongations of which-the iliae orcrural vessels-are likewise covered by the peritonœllm. Sec Winslow,n. 310; and Verheyen, n. 311. The s]Jel1natic l)essels, (whieh supplythe testicles, the ovaries, and the members allotted to generation, andwhich have one entire province of offices,) in their deseent, are enlirelycovercd and defended by a duplicature proeeeding from the peritomcum. "The cellular substance," says Winslow, "has seYClal clongations,which have been called, productions of the peritonœum. Two of theseaccompany and invest the spermatie cords in males .... There areother two which pass .... with the crural vessels, which they cover" (n.31O). "The exterior lamina," says Verheyen, "at its under part,sends down two processes in the male to the scrotum; these containthe spermatie vessels; in the female they enclose the round ligamentsof the uterus. In the scrotum they dilate, and constitutc the tuniea vaginalis testis" (n.311). KK2

500 THE ANIMAL KINGDO~[recal ta the standard Of nature (d). We see this plainly fromthe case of all those members and organs, the ligaments of (d) This is a second and subordinate reason why sorne of the abdominal viscera are guarded and covered more carefully than, and in aùiffcreqt manner to, others, by a continuous production of the peritonœum. For the viscera of the boùy, without exception, besides havingnatural vicissitudes of motion, that is, general alternations of constric-tion and expansion, are also subjeet to extraordinary motions. This is the case with the œsophagus, every time it performs deglutition: withthe lungs, in coughing, expectoration, sneezing, yawning, and similar actions: with the stomach anù intestines frequently, not only whenthey and their folds roll back and return the ingesta, but also whenthey are irritatcd by meùicaments, anù food containing sharp particles.The liver also, as it woulù seem, rises very easily into preternatural motions, and loses its normal shape; that is to say, whenever serous, coagulatcd, and grumous blooù, or not sufficiently digcsteù chyle, is carried into it, perhaps from inactivity of the spleen. So likcwise the other viscera. So also the muscles, nearly ail the voluntary motions of which are beside or beyond the orùer of nature, whose motions are most constant, and conspire to the conservation of the state of ail things. In orùer, then, that thcsc preternatural or cxtraorùinary mo tions may not pcrvert the states of the viscera, it is the business and office of the peritonœum, as a common bond, to reducc them perpe tually to the constant natural motions, that is, to those single gcneral motions, under the auspices of which ail things are performed properly. In furtheranee of this secondary end, the viscera which are subjeet or obnoxious to many irregularities of motion,-for instance, the stomach and intestines,-are bound together more tightly by the common bond of the pelitonœum: the duodenum also, and the colon, are conneeted to it, and also to the other members, in very many places and very closely; in order that if they are carried away by any violence, they may bc whirled back instantaneously, by a number of powers and forces, to the constancy of nature. For the same end also, the mesen tery is wlJOlly surrounded and covered by an expansion of the perito nœum; and this, because it is attached to ail the intestines,-parts casilY excited to unruly motions, (particularly the ileum, which being under very little restraint, is apt to change its stated motion, and to vary its serpentine inflexions, obediently to every animus and motion of the cerebrum): wherefore the entire mcsentery lies in the embrace of the peritonœum, that being thus tendered perfectly safe from aB attacks, it may f10w back, by an inevitable determination, into the common stream

THE PERITON.iEUlII. 501which, either by nature, age, disease, or accident, have becomeover extended, flaccid, passive, or atonie j or over expanded,inflamed, indurated, inflexible, unyielding, or indolent j or obstructed by callous, tendinous, or cartilaginous matter j or lastly,wasted, or ruptured. Equally so if any of these changes befalthe little members or parts of any of the viseera. In proportionthen as any part is loose from, and! unconfined by, its generalin proportion as its natural tendency ta action is impeded; or asit is too little or too much attached to the covering of its particlùar viscus, and this covering to the peritonœum, and this againto the viscera of the pleura or of the thorax, and these to theircerebra,-in the same proportion its importance is diminished inits society, republic, or kingdom, that is to say, in the unanimous living body. But those parts that are more or lessdetached-to prevent them from weakening the adjoining parts-are recalled to the general, by the three universal essenceswhieh hold the rod of empire, by all sorts of difIelent methods and devices,-sometimes by the imposition of bonds,nooses and fetters (e). But if the attempt to effect this prove of nature. For the same reason, again, the kidneys, the ureters, and the bladder are more or less covered by the pcritonœulll; landy, that whenever they are forced into ulnatural states, they may instantly, as by the pressure of a spring, be restored and glide baek ta the natural state. Hence, lastly, the spleen is restrained with ùiffieulty, becauseit is not devoted to the pcritonreum immediately, or by any proper ligament. (e) It is perpetually observable in the animal kingdom, that naturehas infinite ways of repairing disasters, and for t~is pmpose is alwaystakiug the field with new and most ingenious methods and eontrivanccs.Sometimcs shc inscrts glandulal eongerics in the injured part, andplants in it corpuscules and tubereles of the same nature as itselt:either hard or soft,-raising them from a plane surface. Sometimcs sheinseminates muscular fibres, and czrries them round by varions paths,and compensates the defect in some measure liy means of number.Sometimes she expands the minute lateral ducts of the blood-vessclsinto considerable vessels, and carries streams of blood thlough thcm,and from these vessels again educes other lateral dncts in immenseabundance, wherewith she builds membranes, amI lays up her ncworgan within them; this being the origin of steotomata, supernu

502 TUE ANIMAL KINGDOM.abortive, it is thcn aU over with such parts, and they are cut offfrom communion with the lest, and thrown out of the system.Hencc it may bc seen, that there is the same state, arder andform of govemment in the body, as in a kingdom. 323. AU these considerations shew, that the pcritonreum isthe instrument of union of the members of its society, or thecommon external bond of the "iscera of the abdomen; andthe stomach, the similar, but common internaI bond of the samevisccra; and that these two respect each other mutuaUy, like thecircumference and axis of a whccl (1). They further shew, thatthe peritonreum is also the common but internaI bond of themuscles, cartilages, and bones of this region. And in arder toconstitute it such a bond, it requires to be bound down and connectcd ta cach member, muscle and part, with express referenceto its situation, forces and motion. 324. But as the peritonœum is the [immediateJ bond of (hemembers of this region, and the proximate and proper generalcentre of motion of its little wheels and levers, so it 1S the proximatcly rcmote or mcdiate gencral bond between its mcmbers and the members of the superior or thoracic rcgion; and themerary spleens, pancreases, renal capsules, &c., strumous corpuscules,&c. nut who can enumerate the methods which thc ltni"crsal essenceof the body, that is to say, which the soul brings forth,.-not from anyfaculty either produced or instructed by way of thc scnses, but fromnature, the mistress of ail arts and sciences, and the )Irinciple of ailminds and faculties; and determines without in any way cOllsultingmemory, and instantly commits ta use; and thus either mends theinjul"ed part, or sa hides it, and separates it from its fellows in office,that it has no intercourse with them, and no power of infeeting theadjoining parts. These statements are sllpported by au infinity of expericnce in medico-anatomical records. (l) That thc stomach is in a mannel" the axis of a wheel, see justabove, note (y). The stomach and intestines extend from the dia phragm. that is, from the superior or cardiae orifice, ail the way to the rectum and anns. The other viseera revolve round this axis, as littlc wheels r,ound the axes of machines. The whole alirnent.aJY tuhe, eom mellcing from the mouth, or aperture of the lips, and cxtelllling through the fauees, pharynx, œsopha!-Çus, stomach, antl intestincs, represents a kin(] nf continuons and gclltTal axis of the body.

THE PERITONlEUM. 503still molC rcmotc or ultimatc gcneral bond betwcen its mcmbelsand the organs of thc suprcme rcgion of thc hcad and ccreblum.And as the pcritonœum establishes their connexions as a bond,so it sustains thcir motions as a centrc 01 motion. It takes upor reccives in a general manncr, as a uniting medium, thc pulmonary and cardiac motions; and as a uniting ultimum, thesuperior and suprcmc motions of the hcad and the ccrclDrnm; itinitiates thcm, distributes tllem among thc visccra of its cavity,collects them again theretrom, absorbs and bounds them. 1hismembrane is, therefore, expansile, contractile, e1astic (0); variously cellular, constricted and thickened Ch); tied up and. Cg) In order that the peritonreum may serve as a bond of the kind described, it must of course be furnishcd with po""crs of binding the bodies containeù inside its cavity, as weil as those cxtcndcd round il. Elasticity, or cxtensility and eontraetility, arc of the tirst importance in the organic body: by means of thcse properties the peritonreum is rendered accommodable to ail the destincd uses. In proportion as any membrane ceases to purtake of the properties of inclastic or heavy bodies, in thc same proportion it is better suitcd and applicable ta aIl things, even ta boùies possessing grayity; inasmuch as it pours forth and communicates fully anù entire!y an the forces and shocks wbch it reeeives. That the peritonœllm was cxceedingly yielding in its eadiest infancy, and from aIl its indiviùua conspircd most distinctly ta the ge neral action of the whole, both of the body and of itsclf,-this is very conspicuous from its state during that time. And that it still continues. to have this property, even after uùult age, may be scen by examining it anatomically. "It [the perit.onœum]," says Vinslow, "is flexible, and capable of very great extension, after which it easily regains its ordinary sizc; as wc see in pregnancy, dropsies, corpulency, and reple tion" (n. 310). (h) The cellular tissue wherehy the peritollœum is applied to the muscles, the yertebrœ, and the other external levers, greatly augments anù strengthens its power of serving as a eommon bond; for by this means aIl assailant external motions are intereepted, stayed, and extin guished in their first effort and ouset, and prcentcd from penctrat.ing far into the internaI membrane, and ùisturbing the motions of thé internaI viscera. AlI the extell1al muscles, and the ribs and vertebn)~ to which they arc attached, arc sllbject during the day-lime 1.0 the do minion of the will; but the motions or the 111 [(rnal or alJùorniull! vis eera arc exempt therefro!l1, Hml <lc, otcd ln li attHï , alollC, IIcne,·, tn

50!· THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.cannectcd ta the last ribs, the vertebrre, the muscles, and thediaphragm (i) j continued ta the œsaphagus; praduced intaprevent the voluntary impulses from infringing and destroying the orderof the natural motions, - albeit in the most general and externalmanner,-the interior membrane is divided by numberless sections intofine membranous films, which forro a cellular down or tissue, and areapplied to either the muscles or thc bones,-all so many levers whichare being momently drawn in new and different directions; by whichmeans, the total action does not communicate, excepting feehly andvery generally, with the interior membrane which puts forth ligamentsto the viscera of the abdomen. But to go iuto ùctails,~to ùescribe,for instance, how the peritonreum is inserted illto one muscle, anù howinto another, and why it is adapteù to each in the manner it is,-thiswould be to enter the field of specialities and particulars, whither werewe to expatiate while we are dwelling on generals and univcrsals, as inthe present Chapter, we should have to write a complete treatise onthe subject. " Properly speaking," says Winslow, "the internaI portion alone deserves the name of a membranous lamina, as being themain body of the peritonreum. The extcrnal portion is no more than a kind of fibrous or follicular apophysis of the internaI. ... [HJ is not everywhere of equal thickness," &c., &c. (n. 310). In a word, incvcry possible situation it is suitcd to its use,-being constricted, attenuated, thickened, or dilated, accordingly; so that from its mere attenuation, condensation, and attachments, we are empowcreù to COIl cludc respecting the nature of its function, collection of forces, and accommodation to assailant motions; for Ilot the minutest titread in any cell, still less the cntire fabric of a cell, is connected ta any fibre, ex ternal or internaI, without a necessity dcrived from use. Hence, in the female sex the peritonreum is generally thicker, to meet the case of pregnancy, and of the expansion of the uterinc mass. The membrane of the peritonreum, according to Verheyen, "is double throughout, and manifestly so from the umbilicus to the os pubis, in fcmales parti. cularly, in whorn it is also thicker than in males" (n.311). (i) In order that the peritonreum may serve as a common bond, it requires to be most closely connected to the ribs, vertebrre and muscles, in this situation; for in proportion as its connexion to these parts is close, and suitable to their mode of operation, in the same proportion the membrane makes a better general instrument. Thus the more closely the dura mater ccrebri is conneeted to the cranium, the better it acts as an internaI periostcum, being proportionably more bound to its office; as during infancy. Throughout old age, howevcr, these

THE lERlTONJEUM. 505internaI, and elongated into external processes; saluted bynumberless vessels from the thorax (k), and by numberless fibresfrom the brains and spinal cord (1:); and thus invited and compclled to aU manner of obedience. Such are the general statements and results derived from expericnce in aIl its spheres,anatomical, physical, and philosophical;-from the threefoldexperience of art or science, of nature, and of the humanmilld. * * * * * * 325. l had intendcd to trent of the circulation of the humorand serosity through the cellular tissue of the pcritomeuffi, andof its sources <tud places of discharge; but inasmuch as theforegoing experience has hitherto aftorded me no clear and distinct ideas upon the subject, thcrefore l clare not venture todetermine anythiug with certai~ty. However, l see plainlyenough, that the ffuid which irrigates and sometimes inundatesthe cellular tissue of the peritomeum, cornes originally fiom noother source than the viscera enclosed in the cavity of the abdomen; and that the stream is constantly circulating throughthe whole of the cellular tissue; and never escapes from itsbonds are usually relaxed by degrees; first those which are relatilelysimple; afterwards, as life advances, thosc which arc more gencral, andwhich gradually aùapt themselves to theii singulars. lIenee wllen theperitonœum bcgills to be slackencd or rcmiss, all thc operations of theviseera are ncglcctcd proportiouably. Respecting the moùc of connexionof the peritonœum to the muscles, ribs, and vertebr:C, sec Winslow, 11.309 j-its connexion, wc mean, to thc muscles of the abdomen, thequadratus lumborum, thc psoas, iliacus, the muscles of the coccyx andrectum, the longissimi ùorsi, sacro-Iumbales, and vertebral muscles; alsoto the cartilaginous portions of the last pair of true ribs, thosc of thefirst four pairs of falsc libs, the ossa innominata, and the sacrum. Secalso Verheyen, n. 31 1. (k) The vessels and nervcs afford the best indications of the causewhich evcry member makcs in the society, that is to say, in the boùy.For the vessels and nerves are the essential ùeterminations or emissaricsof the universals-the enlia universulia. Vhat wc are to concluùethereflom, will be shewn in the Part on the Organislll of Animal

506 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.cells or follides into the cavity itself, unless they arc rupturedby over distcntion, or by the wearing out of their membranouspartitions; but rather that the peritonœum absorbs the fattycfHuvial vapor with which the cavity of the abdomen abounds,and carries it in a determinate channel, with the rest of itsserosity, to sorne place of discharge, which place l have (inChap. XIV.) maintained to be situateù at the kidneys. FmSTLY;That the fluid which irrigates and sometirnes inundates the cellulmtissue of the peritonœum, cornes originally frorn the abdominalviscera tltemselves: that is to say, from the stomach, intestines,liver, and other viscera, accorùing to the nature of their communication and operation. This is proved by the cellular tissue ofthese viscera-by their somctimes having two cellular tissues,one aboye and one below their muscular membranes; and bytheir continuity-the continuity of the extelllal cellular tissueparticularly,-by means of foramina, with the innermost m:cmbrane of the viscus; and by its immediate communication withthe cellular tissue of the peritonœum: which latter circumstanceis proved by the abundance of serous liquid which cornes to thesurface [of the viscus], where aIl but the purer portion, (whichis absorbed by the numerous lymphatics,) is committcd intocirculation throngh the peritonœum. The free continuation ofthis cellular tissue from the livei and intestines to the peritouœum, is l)rctty evident, not only from ordinary anatomy, butalso from artifi.cial anatomy, as pursued by injections; fol whenthe cellular tissue of the one is distended by inflation, the adjoining part of the tissue of the other swells. This is likewiseabnndantly shewn in tympanitis, ascites, dropsy, and otherMotion. The cause which the peritonœum makes is clearly shewn bythe vessels and nerves. On account of this cause, the peritonœum issupplied not only by vessels of its own region, but also by great numbers from the superior or thoracic region. According to Heister, "Thearteries and veins of the peritonœum come from the epigastric, mammary, lumbar and phrenic vessels" (n. 308): and according to Verheyen, "The peritonœum receives .... a few litHe branches from thespermatie vessels, [and) laterally, from the intereostals" (n. 311). (l) Its nerves come from almost the same quarters as its blood·vcssels; that is to say, flom the· phrenic, dorsal, lumbar, and sacralnervcs. Sec Heistcl n. 30R, :111(1 Verhcyen, :H 1.

THE PERITONJEUM. 507inundations: and wc also sec clearly, that the quantity of windand water in these diseascs cannot have any other source thanthe viscera themselves, where the air is disengaged in great Cluantitics in consequence of the disruption of the solid parts; and the viscera-as the stomach, the small and large intestines, andthc liver-are inundated with a constant torrent of water. SE CONDLY; That tlti,s stream circulates through the whole of the cellular tusue. rfhis proposition, being a consequence [of the preceding proposition], admits of no doubt whatever. For granting the continuation of the cellular tissue through theperitonreum, and granting the constant agitation of it by themuscles, consequently the expansion and constriction, the in evitable result must be, that the tiuid circulates w!lither thetissue is permeable, and is determined to ccrtain places of dis charge; it cannot stagnate, without produclng the destruction of the whole. THlRDLY; That 1,[ never escapes frorn tlte ceUs orfolli,cles into the cavity of the abdomen, un/ess the rnembranouspartitions are ruptured by over distension. This is fully proved by the above-mentioned morbid sweJlings of the peritonreuID, as tympanitis, in which the abdomcn is turgid with air; ascites,when the cells are distended with water tin thcy rescmble hydatids; and partictÙarly dropsy of the peritomcum. For if theinternaI coat of the peritonœum were pervious into its general cavity, or perforated by little foramina leading thither, then no dropsical stoppage of the kind could thus augment the perito mcum with respect to mass and thickness, but the wind or water would escape immediately through thc porous pelliclc, and fill the cavity. lhe same thing may be shewn artificially by the injection of aiJ.. or water, which distends the cellular tissue, butis not found to escape elsewhere: exactly as in the corresponding coat of the omentum, which like the peritonœum has numberless porcs, (so sorne anatomists have observed,) and yet no evaporation takes place from its little cellular eavities. " vVhen we handlc thcse membranes [of the omentumJ," says Winslow,"with dry fingers, the membranes stick to them so closely as hardly to be separated without being torn; as we see by the rcticular holes that appcar in those portions of the membranesthat have bccn thus halldlcd. In that case it is to no pUIpose to blow through the orifice allcflrly mentioned [the fomIDen of

508 THE ANIMAL KING DOM.Winslow J ; and it is owing to these small accidentaI holes thatthe membranes of the omentnm have been supposed to bellaturally retieùar" (n. 252). FOURTHLY j That the peritonœummt/ter absorbs the fatty ejfluvial vapol" with which the cavity ofthe abdomen abounds. For wherever any vapor or humor ispresent, and indeed supplied in a continuaI stream, there mustnecessarily be places of discharge provided j consequently fromthe cavity of the abdomen, as from aIl the other eavities. Whether the discharge takcs place from this eavity by any externalprolongations, as for instance, towards the scrotum, or alongthe ischiadic vesscls) or eIscwhere, is a subject for enquiry j aIso,whither the humors go next after leaving those places. Experience c1early shews, that the peritonœum throughout is full ofperforations) and that the foramina afford no passage either forair or liquid into the cavity from the eells outwards. Granting)then, the existence of little foramina, (like those of the omentum, according to the observation just quoted,) and the possibility of their being bibulous and attracti1c, and the converse follows as a matter of eourse,-namc1y, that this membrane is permeable from the cavity into the cells of the cellular tissue. Thesurface of the internaI membrane of the peritonœum, accordingto Wïnslow, "is continually moistened by a serous fluid diseharged through almost imperceptible pores. These pores maybe scen hy sprcading a portion of the peritonœum on the end ofthe finger, and then pulling it tight on aIl sides j for then thepores are ililated, and small drops ma) be observed to lun fromthem, even without the microscope. The sources of this fluidare not as yet weIl tmderstood" (n. 310). FIFTHLY j That theperitonœwn conveys this se?osity in a detenninate channel, to someplace of dischal"ge; which place l have maintained to be situatedin the kidnc)s j and dttring the uterine state, in the renal capsules. See the Chaptcrs on the Kidneys and SueeenturiateKidneys. The greatest eare seems to he takell) to prevent theintestines from communieating Vith the urinary hladder) throughthe cellular tissue of the peritonœum, and the more pure andchylifcrous portion of the serum from thus entirely eseaping bya short eut once allowed to be opened, ~long with the worthlessand aqucolls portion. Helice the passage intervening betweenthem, as for instance, about the concentration of the abdominal

THE PERITONAWM. 509muscles, is comparatively narrow and constricted. But if weattentively consider the structure of the bladder, it will appearvery probable, that the bladder itself does imbibe sorne part ofthe thin vapor, although relatively to the whole, a very smallpart, and like the lest of the viscera, throws it out into itscellular tissue, as into the surrounding peritonreum, and perhapsaround the ureters.

EPILOGUE. 326. AT the end of each Part of my Analyses, J intend tosubjoin an Epilogue, for the purpose of eollecting the severaluses of the viseera treated of~ and the several amounts of theiroffices, into one sum, and clrawing a line underneath it j that isto say, of reclucing and eonnecting the seattered ideas of partieulars, and the vague and faint notions, into a single andgeneral idea, just in thc same manner as the peritonreum reducesand eounects the functions of the viscera of the abdomen (a).The whole of the viscera which inhabit or eonstitute this earth,or subthoracic region of the body, are altogether devoted to pleparing and refining the chyle and the blood. CHYLIFICAfION,SANGUUICATlON, and PURIFICATION are the SUffi of their offices.These offices form a circ1e and everlasting chain j that is to say,chylffication must take place; wltat is cltylified, must undergo sangu~fication; what is sanguified, must undergo lntrification; andwhat is purified, must undergo chylification; and so on perpetually.But let us examine the links of this chain, one by one. 327. Firstly, chylifieation must take place; in othcr words,food must be taken; when taken, comminuted; and whcn comminuted, digested into chyle (b). Secondly, what is chylifiec1,must undergo sanguification; that is to say, the chyle must heintroc1uced iuto the veins, inaugurated into the blood, copulatedwith it, and thus itself reùueed into hlood (c). Tlzildly, what is (a) Respecting the office of the Peritonœum, see the whole of thepreceding Chapter. (b) See the Chapters on the Tonguc, the Pharynx and Œsophagus,and particularly those on the Stomach and Intestines. (c) See the Chapters on the Liver and Thol":lcic Duct.

EPILOGUE. 511snnguified must Hllde/go pUlificatioll; t1lat is to say, the puœlportion of both the blood and the serum, must be separatedfrom the less pure portion, or that of a middle quality, and fromthe stalc portiOll, or that of the lowcst quality (d). FoU?thly,what is purified, must undergo ehylifieation; the purest bloodand its corlesponding serum must be remitted into circulation;and the vilcst blooù and its corresponding serum must be exereted and eliminated; but the blood of a middle quality must becorreetcd, reduced into salivary juices, and restoreù to the ehy10poietic organs, to serve as a menstruum both for preparing thenew chyle, and for introducing it into the blood (e). Thus thi8last link is succeeded by the first of the chain. 328. The first departrnent of aU, or that of Chylijication, is (d) The blood, and particularly the serum thereof, as we observedin our Analyses, may be divided into thrce killds or classes: to thc firstclass bclongs the pure, virgin, newly-conccived or regenerated blood,perfectly accommodated to every use, and perfcctly obedient to thecerebrum, the sensoria, and the muscles,-the true universal essence ofthe third order (n. 314) ; thus the vicegerent of the soul in the ultimatesof the kingdom, that is to say, in the body. 10 this class also belongsa corresponding serum-a serum kinrlred and ploximate to such blood.To the second class belong the blood and serum of a middle quality,the blood ",hich is comparatively old, has circulated many times, is lessobedient, more obdurate, and aets rather from gravity than elastic force,and being numbered among antiquated things, requires, therefore, tobe recruited and regenerated: likcwise the corresponding serum, whiehhas in it many elements of the genuine blood, but ",hich are connectedand fettered one with another; and which serum, therefore, requiresto be corrected and rectified, that is, remitted into the intestines. 10the third class belongs the absolutely outworn, lifeless, worthless, rigid,concreted, and inert blood; and the corresponding serum. Rcspeetingthe blood and serum of the second order, see Chapters 1. and II.,where they treat of the Salivary Glands; also the Chapters on thePancreas, the Spleen, and the Livcr; which organs reduee and breakup this middle blood, and send it away into the salivary juiccs,-intothe succus panereaticus, or the hepatic bile. Respecting the blood ofthe last kind or sort, sec the Chapter on thc Liver and Gall-bladdcr ;aud respectini!; the serum of the same kind, sec the Chapters on theKidneys and the Urin:ny Bladder, (t) That onl) the !J!ood and serum of a middle quality is expended

512 1HE ANOrAL KINGDOM.assigned to the stomach, and to the small and huge intestines;and that of lustrating and refining thc chyle, to the liver. The,yecond, or that of Sanguification, is assigned to the mesentelY,the thoracic dud, and again to thc liver. These members introduce the chyle as a bride into the bed of her husband, thatis, into the veins, and to the blood j in order that it may be inaugurated, copulated, and itself made into blood. The thirddepartment, or that of Purification, is committed to the pancreas, the spleen, and here again, to the liver, which correctthe blood of a middle quality, reduce it into salivary juices, andrestorc it to the chylopoietic organs, that is, to the intestines.But the worthless serum is committed to the kidneys and minarybladder j and the corresponcling blood, to the gall-bladder, andto the intestines j and they excrete and e1iminate it. Thus eachmember of the abdomen contributes in sorne respect to thegeneration and regenelation of the blood, and each in its place,and by its office, takes part in the everlasting eircle. Henee aIltheir rcgards are directed to the blood, which is the common object of the abdominal viscera. 329. The case is différent in EMllRYOS, which pass an innocent, golden, and searcely personal life, in thc womb, andneither generate nor produce blood from new chyle, but electand suck it,-ready filtered and lustratecl in the placcnta, theumbilical veins, and the liver,-immediately from the maternaIstore (f) j and simply transfer it into the nascent viscera j whoseincernicula or strainers sift the blood from the serum, and separate both into their eomponent parts j which, aguin reuniting,they remit, through a short passage, into a simple gyre. Thisoffice is enjoinecl upon the liver and the lenal capsules. But incase anything spurious, or of no use to the genuille blood, shouldbe intermingled in the eurrent, with the serum, and not beintercepted in the strainers or pipes by the veins, nor transudeor be driven through the parietal fOlamina j and should it consequently not be raised and sublimated through the lanuginousor downy tissue, to thc surface of the viscus,-whether thein preparing the chyle, see the Chapters on the Liver, the Pancreas,and the Spleen. (f) These sllbjeets will be explained more fully in Part V.

EPlI,OGUE. 513stomach, the liver, the gall-bladder, the pancreas, the spleen,or the kidneys,-and so not reach the cells of the peritonreum (g),-in this case it descends to the excretory outlets: (g) Throughout our expositions hitherto it has been stated, and,as 1 believe, proved from experience, that the innermost membranes ofan the abdominal viscera, are not only covered with an infinity of littlevenous orifices, but are also perforated with immense numbers of otherforamina, (this is conspicuously the case in the stomach and intestines) jand that these little foramina communicate with the outermost coat,where the) meet a cellular tissue which is continuous with the cellulartissue of the peritonreum. The consequence of this structure is,firstly, that the most refined humors are part1y absorbcd by the littlelips of the vcins, and partly expressed through the littlc foramina intothis cellular tissue, whence they arc sent forth to describe a certainfield and circle throngh the peritonreum. And secondly, that all thehumors secreted from the blood, and passed throngh the little tubes,are likewise either reabsQrbed by the veins in these exceedingly narrowpassages, or transuded and expressed in the form of vapor through thecribrous membranes of the parietes: the minute tubes having thus the same nature irnprinted upon them as the large cavities. This is very conspicuous in the liver and spleen, and particularly in the kidneys. Surrounding these tubes there is an nninterrupted cellular down, whichis continued from the minutest interstices all the way to the surface j so that wherever the humor escapes or is expressed from the tubulj, it rises as on wings towards the surface of the viscus, where it is partly taken up by the lymphatics, and partly effnsed into the continuous cel lular passages of the peritonreum. From these facts, founded upon observations, it necessarily follows, that in the primeval or embryonic state, whatever, either in the great cavities or canals, or in the small cavities and tubuli, is not intercepted by the little veins, and sent through the parietal fOlamina, pursues its way naturally along the course of the cavity, canal, or tubulus,-as for instance, from the sto mach tawards the intestines; likewise, from the liver, the gall-bladder, and the pancreas, through their ducts, and again through the ductus cholidochus into the duodenum, and thence into the ileum, the cœcum, and the colon; that is, to the places of excretion: likewise, from the kidp.eys, through the ureters, inta the urinary bladder; and so in all other parts. Such is the origin of the glutinous humor, the meco nium, and the urinous fluid in the fœtus. In order therefore that such meconium ancl urine may not so increase in quantity as actually to open VOL. 1. L L

514 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.hence the glutillous humor in the fœtal stomacb, the meconiumin the intestines, in the large intestines particularly, and in thevermiform appendix; the scanty portion of urinous fluid in thebladder, &c. 330. The case is different again in different living creatures,-both in tbose which walk, or creep, and in those which fly,or swim. In each, the nature of the soul determines the natureof the blood, which acts as the souls vicegerent in the ultimatesof the kingdom, that is to say, in the body: and the nature of the blood that is about to be formed, determines a strong desirefor food of a cOrTesponding nature: and the nature of the bloodand the food together, produces a corresponding structure inthe viscera which prepare the chyle from the food, and the blood from the chyle. In minute reptile and winged creatures,this structure is most simple, merely a web woven in the loomof interior nature, so naked as to be perfectly tra~sparent,and with no swathings or coverings,-no manifold compositionof fibres,--to entangle or intercept the sight. Let us thencompare these small things with large, for the sake both of confirmation, and of informing ourselves respecting the variety ofnatures ways. 331. The PEDICULUS or louse, as appears from its anatomy,lives for scarcely any other object than the indulgence of thegullet and the stomach; for the latter, together with the intestines, fills and distends the gTeater part of its molecular frame (h).From these creatures it is perfectly manifest, that a vermiculaIor burst the locksat the ends of the canals, none but select and wellfiltered blood is allowed to be emulged by the embryo from the womb,nor is the blood thus purified suffered to be infested and defiled duringuterine life by any emotions of the body, the senses, the animus, or the mind. (h) See Swammerdams Biblia Naturœ, p. 74-80, and tab. ii.,fig. 3, 6; also our Chapter on the Stomach, n. 91. To understand the remarks which follow, the reader ought to have our authors Biblia Naturœ at hand; otherwise the meaning will be obscure. In the workalluded to, Swammerdam shews that this ignoble animalcule leads a most low and earthy life,-that it lives for the body and the belly only; as indeed is- the case with aIl the worm tribe, before they assume the form of nymphs or crysallises, and before they are fumished with

EPILOGUE. 513and peristaltic motion passes continuonsly from the gullet tathe stomach, and from the stomach to the smaU and largeintestines, but interrupted according to the articulations andintervening spaces of the canal (i) : and that this their motioncoincides exactly with the respiratory motion of the lungs; andboth, Vith the animatory motion of the brain, anù with thesystaltic motion of the spinal marrow; for a complete system ofpulmonary pipes permeates and almost constitutes the tunics ofthese canals, and even performs the motive offices of a muscle;the gullet also lies close to the brain, and the stomach, tothe spine (k). Further, that aU these guts or swallows arewings: when this happens, they rise from the earth, and are carriedinta the atmosphere as their celestial aura. (i) For the louse has a gullet, a stomach, a smaU intestine, a colon,and a rectum; also a pylorus, and articulations similar to those of moreperfect creatures. "The œsophagl.ls," says Swammerdam, "is a verysmall canal, which terminates in the stomach. * * * At the lower regionof the stomach is seen the pylorus, and immediately after this the smallintestine; which is dilated here and there, and formed like the stomach: after this appears the colon, and at the end of the colon there isa manifest dilatation, which is the cloaca: below the cloaca is therectum." (Bib. Nat., p. 75. n.) The motion also of these parts wasperfectly apparent, for as our esteemed al.lthor says, "The motion ofthe stomach is truly wonderful; insomuch that, by reason of its strongagitations, contractions, dilatations, corrugations, and expansions, (whichare plainly seen through the hody, and strike one with amazement,) onemight suppo~e it an animal within an animal. It is sometimes observed,that the remainder of the old aliment is mixed with the new food, andshaken and agitated up and down, and on every side, in the stomach."(Ibid., p. n.) That the same is the case in the stomachs of largeranimaIs, and in the human stomach, may be seen in our Chapter onthe Stomach. But in the instance before us, these actions take placestill more readily, both because the fahric is simpler, and because thestomach sends two processes into the chest, (see ibid., tab. ii., fig.3, k, le,) by means of which it ohtains a power of expansion, and ofadaptation to every space; for these processes are in a manner generalrespondents, which swell up as the stomach contracts, and vice versa. (k) That the pulmonary pipes, that is, the ramifications of the trachea, so completely pervade the coats of the stomach and intestines, asapparently to constitllte the very texture of the external coat, is thus LL 2

Gl(; THE ANI~AL KINGDOM.pliable, contractile and expansile, iuto every possible form ofmotion, and can make use of any form, with strength, easeand freedom (l). Also, that the stomach is fnrnished with asalivar} spring of its own, placed in its own cavity, and whichirrigates and washes the materials of the food, suitably to ailstated by onr author. "The external cgat of the stomach," says he," is furnished with so great a number of pulmonary pipes, as can hardlybe expressed in words .... The small intestine is also provided with agreat many pulmonary pipes." (Ibid., p. 76, 77.) Ifthen this coat beendowed with these pulmonary ramifications and tracheal pipes, and almost entirely cOl11posed of them; and if they are constantly being filledwith the air of the lungs, it follows as a matter of course that thestomach and lungs cannot possibly be carried away by contrary torrentsof motion. See our deelaration respecting the similar coincidence betweenthe motions of the stomach and lungs in more perfect animais, in theChapters on the Stomach and Intestines. In fact, if we consider dulythe nl,lmberless ramifications of the pulmonary pipes in insects, it wouldappear that they perform the office of musclliar fibres; for they expandtheil little tubes in the same manner as muscle expands dming the actionof its motive fibres; thus they sil11ilarly extrude and draw back the coatlying under them, or constructed of thel11, precisely as the veriestbutterflies willgS: respecting which subject we shall speak in our next Part. For in those insects in which, according to our authOl, "the blood is like cows milk, and consists of pellucid globules" (Rib. Nat., p. 69), and consequently is not of such a nature that it can flow in and out of the fibres with a lapidity proportioned to the rapid momenta of the nervous fibre,-in those insects, the motive fibres appear to be sup planted by pulmonary pipes; particularly since, according to Swam merdam, no muscular coat of the stomach has been discovered in them : but of these snbjects we shaH speak at greater length elsewhere. That this motion coincides also with the animatory motion of the brain, may in sorne measure be inferred from the contiguity of the gullet and the brain, and from the coutiguity of the stomach and the spinal mar row. But solitary proofs are never sufficient,-numbers and combination are always reqnisite. Respecting the contiguity of the guHet to the brain, our author says, "The gullet is a very small canal, situated a little behind the eyes, where it seems to be carried up above the brain." (Ibid., p. 75.) Cl) See note Ci), just above, and the delineations by our author of the forms of the stomach when in motion, Bib. Nat., tab. ii., fig. 6.

EPILOGUE. 517the digestive motions (In). That prenxed to the large intestille~,just at their place of articulation with the small intestines, anumber of cœcal or vermiform appendages are inserted-thevasa varicosa-which sprinkle in a liquid menstrunm, for mace (m) There is a little glandular body concealed in the stomach, which our author regards as supplying the place of the pancreas, but Hooke considers that it performs the office of the liver. That in its way it resembles both, appears from a comparison of the organs of chylification, sanguification, and purification, in simple animaIs, Vith the organs of the same functions in more perfcct animaIs. For the liver, besides purifying the blood, and bestowing the purified portion upon the chyle, in order that it may be agllin inaugurated into the blood, also pours the part that is still susceptible of correction, into its salivary juicc, that is, into the hcpatic bile, in order that it may scrve as a salivary menstruum for the intestines. The same is the case with the pancreas: it remits the thiekened blood and serum, similarly eorrected, into the pancreatic juice, and sends it forth into the duodenumby a duct similar to that by which the liver sends forth the hcpatic bile. Inasmuch, then, as both the hepatic bile and the pancreatic juice aresalivary menstrua, therefore this single organ herc cnclosed in thc stomach, may scrve for both liver and pancreas; particularly since theblood of this animalcule does not require to be claboratcd by any veryoperose process, or in any great quantity. Thus both these YÏscerathe liver and the pancreas-seem to be here combincd in onc; that isto say, in the before-mentiolled glandular organ, which pcrhaps alsosupplies the place of the saliary glands of both the ulOuth and œsophagus. Hence this organ has its pInce iu thc stomach itself, in whichail the salivary streams arc also eonccutratecl in more perfeet animaIs;and consequently it supplies the place at once of the liver and paucrcas,in order that a similar sali"ary juiee Illay f10w down into the small intestine, which is perfectly continuous Vith the stomach; first, howcvcr,heing a11 poured out ovcr thc alimentary mass. "Nearly in the middleof the stomach of the lause," says Swammcrclam, "there is a certaincorpuscule, whicb Hooke apprehends may be the liver; but l shouldrathel take it to bc t.lle pancreas. Its color is somewhat inclinillg tocitrine )ellow. It is strongly connected to t.he stomach. If it beplaced under the microscop(, it lIlay easily bc divided into many littlegrains, like glands, but tbcsc arc not very trallsparent. Pulmonarypipes al80 appear in it," &c. (Ibid., p. ïG, and tab. ii., fig. :l, ln; also theChapter on the Liler in this Work, n. 1!J~.) Thus this eonglomerate

518 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.rating the exhausted food in the colon (n). Lastly, that thechylified essences do not pass through any elaborate filters or lustratory Qlgans, but immediately through glands planted in thecoat of the stomach, and thus through a brief venous course,into the comparatively ignoble blood (0). Thus what is madeinto chyle, is instantly made into hlood, and what is made intablood, is purified by the glandular corpuscule placed inside thestomach itself,-and which may be considered as either the liveror the pancreas (p),-and is thus a second time made inta chyle.Such appears to be the gyre of the generation and regenerationof the blood, in the pediculus. 332. But in no species of living creatures have we a cleareror more distinct manifestation, or better means of judging, ofthe general use of the viscera, than in the testacea, where thegland is excited ta motion by the stomach, in the saUle manner as theparotid and other glands are excited ta motion by the tangue andpalate, according ta our explanation in Chapters 1. and II. (n) Respecting these vessels, of which insects gencrally have four,sec Swammerdam, Bib. Nat., tab. ii., fig. 3, ppp p. "At the endof this small gut," says he, c~ are discovered four little vcssels, calledby Malpighi, in the silk-worm, vasa varicosa. They are of considerablelength, and of the same structure as the intestines. These are thefour intestina cœen, which are found in 0.11 insects. They open into theintestine from ,~hencc they arise: after these cornes the colon." (Ibid.,p. 77.) They are very similar ta the vermiform proeess, which is double in fowls, and multiple in sorne fishes. That thcy supply a liquidfor m1aeerating the refuse of the food, see Chapter V., on the Intestines,n. 138. (0) Re.specting these glands, our author says, cc The coats eonsistof a vast quantity of globular granules, which are, however, irregularin form; the greatest part of thcm, when onen touched, cornes offfrom the stomach." (Bib. Nat., p. i6.) That thesc glandular congeries adhere very slightly to the coats, and nevertheless are allUndantlyfurnished with fibres and absorhents, see Lecnwenhoek above, n. 120:particularly in worms, in which similar glandular and villous coats aregenerally cleared away about the time the worms change into nyrnphsand butterflies; and this, in arder to prepare the IVay for a new regeneration of the blood, and a ne" kind of corporeal life. (p) See note (m), above.

EPILOGUE. 519external covering or shell is twisted and drawll out into spirescorresponding to the very gyres of the governing nature,-as inverticilli or turbines, pinnre, nautili, cornua ammonis, penicilli,conchre, and the various species of volutre and snails. For thecommon covering, formed to the meaSUle and rule of nature,whether such covering be a skin or a shell, gives to the parts ormembers which it circumscribes, a more suitable and regularsituation, connexion, mutual relation, field of action, and consequently motion; which considered together, calI forth andrepresent the idea of use in a comparatively simple and perfectmanner. But it will be sufficient to examine the interiors ofone species only. In the COVERED SNAIL-that species whichlives in vineyards (q)-the intestines are observed to be circumvoluted iuto a perfectly spiral gyre, for they follow the helix orspiral of the shell (r). The mesentery is identical with the liver,and even with the pancreas, and placed in the very top or centreof the whole, that is to say, in the apex of the cone (8). Both (q) Respecting the covered snail, see Swammerdam, Bib. Nat., p. 123-125; and tab. v., fig. 6, 7, 8: &So, our Chapter on the Stomach, n. 91, and on the Liver, n. 198. (r) That in man, animaIs, and birds, the intestines are eonvolutedinto a perpetual-circular or spiral gyre, and that the principles of thecauses of digestion, and the proportions and rationale of the digestivemotions, must be referred to the properties of this form, see ourChapter on the Intestines. We have a particular confirmation of thecorrectness of these views, in the gyration of the intestines in snails,where the spire is penectly regular, and follows the spiral revolutionsof the shell. "The liver of the covered snail," says Swammerdam,"with the intestines, completes the spiral of the body, * * * makingconvolutions corresponding to two or three of its turnings." (Bib.Nat., p. 123, 124.) (s) This organic and glandular body which we name the liver, issurrounded and intercepted by the intestines, and enelosed in the samemanner as the mesentery in more perfect animaIs. "The liver of thecovered snail," says Swammerdam, "with the intestines, completes thespiral of the body. It is divided into diyers lobes, according to thedifferent course of the intestines, which make as many deprcsslons onit as they have turnings and windings." (Ibid., p. 123; and n. 198above.) That the mesentery, and particularly the cisterna mesenterii

520 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.the stomach, the intestines, the liver, and aH the other organs,here act, constrict, expand and digest, manifestly under theauspices of the pulmonic or respiratory motion, and by virtueof the assistance derived therefrom, express the contents of thebeHy, as in large animaIs they express the fœces: for the air istaken in undel the shell, round the whole circumference of thebody, near the orifice for the discharge of the fœces (t). Agland, made up of two parts, and divided into lobules andfringes, supplies both the gullet and stomach with an abundanceor receptaculum chyli, resides in the centre of the whole body, (like thecorpuscule here spoken of,) see above, n. 148 and 154. And inasmuchas the mesentery and the liver perform paraUel and social offices; thatis to say, inasmuch as they both transport the chyle of the stomàchand intestines into the veins, the former, by way of the lymphatics,into the vena cava superior, the latter, by Vay of the veins, into thevena cava inferior, therefore in this comparatively simple reptile, a single organ discharges the offices of both; just as in birds, in which aUthe chyle passes by way of the blood, and afterwards by way of theliver, into the "eins. This organ also assumes the office of the pancreas,-it eructates a salivary juice through a number of ducts into theintestines. (t) This is better seen in the snail than in any other animal: for inthis creature, the air is introduced by an orifice not far from the orificeby which the alvine fœces are discharged; and thus introduced, is conveyed aU over the circumference of the body, even towards the interiors; so that the animal, by making m:e of the enclosed air, is enabled to extrude itsclf entirely from the she11. "The verge or Ep," says Swammerdam, "which surrounds the whole body of the snail, is con nected very closel) to the extremit.y of the sheU, both externa11y andinternaUy. Underneath the right side of the beUy it has a remarkable aperture, which serves to take in air; besides whicb, it has another, to discharge the fœces. As the snail ro11s its body out of the sheU, so in proportion it drives the air into the cavity of the verge." (Bib. Nat., p. 111, 112.) Thus it is manifcst, that the air in the lungs makes common cause in constricting and dilating both the stomach and iutestines, and the other viscera, abdominal and thoracic; and that it concurs to a11 the general actions of t.he body, (exactly according to our declaration in t.he Analyses of the viscera,) particulnrly ta the discharge of the freces and urine. Sec our Chapter on the Urinary Bladder.

EPILOGUE. 521of saliva (u). The liver itself supplies the intestines through asort of ductus cholidochi (x). Further, a glutinous humor isdeposited in a certain bladder, termed the saccus calcarius, andwith this humor the last fmces are moistened: perhaps aIso theslime on the depressed and hollow surface of the suail is derivedfrom this source (y). From these particularswe may readiIy (u) Our author thus describes this gland. "Two beautiful vessels,"says he, "mn along the stomaeh and the gullet, and discharge themselves iuto the upper part ot the palate. On the inside they are hollow,and contain a clear liquor, which they diseharge by two small aperturesinto the mouth; they are, therefore, salivary ducts. They arise fromtwo small, clear and snowy parts, joined together in the middle, anddi;ded into various lobuli or fringes. These little parts are laterallycounected with the stomaeh by several vessels, which look like so manydelicate filaments. Thcy are not fatty, for thcy are not inflammable,or melted by hcat." (Bib. Nat., p. 124, 12.5.) (x) "The livcr," says our author, "is very full of vessels; and ithas itsparticnlar ductus cholidochi, whieh diseharge themselves intothe intestincs without any intcrmecliate gall-bladder; in the same manner as in horses, pigeons, &c. The bile of the snail is not remarkablybitter." (Ibid., p. 123.) (y) The most likely conclnsion from comparative anatomy respecting this saeculus, appears to be, that it is at once thc renal gland andthe bladder, and secretes the urinous and glutinous serum, and discharges it by way of the rectum along with the freces. For aeeordingto our anthor, this animal is polyphagous, and a quantity of undigestedchyle entcrs its blood, not passing through pulmonary vesicles, butonly through a littIe heart of very simple construction; whenee the blood in its tardigrade, eold, and slimy body, is to the highest degree phlegmatic, and a part of it requircs to be excreted t.o make the lest suitable and servieeable to the sensory and motory organs. " Theblood of the snail," says our author, "is whitish, somewhat inelining ta bIue." (Ibid., p. 119, 120.) But as there is a perpetuai chain of uses in the animal kingdom, sa even the exerementitious part of this serum appears to he expended on the ultimate use of moistening the freees, and perhaps of yiclding the slimy matter whieh eonstantly covers the concave portion of the animal, and by t.he assistance of whieh it adheres ta the various hranehes and stalks in its way: although its very skin is full of glanrls from which a similar viscid slime eXildes. Respceting t.his little vesicle or bladder, our aut.hor says, "The saccus calcarius

522 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.understand the circ1e, order, and mode, wherein chylification,sanguification, and purification are perfor.med in the simplefabric of this little creature :-we may understand that thechyle, prepared in the stomach and intestines, with the assistance of the saliva, by gentle motion and friction (z), is submitted to a general organ, which may be considered as the liver ;and through this gate, as in more perfect animaIs, passes intothe blood, and from it, as a common centre, migrates and ramifies over the whole circumference; also, that the antiquatedand mediastinal or worthless blood is recalled to the liver andthe salivary gland (a), in order to be purified, and in order,after it has served as a menstrullm and hymeneal medium to thechyle,-to be regenerated. 333. In the cossus or VERlUS SCARABAu-the worm of therhinoceros beetle (b)-which lives upon hard wood and sumach,discharges itself into a pretty large duct, which runs near the rectum,and, in my opinion, opens into it: and accordingly we flnd a calcareousmatter sometimes mixed with the cxcrements. It exhibits a glandularstructure, and as it abounds with grey calcareous humor, hence it always renders water turbid." (Ibid., p. 122.) Similar bladders are alsofound in sorne insects, and the fluid which thcy contain serves to agglutinate the insects themselves, or their eggs, to walls. But this bladder,inasmuch as it is of a glandular structure, seems to resemble bothbladder andkidney. These points, however, had better be committedto the exploration of a future age. (z) Inasmuch as the structure of the intestines has a perfectly spiralcircumvolution, and the intestines themselves are excited so immediately by the air of the lungs ; also, il1asmllch as the stomach is provided besides with muscular fibres. (a) That a great part of the blood flows to this common organ, asta the liver and pancreas in more pcrfect animaIs, is evident from ourauthors description. "The liver, " says he, "is very full of vessels.It seems to consist of small equidistant granules. It is of a dark browncolor, a little approaching to green." (Ibid., p. 123.) Respeeting theglands which are the common sources of the saliva, our author says,"A beautiful Ettle vesse! luns over their whole surfaee, and gives agreat many branches to each of them." (Ibid., p. 12-1.) (b) Respectil1g this yorm, see Swal1lmerdam, ibid., p. .313, 314,.115, tab. xxvii., fig. l l, 12; ann our Chaptrr on the Stomach, n. 9 J.

EPILOGUE. 523we find a more remarkable structure in the organs that reducethe aliment into chyle, the chyle into blood, and the blood againinto chyle. The ventricular cavities are both larger and morenumerous, united together by short and narrow tubuli, andcrowned and beset with ducts opening inwards in various directions and eruetating a salivary humor (c): besides which, atthe lower part of the stomach, near the pyloms, there are certain little crecal intestines, or fistulœ varicosœ (d). AlI thesechylopoietic organs are so eonstructed, plaeed in sueh successiveorder, and irrigated by sneh numerous salivary streams andBut the strllctnre of this stolllach cali scarcely be comprehendcd fromany mere description: it ought to be seen in the figure. (c) On these subjects, our author says, cc lhe stomach [of thecossus] is ery narrow where it fOl·ms the gullet; a little after it expands, until it makes its upper orifice, answering to the œsophagus.In that part, the stomach is armeù Vith about seventy little tooth-likeprocesses. These are divided into six rows; of which the two upperones point inwards, but thc other four point partly forwards, partlybackwards. Ali these tooth·like tubuli open into the stomach, in thesame manner as the appendages, or the pancreas in fishes, opens intothe intestines: each opens separately into an ecphysis, as in the salmon.A little lower down, the stomach is rendered conspicuous by twenty-twowhitish, glandular tubes, with their ends directed backwards. Finally,about the lower part of the stomach, a little aboe the beginning of thepylorus, we again observe thirty such tubes, which open into thestomach in this situation, with their ends pointing forwards," &c.(Bib. Nat., p. 313, 314.) But a still better idea may be obtained fromSwammerdams Figures and his descriptions thereof; where we shall findthat the gullet is small at first, and afterwards dilates like a bell: thatit is succeeded by the narrow superior orifice: and this immediately, bythe upper part of the stomach, of an interrupted cylindrical form; thisagain, by a narrow orifice: that after this, the stomach is of considerabIc length ; being followed by the small intestine, which ends in anotherof large size, that may be termed the colon: this ends in the rectum,which is incurvated and reflected towards the stomach. (d) Respecting these little cœéal intestines, which are four innumber, see our author, ibid., p. 319. And that in the cœca of theworm of the bec, he found coagulated excrements, ibid., p. 415. Henceit follows, that these cœca, like the liver and gall-bladder, are designedfor excreting the sCOl·ire of the blood.

52.{. THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.rivers, in order tu enable them to scrape down, shave, levigate,corrode, reduce and dissolve, the barrell, juiceless, and crudealiment upon which the creature lives (e); and this, by continuaIagitation, elixation, and maceration; that is to say, by repeatedaets of kneading, stirring and cleansing, and by repeated changesof place, and supplies of morc active menstrua. Chylificationis performed in this manner. But what is chylified, seems tohe immecliately absorbed by the venous orifices, and by theglands; and this constitutes Sanguification. lhe sanguifiedproduct again, is refullded into the numberless glalldular ducts,and this constitutes Puri;fication, 01 new Chylification. The inference deducible from these anatomical phenomena, is, that thenumerous tubular appcndages and intestinula cœca, sustain theoffice of both livcr and pancreas, and also of salivary glands.Circumstances, however, are altercd when the worm rises outof this obscurc and simply vegetative and corporeal life, andis intoduced into the freer and less limited life which it leads asa scarabœus (f). 334. But it is useless to prosecute the subject into furtherdetails; for the variety is infinite; there is no conceivable difference in any particular whatever, nor any intermediate distinctionbetween di.fferences, which does not actually exist. The natureof the principle, capable of assuming ail possible varieties orchanges of state, represcnts this immense diversity of images inultimates, and thcreby bcwilders humall minds,-which scarcelyknow anything beyolld what thc eye can see, or transcend thecommon boundaries of vision,-and astounds them with apparent prodigies (g). N evertheless, in ail thcse infillite varieties, (e) Namely, the wood and sumach. "The stomach," says Swammerdam, "is found distendcd and filled with chewed wood and sumach."(Ibid., p. 313.) (f) lhat this worm leads only a ventricular and nutritive life, isevident from our authors description. "The cossus," says he, "isalmost filled by the stomach." (Ibid., p. 313.) Respecting the stomach and intestines of the scarabœus or beetle iuto which the cossuschanges, sec ibid., p. 319, tab. xxviii., fig. :J. Cr;) In mi.nute reptiles, for instance, in littlc ""0 rms, whose wholebodies searcely occupy a single ray of our vision, we meet with morevaricties than in ail the genera and species of larger animaIs: for these

EPILOGUE. 525there is one thing intended, or one universal end; which end is,that a certain deputy and vicegerent something may exist andact in the body, and be the immediate agent of the soulslittle creatures are the play of nature in her simpler sphere, and in thatmidway where she acts with perfect freedom: where no impedimentarises from gravity, (which increases gradually in proportion to thedescent to ultimates and composites;) for a force the most active-theprinciple of gravity-here rules in ail the parts and connexions of parts,as in its own peculiar sphere: where also no obstacle is prescnted, of forms made up of gross muscular fibres, filaments, cartilages, bones, and the like, put together in ail sorts of ways, and which naturally in volve rest, torpor, or vis inertiœ: where consequently there is no hin drance from bulk or mass,-nor from the general product of ail these circumstances,-the forcible separation of the last things from the first. Now inasmuch as in these most simple animalcules, nature takes her own course with absolute freedom, there~ore of consequence infinite variety is possible in them; and that such variety actually exists, is evident from their anatomy, as pursued by men of the greatest experi mental genius. Not to repeat what we have brought forward already, there are sorne creatures whose stomachs are provided with little teeth and saws, with which they comminute and grind their hard food-even mud, gravel, and the like-as in a miU; abrading its angles by friction and delay, and reducing ail irregular pieces and refuse globules with the most suitable menstruum, which their organs prepare in the most skilful manner. There are other creatures again, as the working bees, and other nimble honey-suckers, which in their stomachs not only refine the chyle, and convert it instantaneously into blood; but also prepare a store of future chyle or pabulum. There are others which consume and ruminate the rudc and primitive chyle, and mingle it occasionally with new chyle: others, which frequently recal the food itself, and transmit it from one stomach to another, according to every state of requirernent and digestion. In a word, there are infinite varieties, aU arising, as we before pointed out, from the state of the essences of prior nature. By an infinity of phenornena we are presented with the following Truth,-That to the highest and simplest Nature, as she descends by means provided, through many degrees of composition, into the u1tirnate world, ail things accommodate themselves, so that nothing can prevent her from producing a plenary image of herself in ultimates. Thus it is an everlasting truth, that the Spiritual World holds the physical and material world at its beck and nod, subject and perfectly ready to yield it aU manner of obedience.

526 THE ANIMAL KINGOOil.behests therein, instead of the soul itself, and yet act under theauspices of the soul: this something is the blood. But the universaI medium for the creation of the blood, is the food and aliment, from which, as a beginning, an entire series of meansis described, which series ellds in the blood, and commencesfrom the blood. lhe instrumental causes, which in the livingbody are termed organs, are in a similar series j and they arethe viscera, those of the abdomen particularly, by whose ministrations, this illustrious offspring, th~ blood, with respect toits corporeal part, is gellerated, formed, and l:>orn. These visceraconstitute the lowest region of their body or world, as it were,an earth or ground, which, to pursue the. analogy, producesfrom the food certain noble progellY, as it were, trees andshrubs. On the other hand, the viscera of the thorax, whichconstitute the middle region,-as the lungs, with their air andrespiration,-press and actuate the illferior viscera, as the atmospheres press and actuate the earth. But we have sufficientlycultivated the present ground: we shall now therefore pass onto the higher or thoracic sphere. END OF PART I.

SCIENTIFIC WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR.Parts Il. and III. of the ANIMAL KINGDOM are already translated, and will be put to press as soon as the requisite number of Subscribers is procured. CONTENTS: Part II.-Chapler 1. The Dose and the uvula. 2. The larynx and the epiglottis. J. The tracbea.4. The lungs. 5. The pleura, mediastinum, and pericardium. 6. The thymus gland. 7. Tbe ditlphragm.-EpiJogue. Part Ill.-Prologue.-Cbapter 1. The skin and the sense of toneh. Organic forms generally.The ,ense and seD90rium of louch in particular. The use of tOlch. 2. The sense of taste. IN THE PRESS, (Trantllatedfrom the Latin by the Rev. Augustus Clissold, A.M.,) THE PRINCIPIA. CONTENTS: Part I.-Chapter 1. The means of attaining to a true philosophy, and the character of the truephilosopher. 2. The firat Dlltural pOlot, and iu existence (rom the Infinite. 3. The first. or simpleOnile. 4. The second finite j abo generically on the active of the first finite. ~. Specifically ontbè active of the first Onite. 6. The fint element of the mundaoe system. 1. The actives of tbesecond and third finitc. 8. The third fioite, or substantial. 9. The second, or magnetic elememof tbe mundane system. 10. The existence of the sun, and the formation of a solar vortex:. Part II.-Chapter 1. The causes and meebanism of the magnetle forces. 2. The attractiveforces of magnets. 3. The same wb en the pol es art;} alternated. 4. The attractâve forces at themagnetâc eqnators. 5. The repulsive forces of magnets. 6 The forces of attraction betweeo themagoet and irone 1. The influence of the magnet upon ignited irone S. The penetration ofeffluviathrough metals. 9. Chemical experiments upon the magnet. 10. The friction of iron opoo themagoet. Il. The conjuoctâve force between the magnet and pieces of iron. 12. The motion ofthe magnetic needle. 13. The modes of rendering iron magnetic. 14. The dedinationa of themagoet reduced to clllcnlatioD UpOD the foregolng principles. 1~. The causes of the declination ofthe magnet. 16. CaicullltioDS of the declination of the magoet. Part lll.-Chapter 1. Comparison of the sidereal heavens with the magnetie sphel·e. 2. Thediv~r:sities of wOllds. 3. Resumptioo of the argument on the fourth flnite. 4. The solar aod pla·netary chao.. 5. Elber. 6. The firth finite. T. Air. 8. Fire. 9. Waler. 10. Aqueous vapo.".Il. The progression of the earth from the fOnn to its 6nal orbite 12. Paradi~e and the fint createdhoman being. PREPARING FOR IMMEDIATE PUBLICATION, (Translatedfrom the Latin oy the Rev. Augustus Clissold, A.M.,) THE ECONOMY OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. CONTENTS: Treatise I.-Chapter 1. The composition and genuiue essence of the blood. 2. The arteries,veins, tbeil coats, antl the circulation of tbe blood. 3. The formation of the chick in ovo, and therudiments of the arteries, vetos, and beart. 4. Tbe circulation of the blood. in the fœtus: the fora~men ovale, and the ductus arteriosus of the embryonic and infantile heart. 5. The heart of themarine tortoi~e. 6. The atrteries, veios, aod coronary vessels of the heart. 1. The motion of theheart of the adulte 8. Introduction to a ratiocinative psychology. Treatise JI.-Chapter 1. The motion of the brain,-shewing that it possesses an animlltorywotion whkh coincides with the respiratory motion of the.lungs. 2.. The specific nature of thecortical substance of the brain. 3. The human soule These Works will be printed uniform wlth Part 1. of the ANIMAL KINGDOM.

a:t>oCl..,a:l::zo.".:z:o

THE ANIMAL KINGDOM, CONSIDERED ANATOMICALLY, PHYSICALLY, AND PHILOSOPHICALLY. BY EMANUEL SWEDENBORG, LATt Ml:MDEIl. OF TRI< QOt/U: 0" fWIILI:.!1 IN TUB ROYAL DIl:1 01 SWEDES, ASSESSOII 01 TtfY. ROYAL lIJ;TAJ,J.1C COI.LItGlt OF lIWKDE:ol,FELLQW OF TUR R01:AL ACADKMt 01 SCIE.NCIU 01" UI8"1...., A~D or TUE ROYAL ACADEXY OP SCIE1CES 01 8TOCKBOLM. CO&RESIONDliI:G MF:M8EIl. 01 TUF, nrrRlllAL ACADEMT 01 lICtY.NC1UI OP St. lEtlHUDURG. TRANSLATED FROM THE LATIN BY JA~1ES JOHN GARTH WILKINSON, M.EllBKI OP TOE ROYAl. COr.I,RGE OP lIURGltONS 01 LONDON. VOLUME II. LONDON: W. NEWBERY, 6, KING STREET, HüLBüRN; H. BAILLIÈRE, 219, REGENT STREET. OTIS CLAPP, SCHOOL STREET, BOSTON, UNITED STATES. 18.4.

"EO PROVECTI SUMUS UT HODIE AURIS :ET OCULI SENSATIONEM VALVESUPRA SEIPSAM, AUT SUPRA NATURALE SUUM ACUMEN, lER ARTUICIALIAORGANA EXALTARE SCIAMUS: JAM SUPERBST, UT ETIAM MENTEM, SEU AUDI ..TUM ET VISU1( RATJONALEM."-SVEDENDORG, ŒCONOMIA REG:Sl .NIMALlS,TR. II., N. 207. "COGITATIO EX oeULO OCCLUDIT INTELLECTUM, AT COGITATIO EX INTEL·LECTU APERIT OCULUM."-SWEDENDORG, SAPIEN1IA ANGELICA DE DIVINOAMORE, N. 46. I.ONLJO;o.; : PHI~1En DY ,VALTON AND MlrCIIELI., Wanlour·sln~d, Oxfurd·:-.trccl.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME II. Translator s Preface ta Parts II. and II 1. vii PART II.Chal" 1. The Nase and the Uvula 1 II. The Larynx and the Epiglottis 39 1II. The Trachea 87 IV. The,Lungs 121 V. The Pleura, the MediastinuID, and the Pericardium 214 VI. The Thymus Gland 266 VII. The Diaphragm 294 Epilogue 331 PART III. Prologue 369Chal" 1. The Skin and the Sense of Touch 372 Organic Forms generally 463 The Sense and Sensorium of Touch specifically 524 The Use of Touch 555 II. The Sense of Taste 562 Index of Authors 595 Bibliographica1 Notices of Authors 599 Index of Subjects 609 Appendix 653

TRANSLArrORS PREFACE TO PARTS II. AND III. lN presenting to the public the concluding volume of the "Animal Kingdom," the translator uas but little to add towhat was specified in the Preface to Part 1. The same princi-pIes have now guided him throughout in the translation of thewhole work; the same care has been used in verifying thecitations from the old anatomists, and in correcting the refer-ences with which the work abounds. In Parts II. and III. theVhole of the citations, not excepting those from Winslow, arein fact translated from the original sources. In making a quotation, Swedenborg sometimes only givesan abstract of the passage he professes to eite; sometimes hegives in his own words the sense of the author; and this, notseldom very imperfeetly. In aIl such cases one rule has beenobeyed; viz., to follow the original works velbatim, and if anadditionallength of quotation is necessary to the sense, to makcit without reserve. In no instance, nowever, has a passagebeen shortened, or anything omitted of which Swedenborg hasgiven an indication. An Index of Authors is appended; also a short series ofBibliographical Notices of those authors who espeeially furnishthe anatomical basis of the work. In preparing the Index ofSubjects, the model furnished by Swedenborg himsclf in his ad-

VIII TRANSLATORS lRE FACE TO lARTS II. AND Ill.mirablü index to the" Areana Cœlestia," has been imitatcd asfar as possible. This Index of Subjeets, it is hoped, will befound not unreadable in a eonneeted form; in whieh case theperusal of it will furnish a good introduction to the study of thework itself. Lastly, the translator has had great pleasnre ininserting the learned Memoir on Swedenborgs PhysiologicallVlanuscripts, which was kindly sent to him, in Latin, throughthe celeurated Baron Berzelius, by Dr. J. E. Svedbom, Librarianto the Royal Academy of Sciences of Stockholm. He trusts thatthis M:emoir will ineitc the admirers of Swedenborgs worles tosecure the publication of his MSS., and filst, perhaps, of thaton the" Cereurum," whieh would have eonstituted Part IV. ofthe "Animal Kingdom," had Swedenborg continued his lauorsin the field of scicnce. The Introductory Remarles, which are intended for insertionin Volume 1., will, the translator hopes, be of some assistance tothose who havc the best title to expect it, and at the same timeto any scientific reader who is desirous of perusing a slight outEne of Swedenborgs physiological doctrines. The idea of giving a glossary of obsolete terms has ueenabandoncd. Any old medical dictionary will supply al! thatcould be desircd in this respect. It will be for thc readcrs ofSwedenborg to consider, whether his physiological worles shal!not be illustrated with an Atlas of Plates from the old anatomists: but this can better be settled when the whole of thoseworks arc in print. It remains for the translator to make his profound acknowledgments to those numerous fliends who have supported himin the publication of the "Animal Kingdom," and throughwhose generous patronage the first volume is now out of print.13, Store Streel, Ber!lord Square, 1.lIIdoll. Sept. 16, 1~lJ.

THE ANIMAL KINGDOM, CONSII)EREDANATOnilCALLY, PHYSICALLY, AND PHILOSOPHICALLY. PART II. THE v/seRRA OF THE THORAX, OR THE ORGANS OF THE SUPERIOR REGION.

THE ANIMAL KINGDüM. PART II. CHAPTER 1. THE NOSE AND THE UVULA. 335. HEISTER. "The nose is the organ of smell. This partvaries greatly in size and figure in different subjects; it may be eithermiddling, very large or very small; either handsome or the reverse, oraquiline, fiat, or depressed. Anatomists divide its parts into externaland internai: to the former class belong the dorsum, the root, t.hebridge, the point, and the aire or pinnre; the septum dividing thenose into two cavities, termed nares or nostrils; the hairs, called bysorne vibrissre, which prevent the involuntary discharge of mucus, andthe entrance of insects into the fauces; the cornmon teguments, epidermis, skin, and fat. The upper part of the nose is rigid, and composed of bones; the lower part is flexible, and made up of a numberof cartilages, muscles, and membranes. The internai parts are thebones, several of which concur to produce the structure of the nose ; asthe nasal, maxillary, ethmoid or cribriform, spongy, frontal, lacrymaland palatine bones, the vomer, and the sphenoid bone. The cartilages,which form the lower part of the nose, are connected by membranes,in order that the nose may be fiexible in that part. The first of thesecartilages constitlltes the anterior part of the septum narium; there arealso two very considerable cartilages in each of the aire, and betweenthese there are placed sometimes two, sometimes three, and sometimesmore, of smaller size. The septum narium is cartilaginous in its anterior and lower part, but osseous in its posterior and upper part; andthese parts are connected by strong membranes. There are two passages from the nostrils into the mouth, designed for the passage of air VOL. II. PART II. CHAI I. fi

2 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.and mucus. lhcre arc also sinuses in the maxillary, frontal, andsphenoid bones, and eells in the ethmoid bone; all of whieh inercascthe nasal eavity, and tllUS allow of an aclditional expansion of thepituitary membrane, and augment the sense of smell. There are besides certain incqualities and prominences of the turbinated or spongybancs in the eavity of the nares; serving partly for the same purposes,and partly for prevcnting the passage of inseets ancl eold air into thefauees. 336. "The nostrils and al! the sinuses and inequalities arc investedby a soft, red, ancl vaseular membrane, termed the mueous, pituitary, orSchneiderian membrane, which is the organ of smelling and the place of secretion of the mueus of the nostrils. The oscula or orifices of the exeretory duets are very eonspieuous on this membrane, espeeially inthe head of the ox. Under the membrane we observe a nnmber oflittle glands, partieularly about the middle septum; these also are designecl for the secretion of mucus. The arteries whieh arc distributedin prodigious numbers through this membrane, arise from the earotids,and these too serve for the same secretion. The veins are from thejugulars, and are intended to retum the superabundanL blood of thepart. The nerves distributed through the pituitary membrane, are, 1. The olfaetory nelYes, whieh are of considerable size, yet not so largeas in the lower animaIs; these are supposed to eonstitute the organ ofsmcll. 2. Sorne branches of the fifth pair, whieh terminate in theltairs or "illi, and are thought br others to perform the sensorial office.Under the pitllitary lies a thin membrane, whieh lines the bones andcartilages, and whieh, where it invests the latter, is termed periehondrium; where the former, periosteum. The foramina in the nostrilsare, 1. Tl105e .of the frontal, maxillary, and sphenoidal sinuses, andof the eells of the ethmoid bone, serving for the communication ofthese sinuses and eells with the nostrils. 2. The orifices of the lacrymal duets, opening iuto the nostrils on both sicles; these arc exeellentlyfigured by Morgagni. 3. The duets from the two nostrils to the mouth [palate]; these arc open in the skeleton, and may be seen just behindthe ineisor tceth of the upper jaw; but they ùo not open thither ineither the living or cleacl subjeet, but are aecurately closecl by the membrane of the palate; wherefore the common opinion, that they transmitmucus from the nostrils into the mou th, appears to be erroneous.(Camp. Anat., Il. 286.) In my Inst dissecLions l have taken considerable pains to scareh for what are termed the duets of Steno, lUllningfrom the nostrils to the palate, bchincl the incisaI teeth; but in proportion as the) are manifest in the skeleton, in the same proportion theyseell tu be obscure in the fresh subjeet. l have always indeed found a

THE NOSE AND THE UVULA. 3number of rugre and dcpressions behind the incisor teeth; but 1 couldnever, either hy me:lllS of a bristlc or of thc finest stylc, such as casilyenters the puncta lacrymalia, makc out any duct or canal runningthence to the nose. After rcmoving the corrugateù membrane of thepalate in this place, the style entered for a short way into an OBseouscanal, along the membrane which luns through this canal, but it diùnot penetrate into the nose. And on the other hand, the attempt tofind a passage from the nose into the mouth was eql111lly fruitless; noteven the finest style or bristle could make its way. On these accounts,1 suspect that this latter membrane, which is vcry strong, is in realit.ya ligament, serYing to strengthen thc memhrane of thc palate, and conncct it to the bone, and thus to prevent it from being separated thercfrom by hard and rough food, and other sources of injury; which, ifthis were not the case, might givc rise to very scrious conscquences.(Ibid., not. 59.) 33ï. "The ethmoid, or cribriform bone, is the cighth bone of theeranium. The points whieh it presents for notice, are, its situation;its extension through the nostrils and orbits; its figure, its connexion,and its state in infants; its four apophyses,-the crista galli, the upperpart of the septum narium, and the two superior spongy, or, as thcyare also called, turbinated bones, to which Morgagni has added twoothcr smaller spongy bones; the eribriform, the cavernous, papyraccous or plane part; and under this, the various littlc sinllscs, diifcring infigure, size and numher in diiferent subjeets. (Ibid., n. ï2.) 338. "The muscles of the nosc are three pair: two pair of dilators,and one pair of constrictors. The dilators, which serve also to e1evate the nose, vary greatly in diiferent subjects; gencrally however thereare two on eaeh side·, although they arc oftcn extremely small: theseare termed the pyramidalis and myrtiformis. The pyramidalis arises from the root of the nose, and is usually continuous with the frontalis ;it descends for a short distance at the side of the nosc, and graduallyexpanding into a thin membrane, is inserted into the alœ nasi: it often sends down fibres as far as the upper lip. Thc myrtiformis, or dilator, strictly so called, arises near thc incisorius of the upper lip, of which it frequently is but a portion, and is inserted pmtly into the alœ nasi, and partly into the upper lip. Thc constrictor, which is not orbicular in the human suhjcct as it is in various animaIs, is only a small muscle: it was first described by Cowper, although figured by Eusta chius : it arises abovc the incisor teeth of the upper jaw, anù terminates in the alœ uasi. Santorinus endeavors to shew that it is double, which 1 have also observcd occasionally myself; the orbiclùar muscle of thc lips greatly assists its action. (Ibid., n. 320.) 112

THE ANIMAL KINGDüM. 339. "The Uula, cnllcd hy Celsus, uva, by others columella, is abody of a cylindrical, or ruther of an inverted conical figure, situatedin the back part of the palatc, above the root of the tongue, betweenthe two arches of the palate and the two tonsils, and hanging from thevelum or claustrum palati. In figure it bears a considerable resemblance to the last joint of an il1fants finger. Its substance is muscular,surrounded by the glandular membrane of the mouth. It has twomembranous ligaments, by which it is connected to the bones of thepalate. It does not cxist in the 10111 animaIs. (Ibid., n. 283.) Themuscles of the uvula are six pairs, and one single mnscle. 1. Theglosso-staphilinus, or glosso-palatinus, arises on each side from the rootof the tongue, ascends towards the palate, and terminates in the velum.2. The pharyngo-staphilinus arises on each side from the lateral portions of the pharynx, and terminates also in the velum. 3. The thyrostaphilinus arises from the lateral part of the thyroid cartilage, becomesbroadcr as it ascends towards the uvula, and is inserted in the mannerof an arch into the side of the velum. 4. The spheno-staphilinus ofCowper, Cant, and others, may be more correctly termed the salpingostaphilinus; for in my last investigations, l have found that it arises inno degree, or at any rate to a very small extent, from the sphenoidbone, but rather from the posterior part of the tube, and, in fact,partly from its membranous, partly from its osseous portion; thence itdescends obliquely to the uvula, and is inserted into its posterior part:hence, if both these muscles act together, they rctract the uvula. 5.The pterygo-staphilinus arises from the upper part of the pterygoidprocess, and from the antcrior part of the tube which is near it;descends between the two lamelhe of the former, and reflects its tendonover the thin apàphysis of the interior lamella, as over a kind of pulley,to the lJ.nterior part of the palatine membrane, into which it is inserted ;the uvula is, therefore, moved downwards and forwards by this pair.Valsaiva calls this the new muscle of the tube, although its existencehas long been known: he supposes that its office is to dilate the tube.6. The palato-staphilinus arises on each side, at the junction of thebones of the palate; it is broad at its beginning, but after joining itsfcllow muscle it becomes gradually narrower, so as to llsemble a tri·angle, and descends to be insertcd into the upper part of the uvula:its ection seems to be to draw the uvula upwards and fonvards. 7.The azygos of Morgagni, placed at the back of the last pair, seems toarise tendinous from the junction of the bones of the palate, and is extendcd f1eshy, but thin and round, through the middle of the uvula;for with the glands and membrane of the mouth, it constitutes the body of the part." (Ibid., n. 32G.)

THE NOSE AND THE UVULA. G 340. WINSLOW." The septum of the nose is formeù by the ùe-seending lamina of the ethmoiù bone, anù by the vomer, and it isplaced in the groove or channel formed by the cristoo of the maxillarybones and edges of the palate bones. The dorsum of the osscous partof the nose is formed by the truc nasal bones; and the sides, by thesuperior or nasal apophyses of the maxillary !Jones. The internainares, or the two cavities of the nose, comprise the whole of the spacebetween the external and posterior nares, immediately above the archof the palate; from whence these cavities reach upwards as far as thecribriform plate of the ethmoid bone, where they communicate infront with the frontal sinuses, and behind with the sphenoidal sinuses.Laterally, these. cavities are bounded on the inside by the septum na-rium, and on the outside, or that next the cheeks, by the conchœ,betwcen which they communicate with the maxillary sinuses. Theparticular situation of these cavities deserves our attention: the bottomof them luns directly from before backward, so that a straight anùpretty large stilet may very easily be passed direct from the tip of thenose, as far as under the great apophysis of the occipital bone....The inferior portion of the external nosc is composed of several carti-lages, which are commonly five in number, and of a pretty regularfigure; the lest are only accessories, smaller, more irregular, and thenumber of them more uncertain. Of the five ordinary cartilages oneis situated in the middle, the other four laterally. The middle carti-lage is the principal, and supports the lest. It is connected imme-diately to the bony parts; the other four are connecteù to the middlecartilage and to each other by means of ligaments. The principal orgreat cartilage of the nose is divided into three parts, one middle andtwo lateral. The middle is a large cartilaginous lamina, joined by akind of symphysis to the anterior edge of the middle lamina bf thcethmoid bone, to the anterior edge of the vomer, and to the anteriorpart of the groove formed by the maxillary bones, as far as the nasalspine of these boncs, and the extremity of thc sub-septum. This lamina completes the septum, and indeeù forms the principal part thereof.... Ali this apparatus of the external nose is covered by the common integuments, the skin, epidermis, and fat. That which eovers the tip of the nose and aire narillm, encloses a quantity of glandular granules, the sebaceous glands of Morgagni, the mattcr of which may be easily squeezed out by pressure with the nails. Ali the bony andcartilaginous parts have likewise their periosteum and perichondrium . . . . The pituitary membrane is that which lines the intcmal nares, the cellular convolutions, the conchœ, the Valls of the septum, and by an uninterrupted continuation, thc inncr surfaec of the frontal and illllXil-

6 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.lary sinuses, and of the ductus lacrymales, palatini and sphenoidales :it is likewise eontinued fmthcr, from the posterior nares to the pharynx, septum palati, &c. It is termed pituitary, beeause in the greaterpart of its extent it serves to separate from the arterial blood a mucila·ginous lymph, called pituita by thc aneients; and which in the naturalstate is pretty liquid, but otherwisc is glutinous and viscid, or sometimes limpid and without consistence, or exhibits other changes; it isnot supplied in equal quantities by the wholc membrane. When wccarefully examine this mcmbrane, it appears to be of a different structure in different parts. N car the eùge of thc external nares it is yerythin, like skin and epidcrmis in a degcncrated state : through the lest ofits extent it is in general spongy, and more or less thiek. The thickcstparts are on the pmietes of thc septum narium, on the wholc lowcrportion of the internai nares, and on the eonehre. If we make a smallopening in it with the point of a scalpel in any of these places, anduse the blow-pipe, wc diseover a very extensiye cellular substance. Itappears to be of a more slender texture in the sinuses. On the sidenext the periosteum or perichondrium, which it accompanies, it iscovered with glandular granules, the exeretory ducts of which arc verylong near the septum narium, and their orifices very visible; and byapplying a blow-pipe to any of these orifices, the ducts may be inflatedthrough nearly their whole extent: but in order to this, the parts mnstfirst be well cleaned and washed in warm water. In these places espeeially, we likewise discover a fine villous substance; but it is not scenunless the parts be examined in clear water, in the manner whieh l haYeused in my public courses for abovc twenty years past. The frontal, sphenoidal, and maxillary sinuses aIl open into the internai nares, but in different ways. The frontal sinuses open from aboye downwards, answeringto the infundibula of the ethmoid bone. The sphenoidal sinuses openforwards, opposite to the posterior nares. The maxillary sinuses opena little higher, between the two conehœ.... The opcming of the maxilbry sinuses, which in sorne subjects is single, in otlIers double, liesexaetly between the two conchre, about the mitldle of the depth of thcmaxillary cavities.... It is proper here to obsene exactly the cxtentuf the maxillary sinus: below, there is a very thin partition betwccn itand the last four mola! teeth, thc loots of whieh in some subjccts penctrate thc sinus in this situation. Above, there is only a vcry thintransparent lamina between the orbit and the sinus. Dehind, abovethe tuberosity of the maxillary bone, the side of the sinus is also verythin, particularly in front of the root of the pterygoid proeess, throughwhich the inferior maxillary nerve sends clown a braneh, that descendstowards the posterior palatine, or gustatory foramen. The lacrymal sac

THE NOSE AND THE UVULA. 7is a small oblong mcmbranous bag, which lceeives the serosity of theeye thxough the puncta lacrymalia, and discharges itself below into theinternai nares. It is situated in part in an osseons canal formed by thenasal apophysis of the maxillary bone and os unguis; in part also in anosseous canal formed in the same maxillary bone, &c.... This sac issomewlhat spongy or cellular, and moderately thick. lt is stronglyunited by its convex side to the pcriosteum of the bony canal. ... Itappears to be composed of two laminre joined together by a spongysubstance: the internaI lamina seems to be glanclular. The ductusincisorii, or naso-palatine ducts of Steno, are two canals which extendfrom the bottom of the internai nares across the arch of the palate,and open behind the first or largest incisor teeth. Theil orifices maybe seen distinctIy in the skeleton: and we may likewise observe theiroblique passage through the maxillary bones, and lastly their inferiororifices., situated in a small cavity or fossula, termed the anterior palatine foramen, &c.... The arteries of ail these parts come from theexternal carotid. Those of the external parts of the nose are chicflybranches and ramifications of the cxternal maxillary or angnlar, and of the temporal arteries; and the arteries of the internai parts are chieflybranches and ramifications of the internai maxillary artery. The vcins,in almast the same manner, are the corrcsponding branches and rnmifications of the extcrnal jugular vein. They communicate with the orbital sinuses, and by that means with the sinnses ·of the ùura mater,and ultimately with the internai jugular veins. The principal nen-esbelonging to the nose are filaments of the olfactories, which passthrough the foramina in the transverse plate of the ethmoid bone, andare distributed to the common membrane of the internaI narcs, espccially ta the villons portions thereof. The internaI branch of the orbital or ophthalmic nen-e sends a filamcnt through the small intcrnalanterior orbital foramen into the cmnium, which comcs out again incompany with one of the above-mentioned filaments, through theethmoiclal lamina. This internaI branch aftcrwards advanccs towardsthe os unguis, and is distributed partly to the lacrymal sac, partly tothe upper portion of the pyramidalis muscle, and of the integumentsof the nose. The suborbital nerve, which is a branch of the superiormaxillary nerve, havirtg passed through the inferior orbital foramen,transmi ts filaments to the external lateral parts of the nose; anotherbranch of the superior maxillary nerve goes ta the posterior narcs ofthe same side, and is spent on the conchre and other internai parts ofthe nose. (Exp. Anat., Traité de la Teste, n. 319-359.) 341. "The claustrum, which may likewise be termed vclum, orvalvula palati, terminatcs below by a 100 se, floating border, reprcscnt

8 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.ing an arch, situated transversely above the base or root of the tonguc.The highest portion or top of this arch supports a smaU, soft, andirregularly conical, glandular body, the base of which is attaehed to thearch, and the apex hangs freely downwards; this body is commonlycaUed uvula. The piUars or columns of the claustrum are four muscular half-arches, two on each side of the uvula, to which the upperextremities of them aU are united. They are so disposed, as that thelower extremities of the two which lie on the same side are a Ettleseparated from each other, the one being anterior, the other postrrior,and they leave between them an oblong triangular space, the apex ofwhich is at the base of the uvula. The two half-arches on one side, byjoining their feUows on the other side, form the entire arch of theborder of the claustrum. The posterior half-arches run, by their superior extremities, more directly towards the body of the uvula, than theanterior. The anterior half-arches are continued to the sides of thebase of the tongue, and the posterior to the sides of the pharynx.In the lower part of the space left between the lateral half-arches on thesame side, are situated two glandular bodies termed amygdalre." (Ibid.,n. 489-491.) 342. For the lest, see Boerhaave, on smeUing, In.st. Med., n. 491-507; on the·action of the uvula, Ibid., n. 70, 71. Winslow, on theethmoid bone, Tr. des Os Secs, n. 241-254; on the proper bones ofthe nose, Ibid., n. 396-403; on the inferi0r conehre, Ibid., n. 435 446; on the muscles of the external nose, Tr. de la Teste, n. 329 333. Morgagni, Advers. Anat. vi., tab. ii., fig 3: where the turbinatcd bones of the nares are beautifuUy portrayed, and it is shewn that they are three in number, the ossa turbinata inferiora, superiora, and su prema, the latter being the smaUest: and (Ibid., Anim. 53,) that these bones are double, each nasal antrnm containing a set: and (Ibid., Anim. 89,) that whateverbe the position of the body, mucus flows from sorne of the nasal cavities. Eustachius, Tabul. Anat., tab. xi., fig. 16, and tab. xviii., fig. 1 ; representing the frontal muscles, the constrictorrs palpebrre, and orbiculares labiorum; and the manner of their operation on the dorsum and aIre of the nose. Tab. xv., fig. 1; tab. xiii., fig. 2, a; the left pyramidalis muscle serving to dilate the aIre. Tab. xviii., fig. 3, a; the proper semilunar muscle [depressor pinnreJ of the nose. Tab. xx., fig. l, 3, 4, 5; the nasal bones in the skeleton. Fig. 14, 16; the cribriform bone, ilisplaying the foramina through which the olfactory nerves pass out, and through which, according to Lancisi, they also receive something from the externalnares. Ruysch, on the mueous membrane, its arteries and glands, Thes. Anat. i., iii., vi., x. ; Epist. viii., ix., passim; and his tabulre. Verheyen, Corp. Hum.

THE NOSE AND THE UVULA. 9Anat., tract. iv., cap, xv., tab. xxviii., fig. 4, 5; the cartilages of thenose, including the three lesser cartilages, and which amount in all,according to Ruysch, to nine in number. Fig. 6, the same. Fig. 8, 9 ;the cavities of the frontal, ethmoid, and sphenoid bones; exhibiting anumber of vesicles produced by inflation, respecting which, see thesame author, Ibid., tract. iv., cap. xvi. Cowper, Myotom. Ref. (8vo.,London, 1694), p. 57; and Anatomy, App., tab. ii., fig. 35; representing the muscles of the nose. Mangetus, Theatr. Anat., tab. X.,fig. 2, from Brown; representing the constrictor nasi, elevator, andcorrugator muscles. Tab. xii., fig. 2, also from Brown; the gland ofthe palate, with the uvula reflected upwards. Tab. cviii., from Bidloo;the interiors of the palate together with the uvula. Fig. 2, from thesame; the superior concave part of the mouth and the [naso-palatinc]duct of Steno. See also many plates from Ruysch, inserted in thesame collection. Palfin, Nouvelle Osteologie, pl. i., ii. Drake, AnthlopoZogia Nova, tab. xvii., xviii. Highmore, Corp. Hum. DÙiquisit.Anat., and his tabulre. Santorinus, Observationes Anatomicœ, cap. i.,n. 9, where he ascribes eight pairs of muscles to the nosc. Vieussens,Neurograplâa Universalis, lib. i., cap. xvi., treating of the aqueousand emissary ducts of the head, and of the pituitary membrane.

ANALYSIS. 343. As there is a high road from the labial entrance,through the fauces and œsophagus, to the viscera of the abdomen (a), so there is a high road from the two entrances of thenares, through the trachea, into the lungs, which fill thechamber of the breast, or the cavity of the thorax. Fromthese entrances, then, as the natural beginnings, we commenceto speak of the viscera of this region; but adhering to the lawlaid down in the first instance, we must make our exordium fromuse (b). The nares, divided from each other by a septum orpartition, articulated by cartilages, fortified by bones, coveredin by membranes,-with their alre, point, spine, dorsum, androot or brow,-I. Open the way, and allow the lungs the possibility of respiring; for they are the first doors or gates through (a) lhat the way to the stomach, consequently to the viscera ofthe abdomen, leads from the mouth through the pharynx and œsophagus, see Part L, n. 59. lhere are then two entrances in the head,namely, the orifice of the lips, and that of the nares; the first leadingto the lowest region of the body; the second, to its middle region,that is, to the thorax. In man, indeed, the labial orifice conductsalso into the thorax, and to the lungs; for we respire throughthe mouth as weIl as through the nares; but the case is different inbrutes, for with them, the nasal passages are blocked up, and aIl respiration that way is intercepted. The reason why in man the labialorifice is common to both regions, will be pointed out in the sequel.But the tongue, which is the motory organ of thc palate, and of thewhole apparatus of the mouth, is common to both, because it servesfor both eating and speech; and this is the reason why we began ollrdisquisitions with the tongue. (b) See Part L, n. 32.

TUE NOSE AND TUE UVULA. Il which the breathings of this living worlel are carrieel to aml fro. lhey temper with a gonde warmth the air which is cnterillg; and impregnate with a dewy vapor the ail whieh is departing; and cleanse and purify it from floating particles of dust, and noxious exhalations. II. They anticipate by the sense of smell, what the atmosphere of the cireumambient world carries in its bosom, so as to make the animal being aware Qf that whieh is endeavoring to rush inwards into its lungs. Ill. TIy a kind of unison, they regulate the artieulate sounds of speech, and to a certain degree, as it were by provisional alœ, conspire to moelify the words themselves. IV. They clear away the viscid phlegm from the arteries, in order that a pure and clean blood may ascend to the sensoria of the cerebrum, and ta the other sensoria of the head. Furthermore, they derive from aIl these organs the ichorous streams that threaten inundation; that is to say,from thc eye and the ear, from the medullary and cortical portions of the cerebrum, from its meninges or membranes, and from the sinuses of the eranium. V. By an extrinsically im-ptùsive force, they excite the cerebrum. to its proper reciprocal animations, synchronous with the respirations of the lungs.VI. Like a kind of cynosure, they terminate and complete thecornmon axis of the hemispheres of the cerebrum, and of itsparts, as well as of the bones of the cranial vault; and they in-stitute and begin the common axis which luns from thence intothe thorax, as well as that which luns into the abdomen.VII. l.hus, from the ultimate boundary of this axis, they tran-scribe the cerebrum into the face, and give it the power ofimaging its affections upon the surface or countenance thereof.vVe shaH now proceed to consider each of these uses separatcly. 3,1,-1.. 1. Tite nasal entmnces open tlte way, and allow tltelungs tlte possibility of respiring. rhis proposition is obviousand univcrsaJly admitted ; for through these causeways or brcath-ing-holes the atmosphcric world flows in, but thro:ugh the others,which likc thc nares arc scnsoria, only the natmc or propertiesof that world (c). Thc influent atmosphere, however, is instan- Cc) Through this way alone, that is to say, through the larynx andthe trachea, that world, or the atmosphcre thereof, flows in substan-tially; but it does not long remain withill, being immediately thrown

12 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.taner;usly expelled, lest it should claim power over a little worldnot belonging to it; indeed it is admitted only as a eonvenientservant. For this reason, the innermost spiracles or breathingholes,~the pulmonary vesicles,--open first (d); afterwards thebronehia, beginning at their roots; then the traehea and theglottis; lastly the nares, all the way to the aIre or pinnœ, whiehare dilated by their muscles: thus the air is admitted, invitedand attraeted; and fiows in, as in a bellows at work, aeeordingto the given opening, the height of the ineumbent eolumn, andthe force of gravity dependent thereupon (e). The nares temperwith a gentle warmth the air which is entering; and as on the onehand they prevent the eold,or the biting winter, from injuringthe lungs, and their pneumatie prineiples or initiaments, andeontraeting them more rapidly than their reeiproeal alternationsdemand; so on the other hand they provide a bland temperaturethat will eonstantly further their respirations, and bathe andout by expiration; so that according to our often-repeated assertion inPart 1., the animal kingdom exempts itself universally from the ruleand domination of the circumambient world, and is governed purely bythe laws and principles existing in itself. See Part 1., the Chapter onthe Intestines. Consequently the air does not rush in unbidden, but isadmitted, allured and attràct~d, as every one may clearly observe inhis own person. Moreover, immediatelyon its entrance it is subjugatedin such a manner, that it is not at its own disposaI, and does not actwith all its gravity, but 1S derived into the lungs, both with respect toits quantity and with respect to its direction, at their will and pleasure.The other sensorial organs, as the eye and ear, admit the atmospheres,indeed, but only the modifications thereof, by which nature manifestslterself and her modes of forces. (d) This will be explained more fully in the Chapter on the Lungs. (e) In the Chapters on the Liver, the Pancreas and the Spleen, itwas shewn, that the blood is not intruded by force into their glandularprinciples, that is, into their minute follicles, but is invited by acts ofexpansion; precisely in the same manner as in the lungs. This produces a particular attraction resembling the attraction of bellows orpumps, in which latter the air rushes in to fill the void caused by raisingthe piston; so that the attraction is no property of the vacuum, butrather is natures aversion to, and avoidance of, a vacuum, in consequence of which the matter near the scene of operation is continually urged t~ fill the vacant space.

TIIE NOSE AND THE UVUI.A. ]3foment the crihriform plate, and the clelicate nerves issuingthelefrom. To produce these results, the nasal canals decreasein size from the bottom to the top (1) j and in the midc1le oftheir course, are refiected towards the palate and the larynx (g) jwhile those which pass llpwards are folded from below to above,twice or three times, into papyraceous convolutions or spirals (h) j (f) The largest aperture of the nares is that which is comprehendedby the alre nasi ; the orificc becomes constantly narrower in passingupwarùs. (g) Where the cartilages terminate, two passages commence oneach siùe; one, leading upwards through the conchoo towards the cribriform plate; the other, passing obliquely ùownwards towards thepalate and. the glottis; but the two latter reflected passages again uni teinto one. "Each of the nares," says Verheyen, "is ùiyided into twoparts or cavities; one of which goes upwards to the cribriform bone ;the othel, which is much the longer, passes abovc the palate into theinteriors of the fances and mouth.... The latter on eaeh side uniteswith its feUaw in the palate, and the two constitute one cavity....whieh in this situation is very large, and ... placed directly aboye thefissure of the larynx" (Corp. Hum. Anal., tract. iv., cap. xv). Byviltue of this inflexion and of the warmth imparted by the supcriorregion of thc nares, the eoldness of thc air cannot fail to be broken anùtempered, and the breath inhalcù to be rendcred mild and warm; aswe have physical proofs to ùcmonstrate; for if the very coldcst air bepassed through even a short tube that has been previously warmed, itinstantly cornes out warm at the othcr end; and the morc in the narrowpassagcs of the nares, whcre warmth is imparted by aB the arterics,membranes, anù constantl) vibrating papyraceous bones. (h.) For there are three pairs of cochlere, or as they are usuaUytermed, turbinateù and spongy bones, through which the air circulatesin passing upwards; eonsequently none but warm air can possibly reachthe cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone. On the way also, as thc airluns through these gyres and whirls, it is cxamined, and purified ofaU noxious yehicles, fine ùust; or heavy anù misshapen particles, untilnothing is left that can injure or offenù the exquisitely delicate nervcsin theirbeginnings. Morgagni has aùmirably dclineated the three pairsof cochleoo, and ùescribes them as "the ossa turbinata inferiora, superiora, anù suprema, and that these bones are double, each nasal antrumcontaining Il set" (n. 342). These triple eochlere or conehœ are termedby Vieusscns, the eeUs and sinuses of the ethmoid bone, and he like

14 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.so that the air circulates in them exaetly according to its natUlalfluxion (i), and nevcr reaches the osseous sieve of the cribriformplate, until it has traversed various labyrinthine windings, andbeen warmed by a large extent of surface. Indeed, the organically constructed sinuses are so many correctives and prohibitives,whereby the air, or the blistering wind, is prevellted from penetrating internally. The nares irnpregnate with a dewy vap01 theair whiclt is departing,-they set free the fine aqucous exhalation,leaving the mucus behind; as is sufficiently evident from thewaterilless of the expirations. Lastly, they cleanse and purifythe air frorn floating particles of dust, and norcious exhalations.This is the pUlpose of the vibrissœ or hairs; also of the membrane, perpetually moistencd by sa many lymphs from extraueous SOUlces, and by so many proper to itself, and anoilltcdwith the viscid mucilage, left after the evaporation of the finerdew (k), so that it cau ensnare irregular and misshapen corpuscules, aud snatch them ftway from the air. This also is thereason why the orgau has a power given it of contracting itselfwise ùivides them into three pairs, although some anatomists dividethem only iuto tVo. "We reckon," says he, "six ethmoidal sinuscs,intermediate between the frontal and sphenoidal sinuses, and which areseparated from each other by true bony partitions: these six sinuscs wedivide into anterior, middle, and posterior" (Neurogl·. Univ., lib. i.,cap. xvi.) (i) lhat the air has a tendency to gyrate spirally, is abuudantlyproved by the phenomena of pneumaties, that is to say, by thc phenomena both of aërial modification and of sound, and by the spiralcoehlere aud semieircular cylinders in the organ of hearing: the samething is also proved by the very naturc of the air, of which we shaHspeak in another place. (k) Wc shall havc to shew presently, that thcre is a general derivation of humors hither, both from thc siuuses of thc cranium, and fromthe adjoining scnsorial organs, nay, from the cerebrum itself, not tosay, from the uumberlcss arteries that supply the pituitary membrane.It also appears that the breath expired is absolutcly fiHed Vith moisture,and as it only carries off the limpid and thiu portion, the remainder isof course comparatively thick and viscid, and adapted for netting andcatehing the heavy effiuvia that the ail brings in. The thickness ofthe mucus may be aeeounted for in this Vay.

THE NOSE AND THE UVULA. 15by menns of muscles; by virtue of which construction it bearsa resemblance to a kind of rude strainer, cndowcd at the sametime with the faculty of smelling the substances that impingeupon it. 345. II. The nares anticipate by the sense of Smell, wltattlte atmosphere of the circumambient world carries in its bosom;that is to say} whatever is floating freely in the little volumes ofthe air} and is figured, angular} plane or smooth; round, cxtendeù or long; weighty and natulally inert (l); dcrivcd originallyfrom the terrestrial killgdom} but afterwarùs exhaleù from eithcrthe vegetable or the animal kingdom (m); whatcver} consc (l) lhose things, we mean, that fioat about in the air, and are soversatile as to be capable of applying themselves in the freest manner,by means of the air, to the little sen soria or papillœ, and of imprintingupon them, as perfectly as ulon the most yielcling wax, the completefigure of their sides, angles and planes; in the same way as the nutrientparticles of the food imprint their figures upon the tongue, whichlarticles, were they not dissolved and fioated by the saliva, or sorneother extraneous liquid, could not possibly eommunieate any idea oftheir form, or we should rather say, of their figure. lhere are thentluee organs which receive sensations and sensuous distinctions from thecontact of corpuseular bodies, to wit, the organs of touch, taste andsmell; but the two other organs-the sensoria of hearing and sight~rceeive their sensations and distinctions from the mere modifications ofthe atmosphere. Although, hOlcver, the former derivc their sensations from hard and diversely fignred particles impinging upon thcm,nevertheless, those sensations arc not the less modifications on thisaccount; for the form imprinted upon the papillœ mounts up asa modification along the fibres towards the gencral sensorium. Seen. 344 (c). (m) Ali larticles endowed lith vis incrtiœ or gravity come exclusively from the mineraI kingdom; in fact, the carth is a collection ofsuch substances and clements. But these larticles pass from the bosomand womo of the earth, into yegetaoles, and thus from one kingdominto allothcr; although in this case they are comhincd and disposed ina differcnt manner,-into essential salts, jniccs, oils, spirits, rC5in5,&c. From the yegetaole kingdom they mount into our animal kingdom, as when wc eat yegctablcs, or cIse they pass into the animaIswhose fiesh wc cat. Thus the parts of the mineraI kingdorn, sufferinga transform:ltion, come to oc of llse to man at last.

lG THE ANIMAL KlNGDOM.qucntly, is mineraI, saline, or sulphureous j whether in finc itbe caUed acid, alkali, nitre, spirit, oil, syrup, juice, or by anyof the other infinite names of natural substances j provided onlythat it be raised upon the wings of thc atmosphere, carricdabout, and adequate to the sensorial papillre, and communicateexquisitely, by contact and application, aU its points, anglesand planes, or the entire figure of its sides, that is to say, itscorpuscular fOrill, to aU points of the little sensorium. By virtueof an idea similar to the impression being excited and represented in the cerebrum, aIl over the termination of its fibres, orin the universal cortical substance, sense is produced (n), theaffection of which sense is smell, either pleasant, sweet andfragrant, or unpleasant, rank and stinking j or mediate, withinfinite variety, between these two extremes. To produce thisaffectioll, certain fibres, drawn from the whole of the medullaryportion of the cerebrum, and collected into. a bundle termed themammiUary proeess,-certain most delicate fibres,-soft, full,ilisposed fascicularly, encased in pia mater, proceeding to thecribriform plate of the crest of the ethmoid bone, and passing eut, surrounded by dura mater, through its foramina (0), (n) In Part VIL, treating of the Cerebrum, it is my intention toproye by many considerations, that aU sensual modification creeping upalong the fibres, terminates in the universal cortical substance,-thelast and first boundary of the fibres; not mounting, as would mostlikcly be our general impression at first sight, to those organic principles only that correspond to the fibres procecding to the organ ofsense; but mounting to the whole sensorium in common, this beingwhat is affected. (0) We shaH treat of the olfactory nerves in the Part on the Cerebrum; but as we are here investigating the sense of smeU, it seems tobe nccessary to give a short description of these nerves or processes,extracted from Vieussens, Ridley, Willis, and other anatomists; fromwhich description we may be enabled in a summary to view the originand derivation of this sensation. Vhen the fore-part of the cerebrumis raised, the mammillary processes come in sight, together with theolfactory fibres proceeding from them. In man they are very thin andsmaU, but in less perfect animais they are like two bottles, very largeand nearly round, broad at their commencement, and decreasing by degrees, and they occupy a very considcrable part of the fundus of the

THE NOSE AND TUE UVULA. 17thoroughly inseminate and distribute themselves through thepituitary or mucous membrane: by these are produced organicor villous forms, which are the little scnsoria of this species oftouch. Prom these preliminaries we may now conclude respecting the path by which the modes and raclii of this sensationmount from these little organs to the common sensorium of thecerebrum,-we may conclude that they mount by way of thefibres, and at the same time by way of the two meninges, andthus meet in the middle and central cortical substance (p). Tocerebrum; and in animais, in the seal for instance, wc find these processes to contain a cavity distendcd with limpid fluid, the inflation ofwhich cavity by means of the blow-pipe, will cause the whole mass ofthe cerebrum to rise and swell up. But in man they are not hollow,nor is the common opinion correct, that tbere is a passage from thcminto the anterior vcntricles of the cerebrum. They lie immediately butfreely upon the dura mater, all the way from the clinoid processes tothe ethmoid bone: they are prctty soft; and when they reach the cribriform plate of the crista galli, they transmit a vast number of filaments through its foramina into the cavities of the ethmoid bonc andthe cells underneath them. As they descend, thcy are invested with,and accompanied by, an equal number of little prolongations of themeninges of the cerebrum, and they proceed until they reach the pulpymembrane, in which, and in its follicles, but particularly in the papillarysubstance, they terminate. In man they are white; in sheep and manyother animals they are of a light grey: in these [animaIs), twigs derived from the carotid follow them down to their divisions and delicatefibrillœ. They consist of medullary fibrillœ, some of which dcrivetheir origin extensively from the posterior and anterior lobes, and fromthe middle portion of the centrum ovale; some, more limitedly, onlyfrom the anterior and illferior part of the medulla oblongata, wherelyil1g obliquely and meeting each other, they appear finally to arisebetween the exterior and posterior lobes. Some authors maintain thattheir fibres arise from the corpora striata, and in this region receive filaments from the anterior lobes of the cerebrum. The fibres of thesenerves are much stronger and more numerous in dogs than in the humansubject. (p) We shall treat of these subjects more fully in the Part on theCerebrllm. That the modes of sensation mount up by way of thefibres, is a proposition which no one can think of denying; for all sense flies inta the cerebrum along the track of the fibres; and when VOL. rI. PAltT rI. CHAP. I. C

18 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.heighten this cffect, from the most particular modes of touchnp to the general sensation, a sracious membrane is spread out,and aU the cavities, ceUs, eonvolutions, leaves and sinuses areamply and continuously covered by it, as weU as by a fine periosteuro and perichondriulU (q) ; 80 that the little scattered sensuous the nerves are divided, sense is annihilated; and when they are injured, sense is altered and perverted in exact proportion to the amount and statc of the lesion. TIut this sensation also passes up by way of the meninges or membranes, that is to say, by way of the pia and dura mater; for in truth both these membranes aeeompany the fibres, orfaseieuli of fibres, as they aeeompany the nerves [of other parts], aU the way to the pituitary membrane; in a word, to the organic ter mini; and the dura mater likcwise supplies them with little shcaths. "The fibrillre of the olfactory nerves," says Vieussens, "are coveredwith pia and dura mater as they enter the nares" (jVeurofj1". Univ.,lib. iii., cap. ii.) And according to Vinslow, "The dura mater givcsoff as many little sheaths as there are foramina in the cribriform plate"(Exp. Anat., Tl. de la Teste, n. 22) : and again he says, "At thesamc place, the dura mater sends off a number of sheaths, that investand aecompany the nervous filaments and their ramifications, on theintcrnal parts of the nose" (Ibid., n. 134). Inasmueh then as everytremble, that is, cvery transcendent vibration, sueh as cornes une!erthe title of modification, pen-ades subtle iluid parts and contignous softparts, or passes along and runs over every continuum, therefore thecontact or subtlc impetus madc upon the organie papillre and theirmembranes, cannot possibly cease bcfore it arrives in ultimates; consequently, passing at once from the fibres and the two meninges, itmust go on until it arrives in the cortical portion of the cerebrum; inwhieh, therefore, a meeting takes place, as in a most multiple commoncentre. (1) Our authors shew throughout, that the pituitary membrane invests not only the larger cavities of thc nares, but also the ecUs andconchre of their superior chamber, ane! the frontal, sphcnoidal andmaxillary sinuscs, anù that it extends into the palate, the pharynx andthe traehea. "The pituitary membrane," says Vinslow, "is thatwhieh lines the internaI nares, the eeUnlar comolutions, the conchre,the walls of the septum, and by an uninterrupted continuation, theinner surface of the frontal and maxillary sinuses, and of the ductuslacrymales, palatini and sphe:noidales: it is likewise continncd farther, from the posterior nares to the pharynx, septum palati," &c.

THE NOSE AND THE UVULA. 19modes of singulars, collected into a common idca, at lengthemergc, in the form of evident sense, to our measure of perception and sphere of eonseiousness. And furthermore, with thesame objeet, the very osseous laminre themselves, thus eovered,are eonvoluted into spirals and little vortiees, in triple arder,deereasing in size from below ta above, or from without towithin, exactly in aeeordanee to the form of nature, eonsideredas a modifying power (r); and by these vortiees the stragglingmodes are drawn together, before they are diffused as one intothe cerebrum. And in order that a nerve may be present, toannounce with extreme and almost instantaneous rapidity thestate of this sense to the moving or muscular fibrcs, and disposethem to suitablc action, a branch is sent thither from the fifthpair (s). By these provisions the animal being is made aware of(n. 340.) Vieussens traces it over the pharynx and larynx (Neurogr.Univ., lib. i., cap. xvi.) ; so that it would seem to be continued, bythe membrane of the bronchia, to the innelmost parts of the lungs.Since then this membrane is so extensive, and contains not only glands,but papiIlœ, therefore, of necessity, the most particulaI forces, actionsand modifications, must pass into it as a common membrane; and thusaIl accidents must be communicated to aIl the papillœ that are associatedin the same function; precisely according to our declaration in Part 1.,Chap. 1., wherc wc treated of the Tongue. Wherever there is a particular, there also there is a corresponding general; for without ageneral or common modification, neither touch, nor any mode of a partor parts, from whatever cause arising, could come to lvident sensation.Common or gcneral modes are the only modes by which we are affectcc1,and thesc we perceive in some measure distinctly; but indiyidual orsinglllar moeles we pereeive -llY indistinctly, or so subtly and fincly that they appcar ta be nonentities; myriads of such require to be associated together, to present a single modulus or little mode which reachesour cOllsciousness. (1) Sec aboye, n. 332, note (7). Respecting the ceIls and conclu~:of the upper part of the nose, termed by Winslow, the labyrinth, sec that authors E,vp. Anat., Tr. des Os Secs, n. 247; and rcspecting thcinferior conchœ, sec Ibid., n. 435-44(j. (s) Besides thc proper branches of the olfactory neryes suppEed to the organ of smcIl, sorne authors attribute to it also certain branches from the fifth anel sixth pairs of nervcs. With respect to the fifth pair, Winslow says, "The internaI branch of thc orbital or ophthalmic nerve c2

20 THE ANDIAL KINGDO~I.that whiclt is endeavoring to rush inwards into its lungs. This i8still more exquisitely the case in those creatures that do not livcunder the guidance of a mind enùowed with a proper intellectand will, but under the guidance of nature alone (t). Wherefore, in order that the nares may attract pleasing odors morefully and intimately, and remove fetid odors more completely,from the lungs and the cerebrum, certain muscles are provided,which either expand or contract the orifices and passages (u),and dispose them to every state of sensation.sends a filament through the small interna! anterior orbital fOlamen intothe cranium, which cornes out again in company with one of the abovementioned filaments [of the olfactory nerles], through the ethmoidallamina. This internaI branch afterwards advances towards the osunguis, and is distributed partly to the lacrymal sac, partly to theupper portion of the pyramidalis muscle, and of the integuments ofthe nose," &e. (n. 340.) The same thing seems to oceur here as webefore remarked in the organ of taste, the tongue, to whieh also alittle braneh is supplied from the fifth pair; with the view, it would appear, that sense may make instantaneous common cause with motion;for the fifth pail is in a manner a common regulator and messengcr,the Mercury of the Olympus of the head. (t) On this account, animaIs impelled by instinct alone or naturealone, have larger olfactory nerves than man, communicating also moreintimately with the whole substance of the cerebrum, as appears frommanifold experienee in both birds and quadrupeds. Ve aU know perfectly well the power of smelling possessed by dogs. Indeed, theseand similar animaIs seem not only to have a keen sense of the particlesfloatillg about, as effiuvia, in the gross air, but also to discern the purerdistinctions of particles, and the things which are circulating in thesllbtler atmosphere of the ether: for smeU alone is sufficient to shewthem, whether the meat or food offered them, is suited to their natureor not. But we shall speak further of these points in the Part on theExternal Sensoria. (u) Vieusscns sometimes makes mention of muscular fibres as existing in the pituitary membrane itself, within the cavity of the nares (Neurof/l·. Univ., lib. i., cap. xvi.) ; and which, if they do exist, areperhaps continuations from the velum palati. But the external muscles,by means of the contraction of the pinnre and cartilages, are quite sufficient to prohibit the influx of injurious air. Besides which, we havethe power of stopping our nostrils with OUI fingers; of suspending

TUE NaSE AND TUE UVULA. 21 34·6. III. By a kind of 1tnison, the nares regulate the arti-culate sounds of speech, and to a certain degree, as it were byprovisional alce, conspire to modify the words themselves. Forthe sound emittcd by the glottis, and takcn up and circum~scribed, under the direction of the tangue, by the velum palati,and shaped according to the boundaries of each portion thereof,speaking generally is carried out along the hoUow arch of themouth, through the opening of the lips, and equaUy also escapesthrough the path of expiration, or the nasal openings; thisgives rise to a compound sonorous modification of the voicc, which contributes to the sharpncss, definitioll, and unisoll of thcvery sound; anù also confers upon it that infinite véliiety whichbelongs to aU things. Vve may learn the particular nature ofthis sharpness or discrimination, when the aIre of the nose are compressed or dilated, either artificiaily or naturaUy; when the passages are obstructed by stagnant or catarrhal mucus; or when ,ve meet with individuals, who either on account of na- tional peculiarity or acquired habit, speak more or less through the nares, and accompany the voice uttered by the mouth with a nasal sound. For the tremulous vibration of sound luns over and strikes aU membranous, cartilaginous and osseous, and more especially ail elastic parts, with wonderful velocity and continuity (x): thus it sweeps uninterruptcdly over the pituitary membrane, from the very larynx, aU the way to the foliaccous ossicles of the nose, and carries them into a similar but highcr vibration, according to their spring, form, and mass; hencc wc have a compound modification in accordancc with the structurc of the labyrinthine recess of the nares. 347. IV. The nares clear away the viscid phlegm f1om the arteries, in order that a pure and clean blood may ascend to the sensoria of the cerebrum, and to the othe/ sensoria of the head. This is evident from the numberless arterial ramifications that pervade the palatine, nasal, or pituitary membrane, and indced almost entirely construct it (y); from the wedge-like confascicu· respiration for a time; of turning away our faces; or of removing ourselves altogether from the locality of the noxious cxhalation. (x) See aboye, note (p). (y) Such is the abundance and luxuriance of arteries in the pitui-

22 fIlE ANI1IlAL KINGDOllI.lation of thcsc little arterics, and their telmination in excretoryglanùs (z) : from the multitude of filaments and ducts that lunover the membrane, and protruùe by their orifices into the cavi·tics of thc nares (a) : from the fungoid and cellular texturc of tary mcmbrane, that one would be inclined to say it was composed of nothing cise. Sec Ruyschs Tabulre. Vicussens, who agrees with me in stating that this membrane abstracts a pituitary and mucous humor from the blood that is asccnding to the cerebrum, speaking of the arteries of the membrane, has the following; "This membrane is sup plicd with much more numerous arterial ramifications than the other parts of the mouth; thcy terminate in plexuses not unlike those of the placenta" (Neltrog1·. Univ., lib, 1., cap. xvi.) The same inference again may be deduced from the common office of this organ, (since we may pass by induction from thc general to the particular,) namely, that it carries away the pituitre of ail the organs of thc head, and therefore purifies them, both in the whole and the parts, (bllt by two ways,) from the ichorons inundation. (=) You will also find these glands figured in Ruysehs TabullC men tioned above, 11. 342. "The excretory ducts [of the glandular gra nules]," says Vinslow, "are very long near the septum narium, and their orifices very visible" (n.340). (a) It is evident from thc description of these ducts and glands,that they absorb and carry off into the cavity of the nares, the pituitaryIymph between the two membranes; that is to say, between the pitui tary membrane and the periosteum, and also the lymph that is flowingdown through the cellular tissue of the pituitary membrane; for theglands appear on the former part, but the orifices of the ducts on thelatter especially. Vieussens speaks of these ducts; ""r e obserreon this membrane," says he, "not only blood-vessels, bot also greatnumbers of short ducts, which, in consideration of their office, l tcrmvasa mucifera. These are PlillCipally seen on that portion of the membrane whieh 1S appended to the posterior part of the vomer, and of thetwo ossa palati" (Neurogr. Univ., lib. i., cap. xvi.) And Winslowsays, "lly applying a blow-pipe to any of the orifices, the ducts maybe inflatcd through nearly their whole cxtent" (n. 340). That innumerahle foramina open in the cavities of the uales, is also declared byVieussens; "The surface of this membrane," says lie, "is pcrforatedin many parts by numerous smail foramina; if it he pricked with aneeùle, or squcezed betwecn the fingers, mucus immediately cxudesfrom it; anù if it be lemoved and placed in watcr, it iwbibcs the water

THE NOSE ~ND THE UVULA. 23the same membrane (b) : from its continuaI excitation by thevarying influent air, and by the nidorous [or ammoniacal] partsthereof, which either sooth or frct it: lastly, from the COlllmontrembling of aH the parts, when the tongue and larynx arespeaking. Thus the nasal organ is the common emunctory andpurificatory of the blood which is mounting to the cerebrum;and of that which is turuing aside to the organs of the senses,of sight particularly, and also of hearing and taste. The salivary glands, indeed, as the parotids, the maxillaries, and severalothers, are also emunctories of the same blood, but subordinately to this common emunctory (c). The nares also immediately derive from aU these organs the ichorous streams thatthreaten inundation; as, for instance, from the eye. This is plainfrom thc lacrymal duct or sac (d) : from the close vicinity of thenose to the eye : from its intimate connexion therewith by meanslike a sponge" (Neurogr. Univ., lib. i., cap. xvi.) But these foraminaare not continuous with the befole-mentioned ducts, but seem ta comefrom the intermediate cellular tissue, and to provide a passage andoutlet for ail the Iymph that is poured out there, or flows down thither. (b) Respecting the fungoid structure, see Vieussens above, note (a).Respecting the cellular tissue, Winslow says, "If we make a smallopening in it [the membrane] with the point of a scalpel, ... and usethe blow-pipe, we discover a very extensive cellular substance" (n.340). (c) That the salivary glands also secern the pituitœ of the blood,see Part L, the Chapters on the Tongue, thc Palate and the Pharynx;also those on the Liver and the Pancrcas; which organs likewisc reducethe impure blood, and convert it into salivary juices. But that thepituitary membrane draws off the grossest fœces of thc blood, is plainfrom the excitative causes whence the attractive [causes in this part arederived]; we mean, from the continuaI ingress, transit and egTess ofthe air; from the impulse and irritant action of angular particlcs uponthe organs of smell; and from the general trembling excited by sounds,&c. No excitation similar ta this has place in the salivary glands, butthey arc stimulated to their actions by the motion of the tongue, particularly during eating; wherefore they arc only subordinate emunctories. From the cxcitativc causes we may conclude respecting thequantity, and in some mcasure also respeeting the quality of the excrctions from the arterics. (d) H.espccting this littlc sac, sec Heister, n. 336; Winslow,n. :~40.

24 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.of little bones, coats and muscles: and from the arterial ramifications which come off from the more considerable branches,and lUn to the eye (e). Likewise from the ear, through theEustachian tubes (1). Also, from the sinuses of the cranium,from the frontal, sphenoidal, and maxillary sinuses,-and perhaps, too, interiorly from the interstices, cells, openings, and cleftsin the corresponding and other bones of the head (g). That thenares derive certain streams from the cavities of the six sinuses,is rendered probable by the continuation of the nasal membrane; by the communication of the air; and by the visible anddiscoverable perforation. And that an exudation is conveyedbetween the membranes, is testified by their loose connexionwith each other, even in the very sinuses of the bones; by theilexpansion into vesicles when infiated (h); and by the absorbentand interfiuent ducts, conveying the discharges outwards (i). (e) It is worthy of remark, that the arterial branches supplyingthe eye, come principally from the branches that go to the pituitarymembrane; thus they more particularly abstract the pituitre from theblood, for the organ of sight. The same conclusion may be drawnfrom other phenomena, as from the fact, that the sight is renderedremarkably clear by the use of snuff and other stimulant powders. (f) That certain determinate ducts carry off the serosities of theinternaI ear, and also the air itself, particularly from the cavity of thetympanum, will be seen in the Part on the Organs of the Senses. (g) There are perpetuaI communications between the nares and theinnermost parts of the bones; but no great number of little foraminahave yet been discovered; for the pituitary membrane ramifies uninterruptedly upon the very leaves anù ceUs of the bones. " The ethmoid bone," says Vinslow, "is of a very fine and delicate structure,although compact and without any diploë; being almost entirely composed of divers thin, bony plates. It is connected to the frontal,sphenoidal, nasal, maxillary and lacrymal bones, and to the palatebone and the vomer. Hs use is, ta give great extension to the pituitarymembrane, in a small compass" (Exp. Anat., Tr. de8 08 Secs, n. 252-254). It would also seem, by its fissures and foliaceous interstices,to afford a passage for the humor that is oozing from the cellular compages of the adjoining bones. (h) See Verheyen, Corp. Hum. Anat., tract. iv., cap. XX., andparticularly tab. xxviii., fig. 4, 5. (z) See above, note (a).

THE NOSE AND THE UVULA. 2;) 348. The nares draw of] the pituitary lympltS from the medullary and cortical portions of the cerebrum, and from its meningesor membranes. Of this wc are fully assured and convinced bythe continuation, connexion, and structure of all these parts;by the determination of motion, the excitation of cause, themanifest permeability, and by visible effects: the continuation,namely, and production of both the meninges, and of the olfactory fibres, from the pituitary membrane, through the foraminaof the cribriform plate, over the wholc surface and medulla ofthe cerebrum (k). The connexion and communication of thesame membranes, with all the interior fibres and membranes,cven to the cortical termini (l). The plexiform and porons (k) The particular passage or running-forth and extension of modifications and subtle vibrations and undulations, is to be inferred fromthe continuity of coherent or solid parts, particularly of solid similarparts, and from the continuity of fluid part~; consequently, in thcanimal microscosm, from the continuity of the fibres and membranes,and in the macrocosm, from the cùntinuity of the particles of the atmosphere. This property of modifications is troly amazing, for whereverimpressed or originating, they pour forth along everything continuousand contiguous, and only when exhausted, either by graduaI diminutionof elastieity or increase of gravity, do they die away and eease to beperceptible. If then we are to judge from continuity, it appears, thatthe sensual fibre;-in the prescnt case the olfactory fibre,-is continuedwithout any interruption through the fibres of the mammillary processcs,and into the meninges of the pia and dura mater; for the fibrillaryfasciculi are covered over in their course, with both the meninges, aswith little sheaths. See n. 345 (p). And if the meninges follow thevery fibre aU the way to its organic ends, that is, to the papillre, andpossibly there enswathe the first minute individual sensoriola with sornekind of most fine membranous film, or connect them with the fibres,then the consequence will be, that when the little organ lS touched,these extremes of the two membranes must also be affected by the contact, and modified, and the modifications continued inwards into thecerebrum. And if this be the case with the fibre and the two meninges,then the humor eontiguous to them must necessarily beeome participantin the same vibration. Cc) If, as we have just said, we are to judge of the extcusion ofthe olfactory modification, from continuity and eontigllity, then, takinganatomy as our guide, it appears, that the fibre~ of the olfactory llerves,

2f> THE ANIMAL KING DOM.structu?"e of the medullary substance (m), and the convolutedand open structure of the cortical substance (n), which is contiif thcy are not absolutcly continuous with the fibres of the wholc meJulia cerebri, nevertheless communicate "i.th them in a wonderful manner; for when those mammiJlœ or proccsses, (which are hollow in thcseal,) are infiatcd, the whole medullary centre of the cerebrUin expands,according to the experience of Willis; shcwing that there is a communication between the olfactory fibres of the nose and the whole medullaryfibre of the cerebrum. That this communication, however, is only general,and indeed, with the fasciculi, lameJlœ or plexuscs of those fibres, willbe shewn in the Part on the Cerebrum; consequently that it is a communication with all the interstices of the fasciculi or plexuses throughwhich a constant stream of gross and pituitary Iymph is flowing. Ifthen there be such a communication with the universal compagès of themedllllary substance, then of consequence there is a communicationthereby with the cortical substance itself, which is the source of thefibres. The same conclusion may bc deduced from the place wherethcse processes have their roots or origins, namcly, between the corporastriata and the thalami ncrvorum opticorum; which situation is themeeting-place and common forum of ail the fibres that descend to themedulla oblongata. But with respect to the membranes, the duramater communicates throughout with the pia mater entirely by theintcrchange of filaments and vesscls; ",hile the latter communicates moreimmeùiately with evcry portion of the cortical substance. Thus thereis a double or triple communication between the olfactory fibres and thecortical substance; namely, by the fibre, and by the meninge.s: hencein the cortical substance itself, which oeeupies the place of a centre ofal! things, there is a meeting of the modifications. From thcse considerations it follows, that a similar action is communicated to thewhole of the interfiuent and contiguous pitllitœ; for not only sensuousmodification, but also those other more violent modifications which arcproperly termed trcmors, penetrate thither. (11!) We shall shew in the Part on the Cerebrum, that its medullarysubstance is cxceedingly polons, and being plexiform, therefore permeable in various directions from one extremity to the other; and thatthe larger passages or channels lun continuously towards the roots ofthe mammillary processes. (n) The convolutions of the cerebrum, formcd by the joint disposition of the cortical glands, are not unknown to even tyros in anatomy.All these convolutions intercommunicate, and by a continuons spire ofcircumvolntion arc detcrmined to the two extremitics of the axis;

)I"V lIlE NaSE AND lIlE UVULA. ~,uuaUy moistcllcd by dripping arterics: likewise, the extensivecavity betwcen the two meninges. The determination of motion,namely, from the whole of the centrum ovale, or mcdullaryglobe, towards the roots or origins of the mammillary proeesses,and from them, as well as from the whole convoluted eireumferenee, ta the eribriform plate; as it were from levers andperipheries, through determinate paths, ta a centre of gravityand lest; which line of direction all the fiuids of the cercbrumequally as of the body, arc bonnd ta follow (0). rhe excitationof canse,-from the air attracted alternately; from the contactand stimulus of odoriferous particles; from the tremulous vibration of the laryngeal sound: aIl which pervade every continuum,and excite the animations of the cerebrum ta reeiprocationssynchronous with the respirations of the lungs; thus giving riseta a perpetuaI dctermination of the contiguous and encloscdhumaI, ta its natural reservoirs and outlets, consequently towards the cribriform plate (p); in which there is a manifest namely, to the fourth sinus, and to the cribriform plate. Hence, if a stream of humor pass along the course of the furrows, and the unending flux of the convolutions, it cannot but be carried to the cribriform plate, whieh is in one axis of those spires. Consequently, if any fluid be passing hetween the two meninges, then such fluid, occupying the natural channel of the fluxion and derivation, and following the gyres of the convolutions, must be determined to the crista galli or spina coronalis, as its ultimate port and asylum; for this spot is the tirst andlast boundary both of the silluses and processes of the dura mater, andof ail the convolutions of the two hcmispheres of the cerebrum. Glanting, thelefore, the altcrnate constrietion and expansion of the cerehrum, consequently, the alternate opening out and contraction both ofthe convolutions on the surfacc, and the channels in the interior, then itfol1ows, according to the natural laws of hydraulics, that thrre is amoving forward of the intercepted flnid or pituitEC towalds this llltimategoal or station. (0) According to the statements just made, the anatomical experience propel to which will be given in the Part on the Cerebrulll. (p) It will be seen presently, that the cribriform plate occnpies, oris sitnated at, the extlemitv of the axis of the whole of the ccrebrulfl,all(l that on the outside of tlle etlulloid bone it is continued to the axisof the body extel1lling into the thorax: and wr have shewn allcady

28 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.pe1"fneability bctween the fibrillary filaments, and between thetwo meuinges wliich accompauy them outwards to their organic terroinations in the form of little distinct sheaths; andwhich, actuated by the alternate motion of the cerebrum, by akind of purnping action, afford the lymphs an opportunity ofpassing alternately through their minute interstices (q). Wethoughout our Analyses that aU fluid that passes through the pipes andcontinuous foramina in the animal body, tends by a natural determination towards the axis, and from the axis to its extremity. Consequently,should any humor be coUected in any part, within either the pulpymeduUa, or the granular circumference of the cerebrum, or betweenthe meninges, such humor is necessarily forced, by the alternate animation of the cerebrum, to the extremity of its axis; the more especiaUy, since various external causes operating to excite the cerebrnm tothe reciprocal movements of respiration, exist in the nasal cavities, wherethe extremities of the fibriUœ and of the meningesof the cérebrumare nakedly exposed to divers impulses. (q) There cannot, l think, be any reasonable doubt with respect tothe permeation of humor between the two membranes, the pia and duramater, even in the very foramina of the cribriform plate, where themembranes, laid and applied one upon the other, issue out to the pituitary membrane; were there any concretion or growing together ofthe membranes, there could be no possible distinctness in the sense ofsmelling. Upon the cereblUm itself these two membranes are perfectlydistinct from each othcr; consequently they are also distinct in thoseplaces where they appear to be more closely united. If there be aspace intervening, of course aU the humor that is contained betweenthc membranes, must be carried thither along the stream of determinations, and consequently must tend to enter those interstices: and notalone between the membranes, continuously from the common cavitybetween the same, but also between the fibres under the pia materitself; for lvery fibre, and lvery fasciculus of a fibre, is di visible fromits feUow, and acts distinctly; were it otherwise, there could be no distinct vital operations. Granting, then, the alternate expansion andconstriction of the cerebrum, we also grant the alternate elongation andcontraction of the fibres and fasciculi, consequently the alternate opell~ing and closing of the interstices,-the interstices, namely, between thefibres enclosed in the pia mater, and also betwcen the membranes themselves in these little foramina; consequently, again, we grant a species of rcciprocal pumping, such as cannot by possibility exist in coUapscd

lIlE !lOSE AND lIlE UVUr.,I. 29Rrc also convinccd of the same thing by visible efJects; namely,by the sensible vermination and crecping of the catalThal humorwhich cornes from the cerebrurn; by its derivation towartls thispart of the surface of the face; by its diseharge into the antraor eavities of the nares; or in case these are closcd up, into thenerves of sorne other region (r); by its more full aud lapidand dead, but only in living and brcathing brains. Judging from theùead subject, Vicusscns and others after him have erroneously formcù acontrary opinion; and sorne cali this transpiration in qucst.ion; aslIeister, who says, "Whether the nares let out thc pituita or bloodfrom the cercbrum, as the ancients and Slevogt will have it thcy do,or Dot, is still a matter of doubt." (Camp. Anat., n. 28G.) Merelyfor this reason, that whcn the head of the dead subject is held downwards, no pituitary humor, or spirit of wine gently thrown in, is observed to escape! But hitherto, so far as my knowledge extends, thcattempt has never been made with fluid injections thrown in betwcenthe meninges, before a sufficient tirne has elapsed for the parts tobecome agglutinated; or before they have collapsed so firrnly as toblock up the passage, and begun to repcl the fluid thrown in, by a folùing or reaction caused by the force of the injection. Rence l fear theright conclusion has been too stoutly and obstinately resisteù, althoughfully borne out by plain faets and phenomena. Tell me, l beseeehyou, what other place of diseharge has been discovered. On the otherhand, we know that it is undeniable that there is a continuaI afflux oflymph bctween the membranes, and under the pia mater, between theconvolutions, and in the rnedullary substance itself; to say nothing ofthe lymph in the ventricles, frorn which the humor is carried offthrough other secret ways. In no part of the cerebrum or its meningesdo we find venous orifices, such as absorb collections of pituita, butarterial structure prevails throughout, and gives off its excretions; noris there any passagc in the dircction of the sutures, nor through thet.ransverse septum into the chamber of the cerebellum, and this wayinto the spinal marrow; still less through the dura mater, by obliquechannels ta the bony cranium, from which all pituita of the kind iscarefully kept away. But this discussion respecting t.he olfactory ncnesis merely preliminary; we shall caln-ass t.he subjcct point by point, andmore fully, in the Part on the Cerebrum. (r) Nothing is more cornmon in llorthern climates than the perception of the crceping of catarrhal humor in the cerebrum, and its sensibly-felt derivation iuto thc nares. l should faH short of the truth were

30 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.escape upon thc application of sternutatory substances; in fnct,by the very phcnomcna of sneezing (s): also, by the existenceof icJlOrous collections between the membranes, in thc spongelike l":1edullary substance, and in the ventricles, as observed inpost modem examinations of the brains of thosc who have <liedof apoplexy, epilepsy, paralysis, or hydrocephalus; and whoscrcstoration to health would be a matter of impossibility, unlc88this ontlet for dischargc could be properly opencd. 349. V. B!I an extrinsically impulsive force, the nares excitethe cerebm1n ta ils proper reciprocal animations, synchronous withthe respirations of the lungs. Of this we are likewise assured hythe causes of the former effcct (t), whieh are, indeed, commonto this its fcllow; that is to say, by the continuation, connexion,and communication of the fibres of this organ, with all thep:crts, individually and collcctively, in boththe medullary andcart,ical portions of the ccrcbrum: by thc pcrpctual irritation,sa long as wc breathe the breath of life, arising from the aircharged Vith odors, and by its varying affiatus <md contact,affceting, titillating, twitching, and prieking the organic tissue,l to say that l have myself experienced it more than a hundredtimes. (8) From the phenomena of sneezing, whieh is the greatest expansion, and the sudden eonstrietion, of thc eereurum and the lungs, wemay sce what are the lesser effects and exciting causes of respiration;fol the cause is the same in both cases, and the diirerenee is only adifference in degree,-the differenee betwecll great and small. Thegleatest dcgree of titillation and stimulation excites a total elevation, asit were, a convulsion of the cerebrum; a lesser degree excites a similarbut more slight eirect. It is a plain matter of experience, that the duramater, and consequently the hemisphcres of the cerebrum, are violentlycontraeted and expanded in sneezing; for in wounds of the head, whereportions of the calvarium have been lost, the contraction of thismembrane is sensible under thc finger, and even visibly perceptible.Thns the pnrifieation of the cereurum from humor, and the dischargethereof through the manifold natural outlets of the cribriform plate,as weil as from the other cavities and si11uses, must certainly takeplace; being a necessary consequence of such contractile and expansilcmotion. (t) Respecting which, see aboye, n. 348.

TUE NOSE AND THE UVULA. 31in gcneral and in palticular, and occasionally rousing both thecerebrum and the Inngs to almost c011Vulsive expansions andconstrictions Cu). But there are differences in this respect indifferent living creatures: the human lace has the power ofrespiring tluough the mouth as weIl as through the nose j inorder that the cerebrum may be excited to its alternate reciprocations of elevation, solely by causes within its own power,-byinternal causes,-and Hot at the same time, except so far as itwiHs, by external causes (x): so that nothing may sever or interrupt the analyses of its rational mind, and their .tacit andquiet guidance (y). In confirmation of this fact we may alsoadd that (u) l mean, to sneezing, whieh is the greatest degree of expansionund eonstrietioll of the ecrebrum. See ubove, note (s). (x) In arder to the knowledge and exploration of causes lromeffeets, it is of the first importance to know the influx and cooperationof the causes of any given effeet; but this is a subjeet of vast extension. Ve must here eonfineourselves to stating, that causes arc divisible into innermost, middle, and outermost. In order that the causemay produee the effeet, ail these must neeessarily eooperate. Theinnermost are the proper causes of the effieient,-they are the causesbelonging tb the very principle; but the outermost, although evokedby proper causes, nevertheless should not be termed proper exceptingwith respect to their deseent and evoeation. The innermost causes aetmost individually, that lS to say, separately or singly upon eyery individual part; but the outermost causes aet upon ail the parts general!y :thus the outermost represent the eommon bond of singulars. 10 givean example: the eerebrum, from the causes belonging to its prineiple,whether that prineiple be nature or the will, excites eaeh substance ofthe cortex and eaeh fibre to a speeies of animation; yet the eerebrumrequires also to be exeited to the same reeiproeations by sorne otherand general prineiple; as in the present case, by the air flowing intothe nasal eaYities, whieh operates in a general manner, not only uponthe whole of the fibres, but also upon the whale of the meninges, andby this means upon the cortical eerebrum, where the prineip1es withtheir powers reside. The eerebrum aets, by the fibres, upon aIl theveriest partieu1ars of the body; the 1ungs also aet upon the same, buton1y upon the general eompages of the fibres, thus upon the organsformed by the fibres. Sa in al! other cases. (y) Every one knows lrom his own experienee, that while his mimI

32 THE ANIMAL KINGDOY. 350. VI. The nasal cavity and prominence, like a cynosure,terminate and complete a common axis. This proposition isproved by the situation of the ethmoid bone, and its connexionwith the coronal, the sphenoid, the two maxillary, and thelacrymal bones, and with the palate bone and the vomer, towhich it serves as a boundary, cornmon bond, fixed point, andwedge (z) j also by the articulation of the other bones by meansof sutures, particularly by means of the frontal suture in youngsubjects (a). That the cribriform plate of the cthmoid bone isis revolving its ideas or reasons, and thinking intently, he retains or suspends the respirations of the lungs, consequently also the brcathingof the cerebrum, for a considerable interval; and takes every means toprevent any deep inhalation of the air, from disturbing its rationalanalyses or analytic equations. For when the mind is in this state, itdemands the most profound silence and the most peIfect quiet. Thissuspension of breathing takes place, in order that everything of thegrosser blood may be driven away, or kept at sorne distance, from theinnermost organs; for the blood pcnetrates deeply when the cerebrumbreathes or animates deeply. Hence man enjoys the power of transmitting the pulmonic breath through the aperture of the lips, andthrough the mouth; and thus the external cause is prevented from exciting the internai, (as it does in brutes,) and the internaI is constantly enablcd to caU forth or evoke the external. (z) This is sufficiently shewn by the facts of osteology. The bonesof the cranium are mutual props and supports to each other; and eachbone has its middle terminus, whlch it respects as a centre; for bothin the part and in the compound there is a perpetuaI respect of centres,axes and circumferences, which results in the unbroken nexus andcorrespondence of aU things. With respect to the cribriform plate ofthe ethmoid bone, Winslow says, "The middle part of this portion ofthe ethmoid bone is a smaU horizontal lamina, perforated by severalforamina, and termed, cribriform plate; posteriorly it has a little notchfor its articulation with the sphenoid bone. This plate may be looked~pon as the body and support of the whole bone" (Exp. Anat., Tr.des Os Secs, n. 245). In the skeleton, the prominence of this part isparticularly conspicuous, and we see clearly that it proceeds, as thecxtremity of an axis, from the point of junction of the other bones . (a) The sutures respect each other mutuaUy, in the same manneras the bones. In embryos and infants we generaUy find a suture running from the sagittal suture towards the ethmoid bone, and going to

THE NOSE AND THE UVULA. 33moreover placed at the extremity of the axis of the cerebrumitself and its membranes, is shewn by the longituùinal sinus,and the falciform process of the dura mater j by the serpentinegyres of the hemispheres j likewise, by the median fissure, running from the fOUlth ventricle, through the aqueduct of Sylvius,the third ventric1e, and the septum lucidum, to the fissure ofthe anterior convexities of the cerebrum (b) j aIl of which havetheir starting-place and goal at the crcst and plate of this bone :also, by thc communication of the mammillary processes withthe whole of the roedullary nucleus and of the cortical circumference (c). The nares also institute and begin the common axiswhich runs from the head into the thorax, as well as that which runsinto the abdomen; to wit, through the larynx and the trachea to the lungs, and through the pharynx and the œsophagus to the stomach; which ways the pituitary membrane continuouslyfollows, lays down and smooths, from the superior boundary of the axis, far beyond their respective thresholds (d). From snchthe dorsum of the nose; and which sometimes unites with anothcrthat cornes round from the coronal suture to the orbits. Thcse verysutures or articulations, like the bones themselves, are indications ofmutual relations and directions. (b) AU these particulars wil! be clearly explained in the Part on theCerebrum. See below, note (d). (c) These points were treated of in the preceding paragraph. (d) It may be proper ta indicate, at this preliminary stage of ourinvestigations, that two very remarkable axes are observed in the cerebrum: one runs from the crista galli, along the longitudinal sinus andthe falciform process of the dura mater, that is to say, along the greatfissure of the hemispheres, al! the way to the fourth sinus or torcularHerophili; the other runs in the middle or central portion of the cerebrum, from the fissure of the anterior convexities,-thus like the former,from the region of the crista galli or cribriform plate,-through the sep tum lucidum, the third ventricle, and ultimately through the fourth,aU the way to the spinal marrow, and is a hollow axis, but interceptedby divers partitions. The very surface of the cerebrum, convoluted as it is, and wound into serpentine spires, and the whole of its interior or medullary portion, respect these axes as continuaI goals, ta which with one accord they tend. The cerebellum refers itself ta the spinal mar row, as a kind of axis continued from itself. But in the body there VOL. II. PART II. CHAP. 1. Il

34 THE ANIMAL KING DOM.continuity, connexion, and communication in the extremeboundaries,-in the last boundary of the head, and the firstboundary of the body,-there exists a common correspondenceof an things, and the same correspondence is excited alternatelyby the contact of the air or breath as it passes by. 351. VII. Thu.~, from the ultimate boundary of titis axis, thenares transcribe the cerebrum into the face, and give it the power ofpicturing its affections upon the surface or countenance thereoj.For from this boundary, as a kind of pole or centre, the cerebrum evolves itself into new circumferenees, and in arder to becontinuous with them, it produces its axis into a beaked protuberance,-in fact, into a nose,-and perforates this nose withcavitics, divides these cavities from each other by a septum, fur·nishes them with alœ, and connects them, by means of coats,ligaments, and muscles, with the Eps, chœks, eyebrows, andforehead, suitably to evèry idea of the animal minds representa.tion (e). Renee correspondence, symmetry, beautYj and a na·seems to be three general axes proceeding from the ethmoid bone; onerunning through the pharynx and the œsophagus into the stomach, andwhich serves as an axis in the whole of the cavity of the abdomen, aswe shewed in the Chapter on the Peritonœum: the second passingthrough the larynx and the trachea into the lungs, which llre the generalbeginning or principle of aU the motions of the body: the third goingtowards the spinal marrow, which, as we before observed, is the axis ofthe cerebeUum. That there is also sorne passage thither from the cavities of the nares, may be gathered from an observation of Vinslow."The particular situation of these cavities," says he, "deserves ourattention: the bottom of them runs directly from before backward, sothat a straight and pretty large stilet may very easily be passed directfrom the tip of the nose, as far as under the great apophysis of the occipital hone" (n. 34.0). (e) The proper muscles of the nose are two dilators, the pyramidalis and the myrtiformis; also one constrictor, figured by sorne anato mists, and named by Brown, corrugator l1asi; to which wc may add,the semilunar or falciform muscle of Eustachius, represented in his Tabul. Anat., tab. xviii., fig. 3. In the plates of Eustachius and otherauthors, as Cowper, llidloo, Brown and Santorinus, we see that nearlyail the labial and the frontal and palpebral muscles communicate by awonderful influx with the nasal muscles. See Eustachius, Ibid., tab.

THE NOSE AND THE UVULA. 35tural and instinctive divination from the form of this prominencerespecting the cerebrum, or respecting its animal mind, whichin the face, constitutes expression (1). 352. The UVULA is a conical and pointed corpuscule, hanging like a plummet or inverted balance from the junction ofthe arches and columns of the velum palati; like an elongateddrop or tear from the roof of the nasal chamber; provided withgreat numbers of museles, termed musculi staphilini, whicharise from the pharynx, the larynx, the root of the tongue, thepalate, and the Eustachian tube; furnished with numerous vessels; excavated by little mucous crypts; surrounded by themembranes of the palate and nares; reaching fOl"Warc1s to theroot of the tongue; flexible, capable of elevation, relaxation,xi. and xviii. Thus confirming our proposition, that the whole face,by means of the muscles, refers itself to the nose, as a kind of prominent axis. But it was pointed out above, in our Chapter on theMouth and Lips, that the labial orifice occupies the place of a kind ofcentre, the circumference of which centre is moveable, and that bymeans thereof the face acquires the capacity and power of representinginfinite species of motions or expressions. On the other hand, theuppermost part or root of the nose is an immoveable centre, from whicha radiation takes place to all points of the face as circumfercnces ; whichis the reason why there is sa close an intercourse betwccn these twocentres; for nearly an the nasal muscles operate upon the labial muscles, and vice versâ. Everyone may experience this in his own person;for the aIre nasi cannot be expandcd withont a simultaneous opening ofthe lips, nor can the two bc comprcssed cxcept together. (f) Thus we observe various classes of noses,-some aquiline, longand hooked, sorne pincheù; others again, turned up, crooked, bulbous,retracted, grooved or double; others again, smaU, sometimes so smaUas to consist of little more than aIre; and if these forms be congenital,not attributable to the mothers influence during pregnancy, we shaUrarely be deceived in juùging from them. For if the state of the animalmind,-whethcr it be anger, or melancholy, or sorrow of any kind,or pride, or shame, or disgust, or contempt, or gladness, bcncvolence,kindness, or the like,-be cognizable from alterations in the countenance, then of course a very similar form in gcneral must be communicated to the infant by the nature hereditarily propagated from itsparents. It does not, however, seem that this rule ought to be extended to anything beyond the signs of the disposition or animal mincI. D2

3G THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.contraction and extension, and determinable to aU the modes ofthe tongue, the pharynx, the larynx, and the palate, when theseparts are in action j particularly and proximately to the modesof the velum palati. Its uses are, Firstly, to give the velum palati the full power of accommodating itself to the actions of thetongue in eating, and of the pharynx in swaUowing (g) : thisend being answered by the glosso-staphilini and pharyngo-staphilini muscles, assisted by the palato-staphilinus and the azygos:M:orgagnii (h) j also by its membranes, continuous with the integuments of the mouth and fauces. Secondly, likewise to assist (g) The uvula appears to do no more than bestow upon the velumpalati the opportunity and power of accorr.modating itself to the respective modes of the tongue in eating and speaking. It is onlya pendulouscorpuscule, capable of elevating itself, contracting and expanding; butlike a plummet or balance it lends and communicates to the velum palati, a wonderful readiness and faculty of application. It is, in fact, aperfectly moveable apex, to which the divers actions of the elum canin an instant be concentrated, and thus thc velum be nimbly inflectedand folded to suit the minutest variations of the tongue and the pharynx; whieh would be very difficult of accomplishment without sorneweight or poise of the kind: for the circumferences, scattered an round,obtain their ability of moving, from the moveable axis; inasmuch as itreceives aIl the vibrations and infleetions, as weIl as accommodates itselfthereto. The velum palati closes the passage, either to the laryn:x, orto the nares, or ta the Eustachian tube, or to the pharynx; but not sothe uvula, which turns like a balance according ta aIl the little motionsof its scales. Respeeting the velum palati, and the palatine arches andcolumns, and respeeting the manner in which the uvula depends therefrom, see Winslow, n. 341. But no author, l think, has more diligently and suc.cessfully than Boerhaave, investigated the foldings of thevelum palati, and the various determinations of it and the uvula, bothwhen the tongue is eating and speaking. See his b18t. Med., n. 70,71. For Boerhaave has taken the opportunity of examining the partsunder these circumstances with a lighted candIe; and has shewn how readily this little cone accommodates itself to the varions actions of the velum. Indeed to him l principally owe my knowledge of the nses of this corpuscule. (lt) According to myologists, the glosso-staphilinus, arising from the root of the tongue, ascends tawards the palate and velum pa lati. The pharyngo-staphilinus, arising from both sides of the pha

THE NOSE ANn THE UVULA. 37the velum or c1austrum palati, when the larynx is articulating,and the tongue regulating, sound: this end being answcred bythe glosso-staphilini, the thyro-staphilini, the salpingo-staphilini,and the pterygo-staphilini, assistcd by the palato-staphilinus (i) :and hereby is conferred the power of rcspiring, modulating, andspeaking, either through the mouth, or through the nales, orthrough both; which seems to be the reason why the uvula is notfound in brutes. Tltirdly, the uVlùa provides that the pituitaryand mucous humor of the nares, following the continuous parietes, and proceeding aud dctermiued by this ready road aud extended path (k), may be derived, not iuto the rima glottidis, butrynx, proceeds in like manner, through the velum palati, towards. theuvula. The palato-staphilinus, coming from the junction of the palatebones, i5 inserted into the upper part of the uvula; so likewise is theazygos Morgagnii. See Heisters description of these muscles, u. 339.It appears then that the uvula docs nothing of itself,-nothing exceptby means of the velum palati. (i) These muscles respect the cooperation of the velum palati, andthereby of the uvula, with the tongue and thc larynx; as the formerrespect thc cooperation of the same parts with the tongue and the pharynx. The thyro-staphilini, according to Heister (n. 339), arise fromthe lateral part of the thyroid cartilage, widen as they ascend towardsthe uvula, and are inserted, in the manner of an arch, into the side ofthe velum palati. The salpingo-staphilini arise from the posterior partof the Eustachian tube; thc pterygo-staphilini, from its anterior part.The way in which thc Eustachian tube contributes to sound and spcech,will be pointed out in the Part on the Organs of the Senses, in ourChapter on the Ear. (k) All humor, even the most limpid, still more that which is sluggish and mucons, constantly follows the parietes, and descends alongthe plane surfaces; it never escapes from thc middle of the aperture ofan osculum, unless its quantity be great and superabundant. Sincethen the uvula hangs forward from the bordcr of the orifice that opensfrom the nares into thc cavity of thc palatc, t.herefore the mucus descending from the nares cannot possibly follow any other than thisready and continuous path, that is to say, along the uvula; consequently it must pass to the very root of the tongue, with which theuvula is in contact by its apex. Thus the uvula is the guide of themucous drippings or discharges from the narine cavities into the palate,and thc moyer forward of the same towards the pharynx.

38 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.to the root or dorsum of the tongue, and thence into thepharynx; and thus that it may not be commixed with thesaliva of the mouth, and blunt the delicate and agile fibresof the tongue, and the sensoria of taste (l). These causes areconfirmed by the actual effects witnessed in the mouth, onholding a lighted candle to it when the tongue is eating orspeaking (m): by the change of state in both these operationswhen the uvula is inflamed, stiffened, tumefied, bent, detachedfrom its muscles and frœna, excised, ulcerated, or eroded: andlastly, by the situation and connexion of the uvula, and by itspowers of inflexion, contraction, extension, and application. (l) The direction of the mucus that cornes down from the nares, isalone sufficient to prove that it is different in nature from the saliva ofthe mouth; for the interposition of the uvula, and its determinationtowards the pharynx, make it evideut, that the only proper ways of discharge for this mucus, are either through the nasal doors or apertures,or else immediately into the pharynx, where it can be commixed withthe thick humor that is expressed from the palatine glands; possihlyalso where it may likewise sheathe the crumhs and little pieees ofcomminuted food, and convey them through the œsophagus into thestomach. For the salivary humors increase in density from the lips aUthe way to the pharynx; and at last they are succeeded by mucus,which is more muddy and thick than the other humors, and completesthe work. It is very c1ear, that without sorne guiding cone like theuvula, the mucus of the nares would glide down promiscuously eitherto the tongue, and so to the apex thereof, or else into the larynx;particularly sinee the tongue is frequently speaking in the very middleof the act of eating; and thus pervert the established order of naturein the case of both these operations. (m) That is to say, by Boerhaave, to whose observations (Imt.Med., n. 70, 71) 1 again direct the readers attention.

Br EPILOGUE. 456. THE lungs, in the first flower and golden age of theirlife, or when the body and the thorax were enveloped and con·fined by manifold swathings in the mothers womb, were unable as yet to expand, still less to open the mouth of theirlarynx (a): but together with the brains, the heart, and themembers attendant thereupoD, they passed aud beguiled theirday, which was nine months long, in the deepest peaee, and as (a) Although it may appear sufficiéntly evident and incontestable atthe first glance that the lungs could not have respired in the uterinestate, yet it may not be without its use, to confirm evell the commonopinion by a statement of proofs, for without proofs be given, theminds of sorne individuals are apt still to remain in doubt. At thistime, then, the chest, with the ribs, the sternum, and the muscles,was so bent inwards and compressed, that it had neither room norpower to rise and open out. Besides, the spine of the back was samueh incurvated, that it could not possibly, by any living force or expansion, have excited the costal nerves, which act upon the abovemuscles. Again, there was no snrrounding atmosphere which the lungscould have drawn ta them, if they had been raised; but instead of anatmosphere, they would probably have imbibcd the liquor amnii instreams, and have overwhelmed the bronchial pipes and vesicles, thatis to say, would have overwhelmed themselves, in sudden shipwreck.Add to this, that the cardiac blood had not yet flowed in through thcpulmonary artery, although this blood alone gives the lungs the power ofrespiring, as we observed in the Chapters on the Lungs and the Pleura, &c. At this time, the bronchial artery and the fibre of the pulmonaryplexus reigned sole and supremc, and might possibly have produced a certain slight vibration sYllchronous with the movement of the heart.

332 THE ANIMAL KING DOM.it WC c in the temple of concord (b). At this timc the soul,undc the auspices of the supreme mind, by means of the brainsand their fibres, and in the ultimate sphere, by means of theheaTe and its vessels, mled and governed the helm of the kingdom; it was the only plinciple of aH motions: the determinations from this principle flowed through adopted and organicaHyconstructed forms, serving in orderly sequence and manifoldsuccession as fust, intermcdiate, and ultimate causes: hence aHefforts, forces, actions, and modes thereof, agreeably to theorder appointed by nature, proceeded constantly from the firstspheres to the last, or from the innermost to the outermost (c). (b) It is eielent from the initial stages of the formation of the living boely, that the fibre Vas the first determination of aU things therein,that is to say, the first, that wove aH the organic forms, and inspiredthcm with active, consequently with motive, force. If this be true ofthe fibre, of course it foHows that the cercbrum in the widest acceptation of the word, or as including the cerebeUum, the meduHa oblongata,and the meduUa spinalis, which are the birth-place of the fibres,-itfoHows, I say, that the cerebrum was the first thing that excited themachine to its motion; and that aH things received their origin, andtheir principles of motion and progression, under the auspices of thecerebrum, consequently of the fibres thereof. If we grant this, thenwe must admit that the heart, the secondary principle of motion, wasHot excited to its reciprocations by any other causes; and, therefore,that the rhythmical movements of the heart were consonant with theanimatory movements of the brain, and hence that concord prevailedthroughout, so that the vessel never rose in insurrection against thefibre, nor the blood against the spirit, no l, in a word, the body againstthe soul. But we shaH treat this subject in greater detail in the Partson the Heart and the Cerebrum. (c) Ve can never arrive at a true knowledge of the animal kingdom,unless we entertain a distinct idea of the subordination and successionof efficient causes, and unless we have a distinct conception of thenature of the prior and of the posterior sphere, or what amounts to thesame thing, of the interior and of the exterior, and of the differencebetween them; for the prior and the interior are also the more perfectand the more universal. The progression from the prior to the posterior,-a priori ad p08teriora,-or from the interior to the exterior, isidentical with the progression from the soul to the body; but the progression from the posterior to the prior,-a po8teriori ad priora,-or

EPILOGUE. 333Thus the body was the body of its soul, and the subject of theauspices of the snpreme mind. But when th,) period of thesec1estinies had passec1 away, and the mannikin, bursting theswathings and bars of the womb, rushed forth upon the theatreof the great w.orld, the state of life was instantly changed, andthe hinges of the determinations, forces and motions were in-verted and bent backward against the order of the former life;namely, from the outermo:;~t spheles to the innermost, or fromthe body and its powers inwards, towards the proximate andimmec1iate powers of the principle or soul (d). In order that,from the exterior to the interior, is identical with the progression frOIDthe body to the sou1. 1 intend to cxpound again in the sequel theDoctrine of Order add Degrees, as we11 as the Doctrine of Influx, * inordcr that we may have a just inte11ectual comprehension of the abovescale of progression. 1 will here only remark, that in the uterine life,a11 active force flowed in, according to truly natural order, that is tosay, immediately from the soul into the ultimate forces of the body;but afterwards, in the life after birth, inversely, from the body to thesoul; so that what was previously active, thenceforward became passive,and at the same time reactive; just as we observed above of the bron-chiaI artery, in the Chapter on the Lungs. where it was stated that" this artery, in conjunction with the twigs of the par vagum and inter-costal nervcs, was what conccived, engendered and eonstructed theembryonic 1ung, and a11 ils vessels, aërifcrous, artrrial and venous;and laid dowll a.nd fOlmed those direct passages along whieh the atmo-spherie air and the eardiae blood are to pass and glide in the secondperiod of life : thus this artery was once the parent, but now the changein its fortunes has made it the daughter and the slave" (n. 409). Seealso ibid., note (0). But the reader will find this confirmed by a num-ber of experimental proofs in another part of the W ork. (d) If we are able to discriminate distinctly hetween the outermostsphere and the innermost, we shall clearly perceive that the order isentire!y Î1weltcd. The outermost forces of the body are the musclesand their rnoving fibres, which, on this account, have their places inthe eircumference of the frame: the bones and cartilages a1so bclong tothis class of forces. The ultimate or lowest universa1 essence,-the * The leader will find these subjects treated of in Swedenborgs "AllgelicIVisdom corwerning tlte Divine Love and the Divine Wisdom," and in his " Inter.course iJetween lite Soul and tlte Body."-(TI.)

334 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.after this inversion, the last causes might take the first place,the lungs were opened: the lowest atmosphere of the world wasadmitted through the nares and the larynx into the trachea andthe bronchial pipes: the muscles of the thorax were unfolded :the ribs with the vertebrre and sternum were moved from theirplaces, to and fro: and the reciprocal actions proceeding fromthese ultimate causes, or from the body, were transferredthrough the diaphragm, the pleura and the mediastinum, intothe innermost sphere of the lungs, whither also the atmospherewas transferred through the larynx (e). On the instant theblood also, which rushed from the venre cayre into the rightauricle and cavern of the heart, began to be the proximatecause of the motions or pulses, even through the whole arterialsystem; the proximate cause having previously been the fibreand the spirit of the fibre (1). At the same time the organs ofproper essence of the body,-is the red blood, which is determined bythe vessels. The mediate essence, on the other hand, is the animalspirit in the medullary fibresof the brain and the nervous fibres of thebody. But the first or supreme and innermost essence of the body isthe sou1. See Part L, the Chapter on the Peritonreum, n. 313, 314.If then the causes of actions proceed inwards from the muscular fibresand the ribs, &c., towards the lungs, and never stop until thcy arrivein thc innermost parts or in the vesicles of the lungs, of course theaction proceeds from without to within,-ab exteliori ad inteliora.Again, if the atmosphere be admitted to the innermost parts of thelungs, the same remark will apply ; for the atmospheric air is the 10westaura of the world. For as we shewed in the Chapter on the Lungs,every action of respiration proceeds from the motion of the muscles ofthe thorax, in such a manner that not eyen the minutest particular ofan action is irnpressed by those muscles, but has a similar action corresponding to it in the innermost parts of the lungs, conseqllently inthe particulars of the respiration. (e) AIl these points were shewn in the preceding pages, in treatingof the trachea, the lungs, the pleura, and the diaphragm; and thischange and inversion of the state of life, was also explainéd aboye,n. 429, ad Jin. (f) In so far as the heart is a muscle, and in so far as its arteriesconsist of a muscular coat, it is excited to its pulsations, or systolicand diastolic movements, either by the nervous fibre acting upon thefibres of the muscle, or by the blood. In. the embryonic state, the

EPILOGUE. 335 the five senses were opened, to take up on the first threshold the images, tones, forms, and an the play and manifestation of the circumambient world, and convey them inwards even to the sou! (g). Thus we entered, or rather fell, from the highest life into the life of the body, which is the lowest, and the worlds. 457. Now when the body undertook to manage the reins which the soul relinquished; when the machine was so com pletely invertcd, that the powcrs flowed and rolled contrariwise, or upwards instead of downwards,-then, in order that the ma chine itself might not be prostrated and perish by its forces (h), nervous fibre was the proximate cause, but aftcr birth, the venous blood; as l think was proved in the Economy of the Animal Kingdom,• in the Chapter on the Motion of the Adult Heart, n. 512 seqq.; and in the Chapter on the Arteries and Veins, n. 166-174. Thus the fibre which once was the active, motive and first cause, afterwards became the passive, reactive and remote cause. Ail the other structures that depend upon the heart and its vessels, appear to have undergone a similar fate. (g) The same conditions are predicable of the sensoria, as of the motoria or the muscles of the body. The organs of the senses are the d<1ors through which the varieties of the world flow in, and through which they penetrate to the intimate sphere, in short, to the souI. For instance the eye, which takes up the images represented by the mediation of the ether, and conveys them through the optic nerves ail the way to the brain, and to the principles of the fibres thereof, and the most perfectly organic forms. Likewise the ear, which drinks the modulations of the atmosphere, and transmits them through the fibres of the seventh pair of nerves to the same destinations. In like manner the nares, which convey their smell through the mammillary processes ; and the tonguc, which conveys the taste in the same way through its sensorial fibres. Thus ail things go from without to within; and so much is this the case, that our rational mind itself has to be educated, and we may almost say, to be instructed how to think and to judge, by its own ministering olgans. See below, n. 458. Thus ail things prove, that the animal machine is so formed, that the active forces tend inwards, until a kind of rational principle has sprung up, and has been so far educated by these influxes, that it can undertakc the government, and hold the reins of its kingdom. But we shall treat of this subject in its proper place in the sequeI. (11.) If we examine the animal machine with a proper amoilllt of

336 THE A~IMAL KINGDOM.and in order that the life that Vas now transfcrred to the body,might not be dissipated, and come to an end, it was providcdand appointed that the lungs should perform a medialorial officebetwccn the soul and the body; whereforc, to bring them intoconcord, the ordinanccs that follow were solemnly decreed. Itwas decreed,-I. That the alternate respirations of the lungsshould concur, in momenta and degrees, with the alternate animations of the brains (i). II. That the will and nature shouldinsight, and consider it according to the laws of the doctrine of orderand degrees, we shaH readily see, that we live an inverted life, in fact,principaIly a corporeal or external life, and in no wise a spiritual orinternaI life; for aIl things that belong to the very life, have theirbeginnings from the body, and penetrate inwards. This 1.s the reasonwhy we are sometimes almost pcrsuaded, that it is the body alone thatlives; when yet aH the life of the body flows forth entirely from thelife of the soul; for we are deluded and led by the faHacies of thesenses, for instance, to believe, that it is the eye that sees, and theear that hears; although the eye and the ear are only the organs orinstruments through which the sou! perceives the modes of the ultimate world: thus the instrumental cause simulates identity with theprincipal cause. It is perfectly evident that these sensoria are only .organs or instruments, from the very nerves that convey the modes ofsensations to the brain; and it is equaIly clear that these senses arechanged exactly in correspondence to the changes of state in thosenerves, and in the brain. The same may be said of the life of thewhole body, which life is purely sensitive, for actions are the determinations of this life, which are alive in proportion as they have sensitivelife in them. But we must not delay longer at present over these considerations. Since the state of the life is determined so eompletely incontrariety to the order of the prior and former nature, hence, unlessthis had been foreseen, and provision made to meet it, the organicfabrics, in the revolution, might easily have been hurried astray, andhave come to ruin; like machines acting against their wheels, or riversagainst their sources. But these dangers are met from the very beginning, and this, by the mediation of the lungs. (i) This, l think, l have satisfactorily proved in the Economyofthe Animal Kingdom, in a particular Treatise upon the Coincidence ofMotion between the Brain and the Lungs; and l have given furthercorroborations of it in the present Work, in the Chapters on the Lungsand the Pleura, &c. In the former chapter the foIlowing words occur :

EPILOGUE. 337flow into every act of the respiration j and that the formershould conduct the inspirations, the latter, the expirations (k) jwherefore the cerebrum was appointed to preside over the will,and the cerebellum over nature j and each had its own nelvesallotted to it, to administer its department (1). III. That the"The respiration of the lungs flows not only into the trunk of thebody, but also into the head, and into its organs of motion and sensation; and in fact to the cercbrum, the very fountain of its motion,to which it riscs iu infinite streams, as it were in mcanders and circles,and associatcs itself with the reciprocal respirations, or, as we termthcm, the animations of the cercbrum. Thus the lungs, and thebrains with the medulla oblongata and spinalis, are synchronous intheir rcspective animations and spirations; and this, in order thatcauses may act harmonically, and conspire in operation, with effects ;things prior with things posterior; and the spirit of the soul with thespirit of the body; and in order that there may be an influx and refluxof the one into the other" (n. 398). See also ibid., notes (y) and (z).The reader will find these statcmcnts established more in detail, byproofs derived from the nexus of substances, consequently of efficientcauses, in the Chapter on the Pleura, &e, n. 424. (k) This was likewise proved, under the sanction of expelience, inthe Chapter on the Lungs, where the following words occur: "Thecontraction of the voluntary muscles, united with the action of theatmosphere, givcs the air the powcr of inflating the lungs, and ofovercoming nature; and the contractile action of the lungs, in conjunction with a similar action on the part of the levers of the thorax,-thewill the meanwhile being in a state of repose,-gives nature the powerof thrùwing out the eneroaching .iliolus; hence the province of thewill is eonfincd to admitting, and during good plcasure retaining, the aërial guest; but driving it out, is left to nature" (n. 394). See alsoibid., (m). "Nature shares the empire with the will, for the latter only constringes the ncrves and reins of the body, and keeps them con strictcd and drawn up, 50 long as it pleases; but as soon as it relaxes its hold, then nature takes up the governmcnt, and performs the contrar) operation; as when we draw a bow, and then rcleasing it, shoot off the arrow, in which case the first act bclongs to the will, the second, to nature, for the loosened string bounds back spontaneously, and the arrow flies to its aim" (n. 400). See also ibid., (m). (l) Inasmuch then as two principlcs bear sway in the animal body, to wit, na~lre, that is, the soul, in which this nature dwells, and the will, we mflY conclude, that this nature flows in, under the auspices of VOL. II. PART II. 1

338 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.lungs, as provisional powers, and common auxiliaries, shoulùflow into these nerves, by the forces of their breathing apparatus, that is, by living forces of constriction and expansion,and should carry on the spirit of the fibres of the cerebrumand cerebellum, until it arrived at effects, or at the goals ofcauses (m). IV. That the lungs should infuse the general animations and motions of the cerebellum, into the members andthe supreme mind, -from first causes, through intermediate causes, intoefiects; and that the will determines nothing into act, except accordingto those things of which the rational mind has been informed by thesenses of the body: wherefore also the rational mind produces nothingby its will, as the principle of its actions, but what it has first imbibedand laid hold of by the way of analysis, or of the senses. Thus, sincetwo principles of action exist in one body, it is necessary that thereshould be two brains; one of them to be subject to the empire ofnature; the other, to the empire of the will. Were there only one,then eithcr nature alone would rule, in which case there would be nonced of external organs for instruction, for the life under whose auspicesnature acts is infinitely superior in wisdom to our inmost sensitive life ;or else the will alone would rule, in wbich case all thi[igs would go towreck, aud perish in less than a moment. Therefore nerves procecd separatcly from these two brains, by which nerves operationsare determined, and which dividedly administer the government of thekingdom. (m) It was shewn above in the Chapter on the Lungs, that thoseorgans, by their respirations, or alternate expansions and constrietions,influence the nerves themselves, partieularly those of the cerebellum,namely, the great sympathctic nerves, and the par vagum; and as external, corporeal and general causes, excite them to action (n. 399) ;and this, principally by the mediation of the pleura and the diaphragm(n. 447, 448). For in arder that the organic fabrics or the visceramay be roused to their rcspective modes of operating, it is not sufficientthat their nerves be inspired by the brains, but it is also necessary thatthe lungs, as general auxiliaries, iufuse the respiratory motion, whichis brought to pass by an action upon the pleura, the diaphragm, theperitonœum, and their ligaments; as well as by an accordant actionupon the nerves themselves. This is the reason why the viscera of theabdomen are not inaugurated into their offices until after the openingof the lungs. That the lungs excrt a similar influence an~ operationupon the phrenic nerves, see n. 449, 450.

EPILOGUE. 339viscera of the whole body, by actions directed upon the nervesof the ccrebeUum, as well as upon the mediastinum, the pleura,and the cliaphragm, and by the mediation of these parts (n).V. That the lungs should enter aU actions commanded by thecerebrum, or the will, and the very forms of aIl actions, withan assistant determination. And moreover should insvire themwith aU the spirit and fire of the will; so that aIl thingsshould be brought out in the last sphcre, precisely as they arerepresented in the first (0). VI. That the lungs should live andact entirely under the control and in the service of the cere-brum; so much so, as to enunciate and manifest by the larynx,prefixed as a head to their pipes, what the cerebrum revolves,cogitates, and decides, or what it commands to be uttered (p).VII. That the lungs should in no respect disturb the modes, orsystolic and diastolic movements, of their neighbor the heart, andits arteries, but simply procure for these parts, by influx intotheir nerves, the power of acting according to causes generatedin the body, or by the blood (q). And that the heart on the (n) On this subject see the Chapter on the Lungs, n. 395, 396.In that Chapter it was shewn, that "the lungs nat only effuse theirmoving breath or breathing motion into the general connecting mediaof the body,-as the tunics, the muscles, and the septa,-and thenceinto the viscera enclosed thereby, as the stomach, the liver, the mesen,tery, the pancreas, the spleen, the kidneys, the bladder, the testicles,the vesiculre seminales, the uterns, the avaries, and the lest; but theyalso infuse it into the distinct particular congeries and simple forms ofthose viscera, that is ta say, into their lobules, glands, and foUicles,down ta the very intimate recesses of each: and thus the lungs excitethem, every one, in their general form as weIl as in aIl their parts, taoperate in accordance ta their nature and structure, inspiring force intopotency, and thereby giving birth ta natural effects or actions" &c.(n. 396). See also the Chapter on the Diaphragm, n. 450; and thechapters on the several üscera of the abdomen in Part 1. of the Work. (0) The reader will tind these points also treated of in the Chapter on the Lungs, n. 399-402. (p) This was clearly explained in the Chapter on the Lungs, n.403. (g) That the lungs extend their sphere of activity ta the heart itself, and to an its arteries and veins, see n. 397, where the following z2

340 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.other hand, by the pulmonary artery as a common key, shouldnnlock the lungs, aud thus constantly place the universal corporeal machine under the power and auspices of their motions;and by its blood should give back to the lungs in like mannerthe power of acting according to their causes (r). VIII. Thatpassage occurs: "The lungs ... lostel in their embrace this ruler ofthe kingdom, press him ta their breasts, and reciprocate the act oflove; for they likewise enter his pericardium with their common coat,by means of the mediastinum and the diaphragm; and they enter thesinus of his left auricle, with aIl their blood, venous constitution,marrow and life: uay, they even surround his great arteries and veins,the aorta and the vena cava, with the pleura, with the diaphFagm, andfinally with the peritonreum; and more than this, they enswathe hisbifurcations, l mean, the ischiadic, spermatie, and many other vessels,with a similar covering. Thus the lungs extend their action ta theseparts, as weIl as ta their head, the heart; sa that wherever the heartpenetrates by means of the arteries,-whithersoever it carries the circulatory motion,-thither also it brings with it the spirit of the lungs.The heart, by means of the artcries, diffuses the bloOO, or the corporeal soul, in aIl directions, while the lungs affuse the spirit of thisworld, the ultimate and corporeal spirit. Hence the nltimate or corporcal life is the result of the union of these two principles, thepreliminary scene of its drama being opened and commeuced by thelungs at birth, when we make our first entrunee upon the theatre ofthis worlds life." That the lungs also, by their uction upon the cardiac nerves, communicate ta the heart the power of acting, and in noway trench upon it, or hinder it lrom performing its alternate motions,see above, n. 423, where the followillg condition was statcd ta be oneof the terms of a covenant between the lungs and the heart: "Thatthe lungs, during cach alternate draught, do admit, and lend theirasssistance ta infuse, the living spirit of the cerebrum and ccrebelluminta every nerve and muscle of the heart, its aUl1.cles, arteries andveins; sa that the heart may perpetually enjoy the power of pcrformingits systole and diastole, of which if dcprived, it, and its vasculaI apparatus, would laIl and die." See also ibid., ilote (c). (1) This was laid down above in the Chapter on the Pleura, n. 423,in the following words: "On the other hand, that the heart do pourforth through the venous artery, aIl its own or the bodys blood, for the lungs ta conduct ta those innermost places of comitia or meeting, for the purpose of renewing the terms of the covenant every time; 50

EPILOGUE. 341the heart with its blood and pcricardium, and the ccrcbrumwith its spirit and dura mater, should mect together at thepulmonary vesicles, and thus in the iunermost spherc of thelungs, in which as nom its first causes theu mediatorial officecommences (8). These are the conditions and solemn ordinancesby which the discords of the new life are brought iuto concorel. But in spite of ail, perpetuaI contentions prevail, whichconstantly rend and depopulate the ill-adjusted state; whencesiekness, disease, old age, and the necessity of death (t).that the lungs likewise may perpetually enjoy the power of maintainingtheir respiratory alternations, of whieh if depriyed, they and theirair-pipes would eollapse and perish." See also ibid., note (d). Forunless the heart flowed with its blood iuto the lungs, the latter eouldnot possibly be raised, or cxercisc their respiratory alternations; thusthe one obtains the power of acting from the other; but besides this,the one does not in the slightest degree influence the others modes ofaction. Hence it appears, that the pulmonary artcry is the very keywhieh opens the door to aIl the operations that result from the action ofthe lungs; for were it not for the influx of blood from the heartthrough this artery into the luugs, not only they, but ail the lest ofthe machine that depends upon them as its wheel, would come to astand-still. (8) It was shewn aboye in the Chapter on the Lungs, that the heartflows in with its blood and perieardium aIl the way to the innermostparts of those organs. That the eerebrum also flows in thither with itsdura mater, see the Chapter on the Nose, n. 345, 348, where a communication was shewn to exist between the two meninges, and evenbetween the mednllary part of the cerebrum, and the pituitary membrane of the nares, by the medium of the olfaetory nerves; also acontinnation of the pituitary membrane not only over the palate, butalso into the larynx and trachea, and consequently into the bronchia,and their ultimate vesicles. From this continuity and meeting it follows,that the heart and the brain are coneentred, by means of their cxternalcoats, in the innermost parts of the lungs, and that thus they bothacknowledge the lungs as mediators between the operations of both,according to the proposition of the paragraph. (t) If we attend to the causes that are perpetuaIly throwing ourblood and animal spirit into turmoils and changes of state, it will besuffieiently evident, that the causes of the diseases, old age, and death,of the subjeets of the animal kingdom, arc derived from the above

342 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 458. Since, therefore, we are inaugurated iuto this life, thattends backwards from the last stages of the course to the first,the consequence is, that we are born in the densest obscurity,ignorant of all things, and the merest of infants; for the forcesof the body, which are now the first causes, feeling nothing ofthemselves (u). Thus we live but little, if at an, in early infancy, for to feel is to live: yet this very life increases, grows,and approximates to perfection, as age advances. For the sensoria of the body are opened, into which the visible world fiows,at first generally, indistillctly, and obscurely, with its modesand images (x). These modes creep up to the sensoria of thesource; 1 mean, from our inverted state of life, and the ~ontinualcollisions and combats arising therefrom. It will be shewn, as 1 hopevery clearly, in another place, that these are the intimate causes of aIldiseases, consequently of old age and death. (u) It is a certain trnth, that matter and body cannot feel, stillless feel preëminently, or understand and think: this is repugnant totheir nature. Considering then that life has been transferred as it wereto the ultimate surface of the body, and more than this,. that aIl passage has been precluded from the outermost to the interior sensoria, itfollows, that the communication having been taken away, we possessvery little life in early infancy; for the brain is appointed to presideover the external sensoria, and the way to the brain is not yet laiddown or made ready. Moreover, it seems to be contrary to the lawsof the order established by the Supreme Divinity, that this ultimate,obscure and indistinct life, should immediately commix, or should beconfounded, with the life that is intimate, clear, and most distinct:wherefore not only does a wide interval forbid, but barriers also areinterposed. Nay, even in adult age, these lives seem to be so perfectlyseparate, that while the one is acting, the other must cease to aet; for while we are thinking intently, the external senses are spontaneously blunted, or deprivcd of their acumen. (x) In the first instance objects flow into the senses in the most general manner; in fact, the universe is rcpresented as one indistinct thing: afterwards, less general objects, and in process of time par ticulars, insinuate themseh·cs. Thus the last compounds strike the senses first, and afterwards the different things that enter into the compound, until at last we perceive its parts distinctly. It has been frequently observed before in our analytical disquisitions, for instance, in speaking of the liver and the heart, thal throughout universal nalure,

EPILOGUE. 343cerebrum, which have been rendered accessible by conductingfibres, and produce changes of state therein, by which they teach[them] to receive, retain (y), and at last to perceive, that whichcornes up and penetrates through the external organic doors.Then, in process of time, sensual images, adopted internally inthe sensorium of the cerebrum, become ideas; at first analogousto sensual [ideas] ; afterwards, disposed into forms and series,they become proximately higher, or imaginative ideas; these atlength put on rational forms, and become intellectual ideas (z).Thus we are instructed by the world, by means of the senses,essences are at first thrown together as it were in n rude chaos, andthere confounded with each othe l, but that presently, by means ofdivers organs applied for the purpose, they are divided and counted outinto parts, and down to their unities, and 50 those things are broughtout or evolved, that will contribute to the object. in view, or to theeffect of the end. (y) It wiU be shewn in our Psychology, that the sensual images ormodes that come up through the external sensoria, produce changes ofstate in the internaI sensoria, and that these changes, which correspondto ideas, are themselves the ideas that are said to be imprillted UpOllthe memory. But to state here, in advance, the place and manner inwhich these changes are effected, without having previously treated ofthe brain and its organism, would, 1 think, be premature. Meanwhile the foUowing process is known to us aU; that sensual modesare first simply received, and fixed in the memory, and that by thecombination of them in various forms, a species of imagination iscaUed forth, which increnses for the most part as the memory becomesstored. (z) We may aH ascertain by reflecting upon our own minds, thatthe ideas which constitute the imagination, arise from a number ofideas analogous to visual [images]; and that the ideas which enterCinto the form of] thought, and are termed rational and inteHectual,arise again from numbers of these imaginative ideas disposed in analyticforms: thus the higher ideas are generated by a continual formationand as it were multiplication of the lower ideas. But such elevation toa higher power cannot possibly be accomplished, without a certainhigher or spiritual power, which as it were presents itself and flows in ;for that higher plinciple that rules the thoughts, and disposes theideas of thought in analytic fonns, eannot possibly be natural, but is spiritual, or is the veriest life of the thoughts.

34"1 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.the ministers of the life of the body, and are led from the darkness of ignorance more or less into the light of knowledge.There is in the cerebrum an eminent sensorium, and intimaterecesses thereiu, whither these sensual rays of the body ascend,and where they can mount no further (a) j there the soul resides, clad in the noblest garment of organization (b), and sitsto meet the ideas emerging thithcr, and receives thcm as guests.This high and noble place is the innermost sensorium, and it isthe boundary at which the ascent of the life of the body ceases,and the boundary from which that of the soul, considered as aspiritual essence, begins. Here especially, the soul infuses herpower, and communicates the faculty whereby images becomeideas, may be convoluted and distributed into rational forms oranalyses, and may put on a certain spiritual attire (c) j thnt isto say, whereby we are empowered to think below and aboveourselves from objects of the understanding, to conclude fromthoughts, to judge from conclusions, to choose fiom judgments,and thus to will and determine. Besides giving power and (a) This eminent organism will be treated of in the Parts on theCerebrum, and the Cortical and Medullary Substances thereof: forsensual images and modes, flowing alollg the continuous fibres, cannotstop exccptiQg in the last and first boulldarics of the fibres. (b) If the soul be the principle of active life in the body, and if itflows in through first and through mcc1iate causes, into ultimate causesor effects, then the doctrine, that thc causes by means of which thesou! preparcs the ways for itself, are formed organically, is clearly aderivation from the fountain of pure philosophy; for whatever is thecause of the principle, is its instrumental cause. Wherefore this firstcause is said to be organic in the most emincnt degree, or as an organism infinitely to cxcel the inferior organic forms in perfection. (c) Idcas themselves, intrinsically considercc1, are material, for theyonly flow in From thc body by way of the senses; but when disposedin analytic order, they are no longer ta be reckoned matcrial; but rational. The task of disposing them thus can only he sùstained by lifeitself; wherefore to live is to feel, eminently to live is to think and tojudge. The soul itself, as we have often pointed out in our Analyses,only regards ends, and in effects, uses, which are its ends; whercforewe live more perfectly, the more we respect ends, and more sublimely,the higher the ends.

EPI.LOGUE. 34,5faculty, the soul givcs us to distinguish, and as it were intimately to feel, whcther the forms of images, and in fine whetherthe forms of ideas, are in agreement or dissonance with theorder in which she hersclf is j if the former, she receives thernwith somewhat of love j if the latter, with aversion (d). The (d) It is sufficiently manifest from the very series of our propositions, that there are no innate ideas in the human mind. The act ofimparting the power whcreby ideas may be distributcd in analytic order,is as different from ideas, as the corporeal sphere from the spiritual, oras analysis from the ratios of which it is formed. CoHecting andsupplying materials, is one thing; building them into a house, is quiteanother. Sel above, n. 423, notes (c) and (e). The intimate facultyof feeling the goodness of forms, appears to be the only innatc possession that we have; as was pointed out in the Prologue to Part 1.,in the foHowing words: "The faculty of apprehending the goodncssof aIl forms, consequently also the secret delights of truth, is inherentand as it were connate in our senses, both extemal and intcma1. Thelal, although untutored, apprehends, and in some dcgree fecls, themeasures, the harmony, and the melody of tunes; for the mind isstraightway affected in a corresponding manner: the eye spontaneouslyapprehends the beauties of nature, and the graceful and harmonie connexions between diffrrent objects: the tongue apprehends the agreeablequalities of viands and wines; and the nostrils, the fragrancies ofvarious odors. So the rational mind, that is, the intellect, unhesitatingly distingnishes the truths of things, and the forms consonant tothe order of nature,-at once to the nature of the universe, and tothat of the intellect itself; for they sweetly sooth and pIeasl, and callforth deeply-nidden affections; wherefore, whenever a truth shinesforth, the mind exults and rejoices :-a proof that a certain superiormind or soul, (which imparts to its mind, that is, to our rationalfaculty, a faculty inferior and subjeet to it, the power of pcrceiving,thinking, judging, and deciding,) at such times becomes kindlier,more free, as if liberated from chains, more actiye, more present in itsinfluence, and closer in lts correspondence. For the soul, which flowswith its light into the sphere of the intellectual mind, has order andtruth in it, and thus, by virtue of its very nature, it feeIs, approvcs,and indicates, in a certain universal manner, the presence of whateveris congruous or harmonie. Whnt nppenrs thns connnte, is, howevcr,an affection only, not a pnrticulnr idea; since aH pnrticular ideas areIcarnt and formed by way of the senses and their organs" (n. 2).

346 THE ANIMAL KINGDDM.intellect of the human mind is generated by the cooperation [ofthese two gifts of the soul]. 459. Such appears to be the ground why what is tenned theANALYTIC way, or that which conducts us from the posterior tothe prior sphere, or from effects to causes, that is, from thebody to the soul, is the only way whereby the human race ispermitted to attain Imowledge and finally wisdom (e) j and whythe othe:r:, or the SYNTHETIC, which goes in the opposite direction to the analytic, is the way of superior beings, and, therefore, c10seel against, and even interdicted to, the inhabitants ofthe lowest worlel, or the dwellers upon the earth j for those whopursue it, rush into continuaI errors ane1 fallacies, and at lastinto insanities, like men kicking against the pricks, and daringupon forbidelen ground (f). Thus we can never arrive at thepinnacle of human knowledge and human wisdom, except bycontinuaI analyses and concatenated series, derived by induction, with the assistance of the sciences, from phenomena andeffects j anel even then, indeed, we can never mount to truths,whether natural or moral, still less to an understallding of spiritual truths, without the influx of a higher power (g). lhercare then three causes which lead us to intelligence; namely,ministering causes, mediate causes, and efficient causes. Ex (e) See the description of the analytic way or method, in the Prologue, Part 1., n. Il. (f) Respecting the manner in which the synthetic method carriesthe human mind altogether astray from the truth, and leads it intocrlors, and for the most part into insanities, which neverthclcss appearto be rational, see Part 1., n. 9, 10; from which it will be sufficienthere to cite the following: "Rence errors, mental obscurity, fallacies,and strife; civil wars between the soul and the body; scholastic contentions about straws and trifies; the flight and exile of truths; andstupor and thick darkness in those very things where the light is mostbrilliant: and this to such an extent, that the very altars and theirsacred fire are contaminated; which is the reason why the philosophyof the humnn mind is solemnly proscribed in the divine records. Allthese tbings flow from that single source,-we mean, from the habit and the propensity of reasoning synthetically" (n. 9). (g) This subject is explained in detail in the following pages, in the series of the argument.

EPILOGUE. 347perience is the fhst or ministering cause; the sciences are thesecond or mediate cause; the fa culty of thinking distinctly is thethird or efficient cause. 460. With respect to the first division, or EXPERIENCE, it isthis that supplies the objects of rational analyses, and the individuallinks of the chain, and as it were the materials for building the edifice (h). For nature and the visible world flow withthese as their treasures, first into the organs of the senses, andthrough their open doors to the general sensorium, and atlength present them for adaptation into analytic series as somany rational ideas and quantities. Each sense brings its gifts (h) Experience is a word of very broad signification:. It not onlyinvolves those things that have been discovered by the learned in thecourse of ages, committed to writing, and made part of learning,-asthe experience of effects, or observations made upon the three kingdomsof nature, the mineraI, the vegetable, and the animal,-hence metallurgy, botany, chemistry, anatomy, and in general aIl physical andnatural learning; but it also involves those particulars that concernsocieties of men, their forms of government, customs and laws; asweIl as many other things that properly belong to experience, by virtueof which [experience] we are enabled to deduce and discover thosethings that are hidden in nature, or that are comparatively remote fromour externa! senses. Among the materials of experience may also bereckoned those ploducts that have been developed by the skill and ingenuity of the learned from the things just enumerated; for after theyare once proclaimed, they become materials that, like the others, arefixed in the memory; and when registered among the sciences, they serveas bases for further investigation. But experience, in its most generalsense, comprehends the whole collection of those things that have beenex~mined by us, with the organs of the senses, from early infancy toadult age; in fact, that have been seen, heard, tasted, smelt, ortouched; and that are fixed in our memories in the form of materialideas, and expressed by the formulas of words, of which speech iscomposed. For there are so many objects of the senses plesented taevery one from his early infancy. By means of these ideas, or thesematcrials of primitive experience, we learn to comprehend and expressthe matters spoken of above; those, namely, that have been discoveredby the learned world, and made part oflearning. Thus whatever entersby the senses, and remains in the memory in the form of an idea, belongs to sensual expcliencc.

348 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.and its treasures, and submits thcm to a kind of vision, notdissimilar to ocular vision (i), and thus carries them to thememory, into thc little cells or receptacles thereof, from thegathered stores of which the rational mind chooses whateversuits its purposes, and takes it out and mingles it with its reasons.Hence, in proportion as the memory is enriched and providedwith these materials, in the same proportion the rational mind,if backed by a bapI)Y genius, will be able skilfully, felicitously,and apploximately and agreeably to the truth, to distribute itsanalyses into series, to adjust and conclude them, of manyanalytic conclusions again to form new analyses, and in the endto evolve its ultimate analyses (k). But to explore causes fromeffects by this way, ends from means, consequences flom premises, or those things that are hiddcn from those thàt are apparent to the senses, is an arduous and vast undertaking. Theexperience of one mans five senses, although hc should outlivethe years of Nestor, is slender and pOOl indecd. vVeneedaccumulations of effects and phcnomena, collectec1 by numerousIaborers in the field, and dming successive lifetimes, and evencenturies; for we must he instructed by aIl things of one tbing, (i) This may be best seen from articulate soumIs; for each word 01formula represents one idea similar to a visual idea; and as this caUsforth other kindred and similar ideas, there arises a kind of internaisight, which is termed imagination; and again, when the ideas of theimagination are put together in a certain rational series, there arises anintimate sight, which eonstitutes thought: shewing that the objects ofthe external senses become cOlllerted in the first instan<:e into visualimages, before they are exalted into rational [images], and finaUysublimated into the semblance of spiritual [images]. (k) This is corroborated by the common opinion, that the knowledge and intelligence of an indivldual are in proportion to the furnitureof his memory. Bilt it does not follow from this, that a powcrfulmemory is always accompanied by ability, 01 by an understanding of equal grasp. Fol the faculty of retlucing the contents of the memory to ortler, is a fresh inteUectual requisite. An edifice is not built, simIlly by the acccumulation of implcments, bricks, tiles, anel other materials; these are only confused preparations: art and skiU must be tasked to put aU things together in their places.

EPILOGUE. 34·9if wc are to know that one thing thoroughly (l). Each contributes in some degree, and brings as it were its particular stone,to build this edifice that truths can inhabit. It is the provinceof the builder ta fit everything into its proper placc, sa that aUthe materials shaH he beautifllIly coherent, and harmonious intheir tendency. Hence the learned world, and mediately theother branches of society, are furnished with the appliances andmeans of attaining knowlcdge and wisdom, in proportion asthey are rich in the stores of experience. Of these storesmemory is the treasurer. 461. With respect ta the SCIENCES, or the methods and artsthat constitute the mcdiate or mediant causes, they are themistresses which teach us ta reduce the accumulations of experience ta arder, ta select what is fitting, to insert it in the becoming place, and as architects ta construct the edifice, sa thataIl things shall be put together according ta rule (m). Then (l) This was laid down more fully in our Economy of tM AnimalKi7lfJdom, n. 12-17; where the following words occur: "Thus, ininvestigating the causes of the action of muscle, or the qualities of themoving fibre, unless we combine the particular experience of one individual with aIl the experience of others; and unless, in addition to this,we take into account the experience recorded of the blood, the arteries,the heart, the nerves, the nervous ganglia, the glands, the medullaspinalis, the medulla oblongata, the cerebellum, the cerebrum, and aIlthe other membcrs, organs, and tunics, endowed with the power ofmuscular motion: and furthcrmore, unless we avail ourselves of thefacts that have beeu brought to light in physics and mechanics, respecting forces, elasticity, motion, and many other subjects,-unless we do aIlthis, we shall assuredly be disappoiuted of the result for which we arestriviug" (Ibid., n. 13). (m) This is not the proper place to discuss the use of any sciencein particular, but only of science generally. The empirical sciencesyield nothing more than materials and instruments, but the theoreticalsciences give the laws and rules according to which we are to work.The latter are in a manner architectonie, and teach us to arrange thematerials of experience in suitable order. There is, however, no science,either practical or theoretical, that must not have derived its elementsfrom visible nature and the world: the sciences are only descriptionsand as it were types thereof; for instance, those which teach the lawsof motion, the rules of fluxions, or other harmonies and proportions,

3:)() THE ANDIAL KINGDO~r.ag;,;n the scienccs examine with thcir compasscs and 1evels, andasccrtain whethcl the bnilcling that has been constructcd begmceful and reglliar in its rcsult. It is utterly impossible bythc Ïtclp of experiencc alone, apart from the sciences, as patronsof gcnins, to climb to that Helicon where simple truths reside,and whcre causes take precedence of eifects (12). For thesciences bring vague and scattered ideas together, under a fewheads, and place them before the eye of the mind in a simplerand more connected form, and thereby give boundaries to therational sight, and concentrate it more closely upon the essencesof things: they also reduce those [ideasJ to fornnùas or words,and cilcumscribe and den.ne these words by terms, that theymay faB the more easily and rapidly under the comprehcnsion ofthe master and the scholar (0); thus they give a c(}mpalativelyare eithcr deduced from nature itself immediately, or by the aid of conclusions from other sciences. (n) Let us confine ourselves to the sphcre in which we are at present engaged. From the mere anatomy of the animal body, we gathernothing more, than that the organic parts in any viscus have such andsueh a situation, consistenee, and shape; but in order to bring out theuse from the parts, and to carry on the chain nntil at length we arriveat the ultimatc use, we must necessarily consult the sciences, nnd learnfrom them the nature of the case with respect to. the connexions ofthings, and what they provc. Geometry, by its lines, as wcll as byits proportions and analogies, teaches what snch connexion involves,and how one thing is relnted to another, and what serics and equationlesults at last, when ail are summed np analytically; fmm which resulta conclusion may be formcd respecting thc ultimate effect and use.Philosophy on the other hand informs us, not merely that motions,forms, modes and qualities, are accidents, but also that substances arethe subjects of ail accidents; hence that motions, fluxions, forces,modes, effects and uses, are determincd by means of substances; andsince geometry has substances for its objects, and demonstrates theirfigures and forms, it follows that forces and ail accidents whateverare similarly circumstanced; whereforc philosophy founded upon geometrical principles, affords us conclusive instruction rcspecting theeffects of things. The same may be said in al! othcr branches. (0) As geometry in linear and figured objects; ontology in philosophical matters; and the lest of the sciences as weil as arts, ail of

EPILOGUE. 351clea] representation of those things that result from the composition of a number of ideas into one, and in the end, from anumber of such compound ideas, as conclusions; for these ideasare alleady produets, and as it were children, conceived andbrOlght forth by means of experience from the human faculties (p). But since in the nature ofthe world, and in the worldof nature, and its three kingdoms, there are infinite varieties,hence infinite genera of these varieties, and species of thesegencra, therefo1e eaeh genus is presided ove1 by its tutelar muse,or itS peculiar science, who keeps several other sciences underher gencral auspices, as a mistress having many handmaids; andeacb ancillary science of this genus has in like manner manyothers undcr her, as domcstic servants; and these, in their turn,haVE their subordinates: for there is not the smallest part of asciencc, Lut is of such vast extent, that it has almost no bounds,and contains things so infinite, that it is sufficient of itself, asa partieular science, to occupy the entUe sphere of one underwhich have particulaI formulas and nomenclatures, by which theirobjects are expressed. For words involve thc same number of ideas;for the most part, compound ideas; hencc the same number of representations in the mind, which comprehend simultaneously in one series,whatever in common usagc, is in thcm or is brought into them, by theirdefinition. Thus a number of things are subjeeted simultaneously tothe rational sight, and arc instantly apprehended in proportion to thedegn:e of our knowledge of the science to which the) belong. Thereforeall thc idcas that arc fixed in the memory, may be termed material;for although the) may involve what is not material, yet in order tounderstand it, wc are obliged to regard something relative or similar[to what is materialJ, and thus to obtain for ourselvcs an idca bycomparison. (p) It is the province of the rational mind, to form one compoundidea out of many ideas, and of many such eompounds again to formanotllel idea, and to advanee in this manner by a continuaI progression,or Stlceessivc clcvation, to higher powers. But whatever is broughtout rlnd concluded by such means, is immcdiately registered among theidea~ laid up in the memory; as for instance, the laws of motion, andmany other things. Thus whatever is generated either by observation,or analytie induction, 1S retained under the form of an idea, withoutfurtlter rational investigation. Words themselves are but ideal types.

3;j2 THE ANl:>IAL KINGDO~r.standing (q). TIut still therc is a connexion of ail the sciences,and finally a concentration into one, the universal of aIl (r),flom which superior beings and powers contemplate and governaU lowcr things, as placed in the circumferences. To them it isgivcn to descend by the path of synthcsis, or from the prior tothe posterior sphere, and through the veriest principlcs, andtllUs through the mysteries of our human sciences (8). Thusdoes the soul descend) under the auspices of the supreme mind,while it is con~tructing the body, and exciting it to act in conformity to its structure; and hence there is nothing, how deeplysoever and intimately it be hidden in the bosom of our sciences,-in geometry, mechanics) physics, chemistr~r, optics, acoustics, (q) This may be illustrated by the case of physics, mathemntics,philosophy, metaphysics, and theology, which being universnl sciences,comprehenù in their embrace ncarly aU the other sciences: also by thespecific sciences, which respectively to their particular subdivisions orbranches, may ngain be considered as generic sciences. AU the partsof cach science, may themsclves be elaborated and developed into somany new sciences; for there is nothing but what involves a kind ofinfinity : anù this is the reason why no individual, in whatever department of a science or art he may be occupied, can ever attain to thecomplete perfection of it; but in the whole course of his life may stillbe advancmg in sorne degree to that cnù. (1) Respecting the science of sciences, or the universal mathematics,see the Economy of the Animal Kingdom, and specificaJly the Doctrineof Order and Degrees, or the Introduction to a Rational Psychology,n. 639, 649-651. (8) The Prologue to Part I. contains the foUowing statement uponthis subjeet: "The power of divining true principles by the mincIalone, and of descenùing therefrom, in the path of certainty, throughtheir consequences, to posterior things, belongs exclusively to highelbeings and powcrs; to spirits, angels, and the Omniscient Himself,who indeed inhabit the brightest light, and dwell in essential truth andwisdom. They see all things, in one complex, as at once beneaththem and within them: they view the last things from the first, thelowest from the highest, the outermost from the innermost; in a ward,aU the circumferences from the centre; consequcntly, the very efiectsof the world, from their causes. Not so human minds, which derivefrom the senses, or absorb through the senses, aU the materials whichthey have to reason upon," &c. (n. 10).

EPILOGUE. 353pneumaties, logic, psychology, &c.,-whieh the soul does notcaU forth in arder, and determine into act, according to the endin view in the effect, 01 according to use (t). 462. rlHE FACULTY OF THINKING DISTINClLY, or of takinga clear view of the ideas raised up to the ken of the rationalmind, of combining them, framing them analytieally, and lastlyof bringing together the results of the reasons in one equation (u), in which [the mind] perspicuously contemplates thecause of its effect, and the progress of the means to the end,this faculty is the efficient cause, and the highest natural gift.Experience and science, apart from this faculty, are administer.ing and instrumental causes without their principal j and likeforces without living power, which forces are dead (v). This (t) The rcader will find this laid down in many parts of our Analyses; as in the Chapter on the Larynx, where it was observed, that"there is nothing in acoustics, music, or harmony, be it ever so internaI and arcane; there is nothing in the vibrations and tremblings ofany continuous body, nor in the modifications of any contiguous volumeor atmosphcre, be it ever so hidden and profound, bnt nature has herebrought it forth from the innermost, gathered it into one, and conferred it upon these two organs [the larynx and the ear]" (n. 359). Ifwc carefully examine, and strive to explore, the mysteries of optical scienceinvolved in the eye; the mechanism involved in the universal body;the chemistry in the fluids; the philosophy in the internaI sensoria,and particularly in the operations of thc mind, we shaH assuredly beforced to confess again, that mere wondcrs greet us, so that could webut really explore one ten thousandth part of them, "we should surelybe strickcn with holy amazemcnt, and from that ground alone adorethe wisdom of the Creator; and the pride of our knowledge and wisdom would not merely suhsidc, but would fall prostrate in sclf-derision.Yct these are the lowest proofs of His omnipotence, fol He has filledthe vilest insect with similar miracles" (n.455). (u) The operations of the rational mind may not unfitly be compared with the analytical operations of the algebraic calculus; for inthe algebraic equation, a number of ratios, and analogies of ratios,are collected together as in one sum, and the unknown quantities arediscovered and shewn by the application of the knowll: but this comparison, God willing, will be statcd more fully in another place. (v) As we remarked above, not only experiences, but also thesciences, are matteJs of thc memory, which matters the imaginative VOL. II. PART II. A A

354 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.faculty arises either from primary conditions, or from secondary,that is, use and education, but the best form of it is that whichresults from both. Tt arises from primmy conditions in thosewhose fOltunate lot it is to have the olgans that take up, convey, and ultimately imbibe ideas, conformed to the rule andstandard of nature, gifted with a liberal sphere of action, andwith a power of disentangling multitudinous particulars, andarranging all things accolding to the present state of objects:also, to have a happy memory, that will appropriate objects accurately, distinctly assign to each series its proper chambers (x),and supply therefrom in due order those particulals which themind decrees, desires, or is enjoined, to fit in, either as antecedents to conclusions, or as means to an advancing end (y). Butfaculty may indeed reduce ta a certain arder, yet not into cany orderdifferent from that which is wont to affect the external senses and theinferior mind of the body. But the act of abstracting corporeal andsensual ideas from them, or of sa arranging those ideas, that they shallinvolve something comparatively remote from the senses,-this is theprovince of thought, consequently of the rational mind. Vherefore,without such a [aculty as has the power of folding and unfolding reasons,until a certain analytic rationale or principle arises from thém, whichlies, not in the ideas themselves, but in their very nexus, and in theJepths of their form,-we cannat advance a hair-breadth. This is thetrue living principle that infuses a kind of soul into the dead things oriJeas of the memory. Each rational abject has in a certain sense itsown soul, which ean only be communicated ta it by that soul whiehis alive. (x) We ail know that sorne persons are born with almost super human memory; others with great activity of the memory, that is,with great imaginative power, and others again with other gifts, eitherof the body, or of the animal minù. Thus some are born poets; sorne, musieians; some, arehitects; sorne, mechanics. The natural inclina tion communicated by the seeù of parents propagates this endowment as an inheritanee ta their children. And thcre is not a subject existing but what is born with sorne peculiar faculty. lt would seem that what parents have sa thoroughly acquircù by nse and education, that it becomes a part of their nature, is implanteù in thcir postcrity, in the form of an inclination. (y) That which determincs our tllOughts ta establish conclusions, is either some prineiple, taken from ourselves, or ùerived from others ;

EPILOGlE. 355without the secondary conditions of use and education, wc dobut stop on the threshold, and scmcely survey anything morethan the courts of nature, and not her magnificent interior re-cesses; wherefore the expcriences, with the abundance of whichat this day the coffers of the learned are overflowing, and withthem the learning and arts that have grown in elaboration andcompleteness from the earliest ages down ta the present time (z),mnst be invited into the memory, which is the treasurer of suchthings, must be acquired for use, and laid up as pledges. Tathese requisites we must superadd cultivation, or an assiduousawakening of our faculties, and a constant exercise of the giftitself, until it beeomes a part of our nature. Above all thingswe must aim by education ta become thoroughly imbued withthe power of reeallillg the rational mind from the senses andthe animal mind; in short, from cares, from the lusts of thebody, the allurements of the world, and thus as it were fromour lower sclves,-while we are dwelling in its higher sphcrc;and this, in order that the sellsoria of the body may be dcprivedof their light, sa long as the sensorium nearest to the soul islightened and illuminated with its light (a). By these meansthis sometimes governs the entire train of thoughts, and we look in aHdirections for assurances or proofs of its correctncss; wherefore themind is said to decree it. The second case is, when any of us proposeto ourselves an end, in which the mind contemplates a promise of futurepleasure: the means to this contemplated end are what the mind issaid to de8ù·e,. for we embracc the mcans with the same love as theend. itself, since we sec the end as it wcrc present in the means; andwhat is successive is represented as simultaneolls. Thirdly, whenncither the principle nor thc end is put in the first place, but thosethings which the mind cmbraces as consequences of a chain of thoughts,-in this case the mind is said to bc elljoined to embrace and acknow-ledge these consequences. (z) See the EconoillY of tlte Animal Kin.r;dom, Part L, n. 23,24, 25, (a) Daily experiencc shews thc same thing; namely, that in pro-portion as light is suiltracted from the extcrnal senses, it is added tothe internaI: whieh elearly proves, that somewhat of shade is drawnover the higher mind by the external senses, if they are taken intofellowship; and that rational analyses, by their very nature, separate AA2

356 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.we mount to our higher mind, or to the soul, which then be·comes accessible, and infuses power (b). For in proportion aswe ascend upon these wings, in the same proportion that highermind descends to meet us, and enfolds and embraces our wingsin her winged sandals, and teaches us to convert our ideas intoreasons, and reasons into analyses: for this is not a corporealact, and therefore we. cannot derive it from the senses, but froma power that flows into our sphere from the sphere above it.That this is no property of ours, but is made [to appear] asours by a supernatural means of union,-of this we may beperfectly convinced by reflecting upou the operations of our rational minds: for from the mind as their fountain, we deriveour sciences and arts j from the mind we take the laws andaxioms, of which, when digested in becoming order, we build ourdoctrines, particularly our philosophical doctrines, which are themere operations of the mind, explored by processes of intuitionand reflection upon its modes of acting. Thus the principlethat acts c1wells altogether above us j and below [it] , the principle that becomes conscious, and that is in some slight degreeinstructed respecting the manner in which the action takesplace (c). But these are mere drops that we drink from thisand distinguish themselves. So long as we keep the rational mind ina merely reactive state, we are in the closest communion with theanimal mind; but as soon as we bring it into a state of activity, weproportionably detract from the activity of the external senses. Butwe shaU speak further of this subject in our Psychological Treatises. (b) See what we said above on this subject, n. 458 (b) and (c). (c) It is beyond aU doubt, that the rational mind is in its verynature philosophical, and possesses the ability to arrange and distributeideas in an analytic form, and to revolve and sum them up, so as toform a certain conclnsion. For aU our philosophy and logic is derivedfrom no other fonntain, or collected from no other streams, than fromthe operations of the rational mind, which Ilot only herald with theirlight, but even instruct us, their suhjects, in the matter of philosophy,and the manner of philosophizing ; which shews that we cherish andpossess in ourselves the very master of philosophy, to whose utterancesthe most learned among us must listen in humble dependence: and somuch is this the case, that the philosopher may derive innumerablematerials deserving to be inserted in his code, from the common herd

EPILOGUE. 357 immense lake of Imowledge and wisdom, and that we communicate to our lower power:> by literary exercitations. 463. But although wc may be surpassingly rich in experience, and accomplished in thc sciences, and gifted besicles with a faculty of thinking with the grcatcst distinctness, yet it by no means follows, that we shall therefore be able to lid ourselves of the mists that are involved in the fallacies of the senses, and in the fallacies, of sensual origin, of the Tational ideas, and to enjoy an insight into real truths, in simple cloth-ing, or nakcd lovcliness. fhose are only COllntClfeits and ap-pearances of truth that the infcrior facultics of the body presentto the superior faclllty. For certain misleading and as it werephosphoric fires, form an alliance of compullionship with corpo-lcal icleas, and mimic the lcal lights of life. These fires belongto the body, to the animal mind, and evcn to the rational minditself. The fires of the body are the pleasures of the bodilysenses. The fires of the animal mind are lusts or cupidities,whose name is legion. The fires of the Tational mind are theambitions and desires of ends, that converge to, and terminatein, the love of self, as the ultimate centre (d). These heats are of the unlearned. The boy and the youth, in their simple speech, sometimes lun through more axioms of philosophy and logic, through more categories, and series of consequences, than the prince of phi-losophers can distinctly set forth in his pages. Each copula or connexion of words, contains sorne philosophical principle; much more anentire oration; as every one may perceive, if he will only bestowa little attention upon particular cases. The mind does not derive thesepredicates from its body, but from a higher essence, in which the abovefaculty is innate; in fact, from the soul, which lives immediately underthe auspices of the superior mind. Philosophy is a kind of anatomyof the human mind; for as we are ignorant of what lics hidden in thebody, and of how the organic fabrics act upon each other, until theviscera are opened and examined, so also, without investigation, we areignorant of ",hat lies hidden in the mind. The grand philosopher ishe, who scrutinizes these subjects with the greatest dcpth and dis-tinctness. Cd) The particular nature of the affections of the body, and oftheanimal and rational minds, will be explained in our Psychology. Thusthc affections of the senses of the body, are not themselves sen-

358 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.powers deriving their ground of activity from the body (e), whichoperating in the rational mind, extinguish that holy fire anùsations, but arise from the agreement or disagreement,-the fitness orunfitness,-of the forms that modifications constitute by their mutualrelation or interaction. The affections of the animal mind result illlike manner from the harmonies and discords of imaginations. Theaffections of the rational mind are the goods [bonitates] that are involved in truths, and respeeted in the ends whieh we propose anddesire. If these goods reslllt entirely from selfish loves, they are thenlike covered fires, which enkindle the sphere of the mind, and at thesame time apparently illllminate it; so that there is always somethillgeither in, or under, its rational ideas, which caresses the sclfish love.Hence minds in this state cannot possibly be affected by the pleasantness of truths, for they reject and abhor evcrything that does notprimarily involve self: althollgh this is not only directly contrary to thelaws of truth; but contrary to the accomplishment of the very end forwhich we were created. For each inclividual is only a small part ofsociety, nol does he exist for himself, still less does society cxist forhim, but that alone is his which results ta him from his usefulness inthe service of the public. Consequently, if he place the end in llÏmself, he opposes a barrier which prevents the possibility of his aspiringto a more universal end,-to an end higher than himself. (e) This is very evident from aIl the affeetions of both the animaland rational minds, which either exalt and vivify, or extingllish andkill the bodily life. Pride itself, when favoring breezes waft us on, orfortune smiles, not only puffs us up, but the vital spirits themselvesbecome so hot, that we come into more close communion with theanimal mind, into a clearer state of the understanding, and a greaterfullness of life: yet it is only a heat, more or less internaI or external,subtile or gross, aeeording to the nature of that affection. AlI theaffections, indeed, both of our rational mind, and of the animal mind,are given to us to serve as the fuel and heat of bodily life; but if weallow them unrestricted play, they burst into Hames, and devastate thewhole kingdom. But the pure heat that kindles the life of the soul,is so distinct from this heat, that the two eannot be present at the sametime in one mind as their subjeet; wherefore the one is extinguishedwhen the other is kindled. For this reason it is, that we are commanded to restrain the pasGions of the animal mind, and to extinguishthe desires of the body, in order that we may allow the Divine Spiritto approaeh us.

:EPILOGUE. 859purely spiritual aIt,ar flame. A light still remains, warm in relation to the body, but cold in relation to the soul and the superior mind (f). In this case, although we revolve and combineideas with distinctness, and perspicuously contemplate analysesframcd of reasons, yet these are only the spectres and impurephantoms of truths, which sec ultimate ends in ourselves, andin the love of self, and wmch powerfully and confidently persuade us that they are Delphian vilgins and graces j and lead usto think, that if we ourselves applaud them, the whole Parnassian band will applaud them as weIl: but they are far iudeedfrom beiug truths, for they differ from them as much as thephantasms of the body and the mockcries of the Vorld from theessences and forms of heaven. Thus if we wish to invite realtruths, whcther natural, or moral, or spiritual, (for they aUmake common cause by mcans of conespondence and representation(g),) iuto the sphere of our rational minds, it is necessary (f) It will be shcwn in the Doctrine of Representations, thatrational sight is represented in ocular sight, and likcwise [rational] lightand the heat thereof [in natural light and heat]; and hence that wcmay arrivc by means of comparison nt sorne knowlcdge of those thingsthat are aboye the sphere of our mind: for without the idcas insinuatedand coming up through thc external senses, we cannat possibly conceivethose things that are above ideas: in fact, these must be in a manncrattachcd to some sensual idca, beforc they can c.ome ta the sight of theunderstanding. It is from the ground of representativc correspondency,that objects are presented ta the eyes as clearly in the middle of winter,as in the middle of summer; sa also ta thc rational sight; but the difference lies in the heat : also that we perccie the visible forms of abjectsby lamp-light, as weil as by the light of the sun; yet every one knowswhat a difference there is bctween the two cases. This is the reasonwhy light and clarity, as weil as heat, and other things of the kind, areas it Vere appropriated ta the intellect, as wcll as to the eye-sight. (g) The reader will find this cxplained in our Doctrine of Corrcspondencies and Representations. 1 am not now speaking of geometrical and philosophical truths, which are indctcrll1inate, and not appliedta any natural or moral truth; but of the truths that result from thedetermination and application of these, to given objects, and thusredound to particular or gcncral usc. For an infinity of truths of thiskind have beell discoverccl, and arc in onr possession; but when we

360 lILE AN OIAL KINGDO,l.that WC extinguish the impure fires of the body) and therebyour own delusive lights) and submit and allow our minds) unmolested by the influcnces of the body) to bc illuminated withthc rays of the spiritual power: then for the first time truthsflow in j for they aIl emanate from that power as their peculiarfountain. Nor w hen they are present are there wanting amultitude of signs by which they attest themselvesj namely) thevaried forms of sweetness and delight attendant upon truth attained) and affecting the mind) as the enjoyments that resultfrom the harmonies of external objects affect the lower and sensitive faculties of the body j for as soon as cver a truth shinesforth) such a mind cxults and rejoices (h) j and this joy is theground of its filst assent) and of its first delightcd smile: butthe actual confirmation of the truth procccds from its accordance with numerous lcasons confirmed by cxpericnce by meansof thc sciences) and each point of which accorc1ance receives asimilar assent j the mind going onwards the while) with assiduous attention and pains) by thc allalytic way) or from cffects tocauses. lu addition to thesc dclights) thcre are still more universaI signs j as the desirc and the passion for attaiuing tlUth jthe love of the truth attained) not for the sake of our own adtlse them as bases for reasonings, or patrons of our faculties, we then,by various and unfair applications, form conclusions from them whichare at variance with the truth: as we observed in the Prologue toPart L, where the foUowing words occur: "For whenever affirmativereasoning is applied to a preeonccption, an infinity of particulars, aUvoting the same way, fly to its assistance,-both the deerees of ratiocinative philosophy, and thc phenomcna of the world, laid hold of inthe faUacious light of the scnscs. Indeed, there is nothing but mayform a constitucnt part in different serics of reasonings, if not directly,at lcast obliqucly; as a single particle of salt may fonn an ingredicntin an infinity of savors, and a singlc color in an infinity of pictures,"&c. (n. 9). With respect to the sciences, see n. 23, where it is stated,that "the sciences are indeterminatc, and of no profit or advantage,unless they bc applied and madc subservient to uses. What is a knowledge of numbers, ratios, figures, and forms, in arithmetic and geometry, apart from its benefits in civil life 7 What are the philosophicalscicnecs, with their predicates, qualities, modes, and accidents, withoutthcy have reference to reality 7" (h) Sce Part L, n. 2.

EPILOGUE. 361 vantage, but of the advantage of human society; and neither for the glory of ourselves or society, but of the Supreme Divinity alone(i). This is the only way ta truths: other things, as means,which are infinite, God Omnipotent provides. 464. Bllt for what end, it is asked, are the hinges of our life sa completely inverted, that the last things should play the firstpart, or that thc bodily senses ShOll.ld inaugurate the mind,their mistress, into the sciences? aud why should we not seefrom the begiuning, by thoroughly prepared and finished 01gans, vith the utmost acutencss, the pcrfect truth in everything? Assuredly the Supreme Mind, under whose auspiceswe livc, never puts the least cause in operation exccpting for thcsake of an end; the serics of causes and effects iuvolvcs a corresponding series of el1l1s (k); ultimate uses themselvcs declareto us the end intendeù by the effect j the lest is hiddcn fromour view. But since errds, as weIl as causes, describe progressively a certain entire revolution and circle, henee there arcproximate ends, remote ends, and ultimate cnds. It is cvidentfrom Il rational vicw of effects, that the PROXIMAlE ENDS [ofthis inversion] are, Firstly, That we may inhabit the earth, theultimate region of the world, or the floor of heaven, from which (i) See the Econorny of the Animal Kingdom, Part 1., n. 19,25, 26. (le) It has been shewn throughout in our Analyses, that there is aperpetuai chain of uses, corresponding to the perpetuaI chain of causesand cffccts, and a correspollding chain of ends in the soul, broughtiuto play in the construction of the organic animal kingdom. Of thiswc may be still more clearly convinced by the contemplation of theuniverse; for if we only consider the circumambient atmospheres, themineraI kingdom of the earth, then the vegetable kingdom, and finallythe animal kingdom, we shall have sufficient reason to conclude, thatone thing generates and sustains another in a continuaI series, and this,hy a wonderful cilcie ; as is also the case in ail the subjects of each ofthese kingdoms. If it be evidence of wisdom on the part of man todo nothing without an end and use, assuredly it is evidence of a Beingsurpassing wise, to found such an orb of uses, and to govem it withequal providence and wisdom. But to attempt to measure this orbof uses, or the governmcnt of this Providence, especially in humansociety, by the erroneous circles of our rnillds,-this is as impious as itis futile.

362 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.we are designed to emerge; and so may be subjects that canmake use of aIl the plenty and the wealth with which that worldand its three kingdoms are furnished and adorned: and that wemay be essences and powers, that can convert these great possibilities to our own and the general weal (l). Therefore are weintroduced, in the body first, into this world as a theatre, andits curtains rise by degrees; and thus these ultimate effects,like scenic shows, strike and fascinate with delight, our sensesfirst, then the animal mind, and at last even the rational mind;and are a profit and use to us, mingled with sweet entertainment (m). Such could not have been the case had we commenced our lives with knowlcdge and wisdom; we should thenhave looked upon these shows as theatrical illusions, or laughing-stocks of our high faculties; we should have contemplatedthem, not as infants, but as aged fathers, with no pleasure ofthe senses. Secondly, that we may institute a kind of terrestrialsociety, in which these delights may increase by the communication of man with man, and in which the uses of things mayhe augmented by the aid of numbers, and those proper to the Cl) Apart from the subjects of the animal kingdom, nothing thatthe terraqueous world produces, could be said to minister a use. Theremust be subjects, in order that things may be applicable in the way ofuse: and furthermore, these subjects must have power given to them,to extend these uses still further, ta multiply them, and to send themfor th as it were in a new circle. For where there are causes, there alsothere are means, by which the effcct is produced, and the cause extended. And inasmuch as nothing is done exeepting for the sake of ause, it follows necessarily, that the subjects of the animal kingdomare means, which apply these uses to thcmselves, and carry on thechain of uses further; and indeed, at length so far, that effects, orlast uses themselves, retum by an incomprehensible gyrc to their firstend. Such is the progression of uses everywhere in the animal body. Cm) This is the reason why aIl things smile and seem full of joy inearly life or childhood; and why they assume n comparatively gloomyaspect as old age comes on. For pleasurc and delight arc nccessary,since without them, idens are not insinuated into our minds, nor consequently do the organs open, and makc the innermost scnsoriumaccessible. These requisite conditions could not possibly exist, unlesswe led this inverse order of life.

EPILOGUE. 363individual may go forth by determinate channels to the community. Then a still more extensive field of uses is opened, intowhich we are led as members of society j and which consists inliving for the human race by the mutual interchange of worksof duty. This is the moral field, world, or estate, into whichwe cannot rise unless we have passed through the former, orthrough our corporeal and natural estate j this supplies themeans to the moral estate as the end immediately above it (n) :what results to the community from the administration of themeans, is so far moral, as the intelligence and the Yill to whichwe attain, conspire to it. In order to the actual establishmentof such a society, it is necessary that a diversity of mannersshould prevail, consequently a diversity of inclinations, affections, desires, ends, and principles j which could not possiblybe brought to pass without an inverted state of life (0). Thirdly, (n) In this, as well as in our ideas themselves, we contemplate ane1evation, (in the present case, of uses,) as it were to higher powers.For the existence of the moral spherc, supposes the simultaneous existence of the natural and the spiritual, consequently the existence ofthe rational. The means are natural that wc bestow or distributc, andare to be called dutics, and reckoned among the virtues; but unlessthere be an end in addition, for the sake of which we dispense thesemeans, in one way in preference to anothcr, no moral result can accruefrom them. Thus if we respect the advantage of soeiety as the end,then natural uses assume a higher form. Wherefore morality is judgcdfrom the end, and is identical with virtue. But we shall spcak furtherof this subject in another place. (0) No society can exist among absolute peers or equals. Thefounding of a society involves a perpetuaI divcrsity of mcmbers. Snchdiversity can only be produced by this ordcr of our lifc. It could nothave place if we saw truths immediately by viltue of innate wisdom,for then thcre could be no diversity of principles, nor consequently of desires and affections: and as a further result, there could bc no diversity of countenances and actions; and little or no speech; for the grandbusiness of conversation consists in discussing whatis true and good,and what false and evil; we approximate to one side or the other byprobable arguments. If all things wcre seen with the most perfcctclearncss, as settled truths, there would bc no occasion for reasoning,examination, and othcr proccsses, that occupy the minds and conversa tions of men.

364 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.that in this ultimate circle of nature, we may reeeive the wonder of the ",orld, and as wc ascend the steps and ladders of intel1wencc, receilc still grcatcr wonelers, in ail their significance,ami ,vith full vision j and that at length we may comprehcml byfaith thosc profound miracles that cannat be comprchcndcel b)the iutellcct: and from all these things, in the deep hllsh ofawe and amazement, vcncrate ane] adore the omnipotence andprovidence of the SUpre11l8 Creator j and thus, in the contemplation of Him, rcgard as vanity everything that wc lcaycbehinc1 us. 1165. The REMOTE or priaI ENDS of the inversion of the arderof life (p), arc, that the last sphere may be united throughman with the first, the lowcst with the highest, the Vorldlywith the heavenly, or the corporeal with the spiritual j for thescin thel1lselves, and in their nature, are sa dissimilar, and sawic1cly scparated, that they Call1lot })ossibly come togcther without SOl1le uniting medium. Our rational mind is that unitingmcdium, where mystic meetings arc carried on, and sacredcoyenants latifiecl. This enables us ta bc and to live, for thatwhich is our minc1s property, is peculiarly our own j aU thingsthat belong to the body, bclong ta the mind j by virtue of themincI we arc entitled ta the name of men; how much soever ofit, and whatsoever of it, is involved in our actions, is regardedas human j from it wc derive the knowledge of things below andaround us; and from it, br relation, wc arc rendcred consciousof ourselves; and by faith, embrace thosc things that are aboveus. Now since Vorlelly things flow into it nam the lowestsphere, through the gates of the senses, and hcavenly things,fiom the highest, through the portal of the soul, hencc it i8 thctrue centre of thc universe, divided into tVo powers j of whichonc, namely, the corporeal, is the very thing that i8 propcrlyour own j to this i8 given a will, and to the will, liberty, inarder that it may be our own choice ta live to the body, or not (p) The proximate ends, or the causes thereof, respect the corpOleal state with which our lives commence. Hence the ends, orthe causcs, that follow, and asccnd ta the prior or still higher ends,arc telIlled remotc; and are intermediate between the lower and thehighel.

EPILOGUE. 365ta live to the spirit (q). Dut the other power, or the spiritual,is not of our power) because it is aboye ours; hence it is notfor the forces of the body, or for the will thereof) to be unitedto the superior pOwer) but it is for the superior to be united tothe inferior which is ours: thus union is possible on the part ofthe spirit) but not on the part of the body (r). The ideas ofour intelligence are so many dead forces j the ground fromwhich they can live must be infuscd into them from. above. Dutby the Supreme Mind means have been most mercifdly providcd) whcreby the superior power i8 enabled to adopt the infelior, in order that both may be united in a sacred bond (8). In consequence of this) we are organic subjects (t), through which the lowest things ascend) and the highest descend j and human (q) We shall treat of the will and liberty, Gad Villing, in ourPsychology; wherefore we only touch upon them slightly in this place;just sa much, in fact, as ta be able ta shew from them, that for many,and even for thcse ends, we live at first almost in the body alone, andascend ta a higher life by degrees. Otherwise the will would not bethus free on the part of thc body. (1) That which is relatively imperfect, cannat unite itself ta thatwhich is more perfeet; nor the lower ta the higher; nor consequently,the body ta the soul: but the soul must unite itself ta the body, andleduce its body ta such astate, that it can sene the soul as an organ.Ta induce arder Npon things that are below, sa as ta bring them intoharmony, is the exclusive province of the highel power; and this isthe reason why we cannot ÏJ1Yestigate truths without an influx fromabove. Rence it is evident ho important it is, that we should have a distinct conception of the nature of the inferior and of the superiorsphere, and of the postcrior and the priaI; for the priaI and the supclior is more pcrfcct than the postcrior and the inferior. On thisaccount, the doctrine of arder and degrees should be sedulously cul tivatcd. (8) l forbear ta leconnt these means in this place, because they are sacled and theological subjects; and for the same reason, l pass over wha! is sail1 ta be Jonc on the part of the body or the will, by the ap plication thercof, thc removal of impcdiments, and other processes. (t) l must not at prcsent expatiate upon the proofs of this proposi tion, for it wouId carry me out of my field. Meanwhile, we are none of us ignomnt of the text, that "in Gad we live, and maye, and have om being."

366 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.minds are the very receiving-rooms of both these guests; thuseither temples or precincts of temples; consequently perpetuaIobjects of Divine Grace and Justice. 466. The LAST END, which also is the first, is, that ourminds, at length become forms of intelligence and innocence,may constitute a spiritual heaven, a kingdom of God, or a holysociety, in which the end of creation may be regarded by God,and by which God may be regarded as the end of ends. Frominfinite wisdom, added to equal power, and this to equal providence, such perpetuaI end flows constantly, from the first endto the last, and from the last to the first, through the intermediate ends, that declare the glory of the Divinity (u). (u) l shaH treat of these subjects, by the blessing of God, in thelast of my analytic parts. But as yet we are dwelling in the mereeffects of the world, which exhibit the amazing amI divine circle ofthese ends before the contemplation of our very senses. END OF PART TI.

THE ANIMAL KINGDOM, CONSIDEREDANAT011ICALLY, PHYSICALLY, AND PHILOSOPHICALLY. PART III. TH.E SKIN, THE SENSES OF TOUCH AND lASTE, AND ORGANIC FORMS CENERALLY.

THE ANIMAL KINGDüM. PART III. PROLOGUE. 467. IN the two preceding Parts we treated of the visceraof the abdomen and thorax, or of the organs of the inferiorregions of the body; in the present Part wc shall commence tospeak of thc supreme region, or of the head, and its organs,the external sensoria,-the sensoria, namely, of touch, taste,smell, hearing, and sight: for it is our intention to advanceanà mount in regular order, strictly aeeording to the analytieway, from the posterior to the prior sphere, rising successivelyfrom the lowest forms, powers and forces of the human body,to the higher and the highest; and thus, with doctrines toguide us, to search out the essences and natures of things bythe indications and evidences of effects. 10 attain this end, itbehoves us to observe the order that natme herself marks out,and as it were dictates to our intellect; in àoing which, andfollowing her, it will be found that she herself now opens to usthe subjeet of the present Part. For the circumstance that onething follows, unfolds, develops, consequently opens, another,originates flOm orcIer alone. A rambling investigation, condueted without order, 01 what amounts to the same thing, without the contemplation of causes in a connected chain, may leadto the preeipitate formation of surmises and eonjcctures respecting truths; which, howcver, are mutually bOU1l<l ta each other VOL. II. PAltT HL CIIAP. 1. il 1J

370 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.in concatCllated serics, and only in that serics allow thcmselvesto be properly surveyed. The thing which takes its form froma random procedure, or loose and desultory investigation of thiskind, constantly retains a similar, that is, conjectural character,in its successive devclopments, since it induces the same formupon the whole series of things that come after it. For whatevel idea is assumecl to start with, detcrmincs a corrcspondingprinciplc of the thing, and this principle, a corresponding interpretation of the things fl.owing forth therefrom, or a corresponding intuition of the mind in thosc objccts; therefore, a corresponding conclusion. Rencc come hypotheses,. which arc closely analogous to the unnatural marks and excrescenccs con tracted by the body of the cmbryo in consequence of the dis ordered impressions of the pregnant mothcr. 468. If wc view things in a confused or superficial manner, through the coverings in which our senses envelop them, we may readily be induced to believe, that the supreme region of the boùy is constituted by thc external sensoria of the head, as weU as by the internaI, of which the brain is the complex: but if we consider the grounds of things, and make use of greater c1iligence, distinctness, and depth of thought, wc shall clearly sec that there are three spheres iR the living body, one superior, prior and interior to, and simpler than, another, each of which is divided into its regions; namely, a sphere of effects, a sphere of causes, and a sphere of priuciplcs. The SPHEltE OF EFFECTS, which is thc lowest or the outermost, properly involves that which is callcd tl1e body, and comprehends thc viscera of the abdomen and thorax, and the external scnsoria of the head. Thc SPHEllE OF CAUSES, which is the superior or middle sphere, vrope1ly includes that which is caUcd the cerebrum or brain, this sphere being the proximately efficient cause of the effects and detcrminations in the body. On this account the cere· brum, in thc ...vide acceptation of the term, is waUed round by osseous bounda1ies of its own, and like the body is divided into legions, of which the cercbrum, prope1ly so called, constitutes the first; the cerebellum, the second; the medulla oblongata in cOlljunction with the medulla spinaJis, the thi1d. But the SPHF.ltE OF PltINCIPLES, or the supreme and innermost sphere, as it were the Olympus or heavcn of the othe1 spheres, is the

PROLOGUE. 371cortical or cineritious substancc, from which, as their beginning,the fibres spring forth, and at which, as thcir end, they terminate: for the fibre born of this substàllcc exereises aIl influence,and delineates aIl structure, in the universal body; from it thedeterminations of the will flow down into act, and to it themodes of sensations flow in uutil ultimately they reach the intellect ; for thc soul rcsides in this substance as in its principles.But wc shall spcak more fully of this partition of the animalkingdom into spheres, and of these spheres into rcgions, in ournext Part, in treating of the Cerebrum. 469. In the Index of Contents of the whole W ork, l promised that at this stage l should proceed to treat of the Heart,the Artcrics, the Veins, and the Blood; of the Genital Membersof Males; [of the Genital Members of Females], and of theFormation of the Fœtus in Utero. But thc heart, the vcssels,and the blood, have already been fully treated of in my Economyof the Animal Kingdom. And with respect to the members subscrvient to generation, they must come bcfore us in the sequel,after we have discovercd the nature of the animal spirit, and thenatme of the soul; for by these organs the soul comes off fromitself into the offspring, for the purpose of fonnding a newkingrlom. l think it wonld thercfore be premature, and that lshould be unprepared, to dcelare anything definite of thcsemembers, as instrumental causes, without a previous knowledgeof the principal cause. Our treatise would want the properclearncss and meaning, unless we had previously defilled that ofwhose organs we were speaking,-those organs by means ofwhich ncw forms are conceived in the image of the Conu precerling them. Whcrefore, in order that the investigation mayprocced with regularity, l have considcred that we must firstascend by dcgrees to the supreme sphere, from whence we maylegitimatcly deduce the principles of things; and where wc mayspeak of the soul with comparative eertainty and definiteness. liB2

CHAPTER II. THE SENSE OF TASTE. 574. IN Part I., which treats of the viscera of the abdomen orthe organs of the inferior region, we spoke in the fi.rst place of thetongue and its functions, and premised the anatomical observations ofHeister, Winslow, Malpighi, Swammerdam, and Boerhaave, respecting the tongue, its nerves, arteries, veins, muscles, glands, conicalcorpuscules, and papillœ 1 and therefore here, where we are only treating of the sense of taste, we are bound to preface no more particularsthan concern that sense, or sensorium, specifically. Yet on accountof the connexion of the papiUœ with the muscular fibres, that is tosay, on aceount of the relation of this sense to the action of theorgan, the reader will fiml it expedient to procure a knowledge of thewhole fabric of the tongue from the allthors in the place alludcd to,and other sources. 575. HEISTER." The nerves of the tongue are very large; consisting of two branches from the fifth pail which are usually thought tobc gustatory, and of two from the ninth pair which are consideredmotor.... The muscular substance of the tongue is surrounded by three involucra, tunics or membranes. The external, which is con tinuous with the common membrane of the mouth, forms a number of pyramidal and globular pouches or vaginulœ, which are porous, and serve for receiving the nervous papillœ of the third membrane. The middle, or membrana retieularis Malpighii, consists of a beautiful net work, whieh transmits the nervolls papillœ through its apertures; this is visible only on the upper part; but is more diffieult to detect in man than in brutes. The third, or membrana papillalis nervosa, visible only in the same part of the tongue as the last, contains nervous pa pillœ of different shapes, but ehiefly fungiform, (similar to snails horns or fungi,) full of little holes, ... and capable of protrusion and retrae

TUE SENSE OF fASTE. 563tion; also pyramidal papillœ large and small, and sometimes ineur-vated. Both these kinds of papillœ arise from the internai membraneof the tongue, and from its nerves; they pass through the littleforamina in the retieular membrane, and terminate in the vaginulœ ofthe external membrane. These papillœ are the primary organ of taste."(Comp. Anat., n. 285.) 576. "WINSLOW." The upper surface of the tongue is entirelyeovered with a thiek membrane or tunie of a papillary texture, uponwhieh lies a fine epidermoid membrane, whieh is likewise eontinuedover the lower surface, but without papillœ. Three sorts of papillreare distributed over the upper surface of the tongue: capitatœ, semi-lentieulares, and villosœ. The papillre of the first kind are the largest,resembling little mushrooms with short stalks. They lie on the baseof the tongue in superfieial erypts or fossulre. They resemble smallconglomerate glands, seated on a narrow basis, and a little hollowed inthe middle of their eonvex side. They oecupy the whale surface ofthe base of the tongue, and are arranged in such a manner, that theanterior ones form an angle. These are glandular mammillre or papillre,or salivary or mucilaginous glands.... The papillre of the second kind,or lentieulares, are small orbieular eminenees, only a little convex, thecirculaI border of which is contiguous to the surface of the tongue.When we examine them with the microscope in a fresh tongue, we flndtheir convex sides full of small holes or pores, like the end of the spoutof a watering pot. They lie on the middle and anterior parts of thetongue, in greater or lesser numbers, and are sometimes most visible onits edges.... They soon lose their consistence after death, so that byrubbing them several times, they may be drawn out in the form ofsmall soft pyramids, and laid down on one side. The papillre of thethird kind, or villosœ, are the smallest and most numerous, and occupythe whole of the upper surface of the tongue, and even the intersticesbetween the other papillre. They would be more properly namedpapillœ coniere, than villosre, from the figure which they appear tohave when examined in clear water through a microscope. They arenaturally softish, but they become so flaeeid after death, that by hand-ling them they may be made short and thiek, whereas they arc naturallylong and smal!. (Exp. Anat., lr. de la Teste, n. 506-512.) . Besides the membranes of the tongue already described, it is customary to mention another,-the membrana reticularis; whieh is commonly demonstrated from the boiled tongues of oxen or sheep, and sorne assert that it exists in the human tongue. (Ibid., n. 529.) We observe fournervous fasciculi or cords, going distinetly to the base of the tongue, and continuing their course to the apex. Two of thcse are branches of 00 2

564 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.the inferior maxillary nerves, or of the third braneh of the fifth pairfrom the meduUa oblongata. The other two are branches of the ninthpail.... The lesser portion 01 first brunch of the eighth pair, sendslikewise a nerve 1.0 eaeh side of the tangue. The great lingual nerveon eaeh sicle glides forwards, ... and is distributed 1.0 the museularfibres aU the way 1.0 the apex of the tongue; communicat.ing by severalfilaments ,Vith the small lingual nervc or braneh of the fifth pair, andwith the nene from the eighth pair.... The small lingual nerve oneach side separates from the maxillaris inferior, sometimes al., andsometirnes above its passage between the two pterygoid muscles. Afterseparating more and more from the trunk, il. passes under the lateralpart of the tongue, over the sublingual gland. It gives filaments 1.0the nearest parts of the tongue as it passes, and then entering its substance terminates al. the apex, having sent a great number of filamentsta ,the papillary membrane. It eommunieates, as has been said, ...with the nerve from the eighth pail. (Ibid., n. 533-535.) The lingual nene of the eighth pair, which is the first braneh of this pail,luns first of all on the inside of the digastrie muscle of the lower jaw,and gi"es filaments to the genio-hyoidens, the neighboring muscles ofthe base of the tangue, and those of the pharynx. Afterwards itgi"es out ramifications and forms anastomoses, ... and lastly goes tathe lower part of the tangue, where it eommunicates with the lingualbranches of both the fifth and ninth pairs." (Ibid., n. 538.) 577. MALPIGHI." In the exterior or superior part [of the tangueof the ox], ... an immense number of bodics, disposed in a kind ofseries, rise from the surface, and slightly curving, exhibit a uniforminclination and position towards the posterior part of the tongue; sa asto resemble a carding comb ...• In the ox they are cartilaginous, audseem ta haye a particulaI resemblanee in figure 1.0 the teeth of the boarand other similar teeth; and inferiorly they exhibit a coneavity, attheir roots espeeially. They are composed of a dense and tough material, whieh looks like a collection of little twigs.... AlI these cornuaarc invested by the external membrane of the tongue, so that when this membrane is pulled off, the external covering of thc cornua is pulled off Vith il.. ... The conical and obtuse bodies whieh supply the place of the cornua al. the base of the tongue, arc evidentlyhoUow, and their substance beeomes so thin and sa lUuch dilated, thatil. not only affords room for the nervous papilla:: to enter them frombeneath, but is also transparent.... ,,When this membrane [the membrane in whieh the eornua areimplanted] is ... )Julled off, ... we observe a kind of glutinous substance, exteuding oycr thc sllperior part of the tangue especially, and

THE SENSE OJo TASTE. 565of sorne thickness.... It extends in the form of a mcmbrane, orthick lete, and has conspicuous openings corrcsponding to aB thecornua; and innumerable little canals between them, which can beseen only by the microscope: these are of different shapes, and openon the surface of the tongue, whenee, if it be torn across, or examinedby the microscope up against the light, they become visiblc; and inasmuch as an accurate view shews, that on the inside this membranerepresents a dark-colored lete.... l therefore think it ought to hercgarded as a cribriform and reticular substance.... The glutinoussubstance extends completely over the upper area of the tongue; at itssides the dark portion is nearly obliterated; but traces of it are visiblein the palate and even in the cheeks. " Artel examining the glutinous substance, wc next comc to a ncrYous and papiIlary substance, of a yellowish white color; extcnding inthe form of a membrane over the wholc of the superior area particularly,and of considerable depth. This substance, on its inner surface, whereit is connected to the muscular parts of the tangue, appears smooth and even; with the exception of certain nervous connexions or pro cesses, scattered here and there between the fleshy fibres, and to whichit is connected, or rather grows. On the exterior part, however, it isrendered uneven by certain remarkable nervous papillre which proceedfrom it, and which are disposed in a very astonishing order. In the ox, the goat, the sheep, and in the human subject, these papillre may be divided into three kinds, according to their threefold configuration and magnitudc. Sorne are much larger than the lest; these are situated at the sidcs of the apex particularly, between certain others to be men tioned presently: they are disposed in It square on the superior arca of the tongue; about its middle region, where it becomes white, very few are observed: but there are sorne, and those of considerable size, at the sides of the base. In substance and shape, these resemble the emissile and retractile cornua which are ubserved in snails; they stand on a long peduncle, which having risen through the mncous substance, enùs in a little round head, that is placed in a sort of cavity in the thin exterior membrane. They originate from the ncrvous and papil lary substance; for they are continuous with it, and the same circum stances, and a very similar structure, are observed in both. They have, however, this peculiarity, (which l hear has also been observed by Fra cassatus,) that in the base of each there is a nervous twig, to which it is appended, or rather grows. The nervous papillre of the second kind are more numerous than those just mentioned; corresponding on the inside to the cornua on the uutside of thc tonguc. Procceding from the common papillary substance, they rise to sorne height, and

566 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.from their summits put forth nervous offsets, which enter the cavitiesbefore spoken of, and meet the roots of the cornua; they are surrounc1edby almost innumerable papillre from the same origin, and which rise tothe same height, but which are conical and more slender, and enteringparticular cavities in the mucous substance, at length terminate in thedirection of the external membrane. About the base of the tongue,instead of the cornua, the nervous papillre already described projectoutwards, and changing their form as they approach the base, theysuccessively become more obtuse, rounded, and depressed: and thelargest of them are Ilot very much unlike those observed in the cheeks,at the roots of the teeth. It should, however, be noted, that thesame papillary substance, and both the coverings under it, are foundalso in the palate and cheeks, although in a very attenuated form; butwith this difference, that larger papillre stand out in these places in theform of cones, and near them are excretory vessels, implanted in subjacent glands, and among the vessels are scattered a few very minutenervous papillre.... Many nervous twigs proceeding from the trunkterminate in the nervous and papillary substance." (Exercit. Epistolic.de Lin!1uâ.)

THE SENSE OF TASTE. 578. Tite abjects of taste consist of parts of the three kinpdoms, ta wit, the mineral, the vegetable, and the animal, whicltparts a1e comminuted and dissolved in their aqueous and Otltelliquid menstrua, and in the salivas particulmZy, and on being applied ta the little sensoria of the tangue, are perceived as ta thci?qualities j the perception or sensation itseif, is called taste. It i8clear that the objects that excitc the feeling of taste consist ofvery minute parts, that come out at last from the solutions ofthe food, and swimming in fluid menstrua, are applied by thcmas vehicles to the sensorial papillœ; this being proved by thefirst origin of those parts from their parent kingdom ; by theprocess of comminution and solution that they undergo; by thenature of the chyle, serum, and blood into which they change jand lastly by those parts that are discharged in the forlU ofurine. By the oripin of those parts from their parent kir/grlom jthat is to say, in the first instance from the earth, or from itsproper kingdom, the mineraI; for out of this the vegetablckingdom is generated, brought forth, and maintained j fromwhich at length cornes the animal kingdom: thus whatever arrives by order of succession in the animal kingdom, appears tobe taken originally from the mineraI, but to be transferred intothe animal body by the mediation of the vegetable kingdom,By the process of comminution and solution that they unde1[Jo jfor the materials taken by the lips and mouth, are ground between the teeth by thc action of the lower jaw, and are stillmore exquisitely comminuted br the tongue; the buccal parietcsand the palatc conjointly assistillg, and the liquids drank, andthosc cxprcsscd [lGIll thc succulent food, aud aboyc aIl, the salivas, lending thcir nid; and this, until the aboye matcriab have

568 THE ANIMAL KIN6DOM. been reduced ta the parts that fioat in those liquid menstrua, or vehicles, and are applied for the purposes of taste ta the littleindividual organs of that sensorium (p). By the natu7e of the chyle, serum, and blood into which they change, or for the pre paring and nourishing of which, they serve: for all the food that is taken by the month, ground by the teeth and tangue, and entrusted ta the stomach, is for the sake of the bloo<1 (q) ; and when the latter, or its serum or chyle, is explored chemi cally, then the origin and charactcr of the minimally re<1ucedparts themselves that are applied on the very threshold ta thepapillre of taste, begin ta be manifest. Lastly, by those partsthat are discharged in the form of urine: for those matters thatdo not admit of being comminuted, sucked out, and purifiedsa as ta become chyle, are rejected as dead, in the form ofalvine freces; and those that are separated as stale, antiquated,and useless, from the serum and the decompounded blood, areexcreted by the liquid way that is furnished by the kidneys, theureters, and the bladder. All. these considerations shew veryclearly the distinctive character of the parts that are first tastedin the rostrum, or tangue, or that are explored by taste. By (p) The palate concurs with the tongue in aU the offices of thelatter; in sucking, eating, tasting, transrnltting salivas, and absorbingjuices. (Part L, p. 71, 72, n. 61-63.) The fauces are cases andforms rnodelled to the tongue. (Ibid., p. 76, 77, n. 66.) When thetongue lS about to eat, it conspires in a wonderful manner with thecheek and the palate. (Ibid., p. 78, 79, n. 68.) The salivary humoris so prepared, as to be singly sufficient for aU the offices of the tongue ;for restoring and renewing its states, for moistening the food rcceived,and which is to be worked about, for dissolving it when ground by theteeth, for sheathing the juices extractcd from it, and lIfterwards forinsinuating them into the lacunre and little canals. (Ibid., p. 41, n. 38;p. 99-102, n. 81, IIZ, n.) (q) The blood contains everything that ls contained in the body.(Eeon. A. K., tr. i., n. 2,3, 5, 59, 61, 115.) AU things are for thesake of the blood. (Ibid., n. 4.) There are many kinds of salts inthe blood (Ibid., n. 43-4!i, 91, 92), which lire carried to it by thechyle (Ibid., n. (19), and by the pulmonic air. (Ibid., n. 50-52.) Thecomposition of the blood, what. (Ibid., n. 9 l, 92, 95, 96, 107, 108,110, 371.)

THE lENSE 01" TAsrE. 569 the objects, in fine, we know tlle cltaracter of the organ, because the two mutually correspond to each other; for the O1!Jan represents a common form, whereof the mutations are so many typesfashioned exactly to the ·impressing objects as their ideas [or ante type.,] . 579. Speaking generaUy, aU figured parts, both simple and compound, that have angles and planes, faU under this sense. This is proved by the same arguments as we adduced in proof of the former position j for from whichever of natures king doms the parts are borrowed, if we examine thcm by the micro scope, they aU appear diversiformly angular, sharp-pointed, convex, lunatcd, excavated, plane, ragged, rough, made up ofmore simple parts, and varied in sncn infinite ways, that it is impossible to express and designate them either by speech, drawing, or geometry (1). Light itself evidences the same thingby variegations of shadc j being broken and refiected according to every varicty in the composition of parts, which circnmstanceis rcpresented to our eyes by the varions species of colors j wherefore colors thcmselves arc additional signs of the figured charactcr of the parts that are taken from the three kingdomsto become objects of taste (s). If this sense were not modified (r) This is abundantly shewn in the treatises of many authors, whohave investigated the forms and figures of the parts of the three kingdoms with the microscope; and have demonstrated for instance thenature of the parts of the minerai kingdom, whieh are simpler thanthose of the other kingdoms, and for the most part triangulaI, rectangular, equilatelal or isoseeles, square, oblong, unequal in their sides orsealene. The forfis of the parts of the vegetable kingdom are innumerable; as mueh so indeed as the genera and speeies of vegetables,shrubs, juices expressed from them, resins, wines, oils, and spirits.The parts of the animal kingdom are seen rcdueed to more perfect andin short circulaI figurcs and curves of different kinds. That stupendons art, whcreby thc parts of the minerai kingdom, after having beendivided into their clements, or to thcir unitics, are disposed into infinitekinds of forms, is only natural chcmistry. Meanwhile, it appearsfrom aH [authorities], that these parts are figured, or are possessed ofangles and planes. (8) 1 think it is clcar enough, that when light traverses figured corpuscnles, it i5 espcciaHy varicgated by shadows, but not so when it

570 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.by cliversity of figures, it woulù bc unablc to inclicatc any distinctions at aU to its general sensorium, by corrcsponcling mutations; for the organ represents a common form, whercof tlwmutations are so many types fashioned exactly to the impressing objects as their icleas [or ante-types] (n. 578). But theshapes and configurations of parts are so numerous, that itscems scarcely possible to reduce them to distinct classes, although possible to reduce them to univcrsal genera and corn·mon species. The most simple are trigons, inasmuch as thcsctake the lead of aU angular forms; for aU bodies with solidangles, in a word, aU polygonal bodies, as geometry shcws, areultimately redueible or rcsolvable into trigons as thcir constituents, jus,t as aU plane figures are ultimately reduciblc into triangles (t). 580. But wlticlt are naturally so far inert and weighty, tltatwlten applied to the little sensmia, tltey can imp1int a type ofpasses through minute spherules: and for this reason, color itself maybe taken as an argument that the above parts are possessed of anglesand· planes: for it is an ascertained fact, that nothing produces thevarious conditions and fonus of shadowed light more distinctly andexquisitely, than volatile, urinous, alkaline salts, and sulphurs, asbeing so many triangulaI corpuscules, or prisms and excavated quadlangles; and when they are grouped together in an orderly manner, theresult is a joint modification, eithcr red, or green, or yellow, and thusa scene is displayed that is not apparent., distinct, and comprehensible, save by the common perception of sight. (Beon. A. K.,tr. i., n. 87, 88.) (t) Respecting the figures of inert parts, or respecting the particlcsof fixed, volatile, essential salts, oils, waters, &e., see our brief disquisition in Beon. A. K., tr. i., n. 69-79. And that ail compounds whenresolved into their first clements, produce trigons, consisting of fourthree-sided augles, aud of three sides similarly* hollowed in, see Ibid.,11. 71, 72. * Swedenborg had said previously: "Experience shews, tbat the individual[elements] of sea salt are gencrated in the waters, or between the rndely-spherical,hardish, and naturally almost inert aqueous particles. Granting this, it follows,that these elements are of the form of the interstices between the larticles of water ;in short, that the y arc little cubes, with six sidcs and eigbt angles; and that theirsides are II01iowed in so as to fit the cOllvexities of thc aqueous larticles." (Eeo n .A. K., tr. L, n. 70.)-(Tr.)

TUE SENSE (H TASTE. 571themselves, and cause a cOllespondinrl mutation. This again i8collected from the same arguments j namely, as wen from thefact, that the above parts are taken from the three kingdoms,and indeed originally from the mineraI kingdom (n. 578) j-forthe earth itself is a round mass of weighty corpuscules, restingthere as in thc spacious centre of their universe: their figuresalso prove their inertia or gravity, in that they havc diversiformangles and planes (n. 579) j-as from the other fact, that theyhave to be disengaged from the masses in which they cohere,and to bc bloken up hy menstrua j and again from the circumstance, that they have to be applied to the little sensoria by theassistance of the fluids and salivas; and finally from their manifestly ponderable character. Thus it is clear, that taste andsmell are excited by corpuscules endowcd with vis ine1tiœ, thatstamp a figure of themselves upon the little papillary forms (n.522). The case is differcnt with sight and hearing, the organsof which are accommodated to the modification of the auras, andtherefore do not receive the impulscs of inert forces, but theforms of active forces (n. 523). 581. Arul rnoreover are of such a magnitude, that theycan act distinctly upon the individttal parts of the organ ofthis sense. That which stamps must not excced in dimensionthat which is to he stamped j if it cither exceeds this, or docsnot come up to it, or is largcr or less than it ought to be, nomark is left, and no type mouldcd. The one must conespondto the other in measure, modc, and dcgree, so that therc maybe a ratio between them (u). From thesc considerations it iscvident, that the sense of taste, 01 that sav01, is excited by rneansof fluids, by particles possessing figu1e, vis incrtiœ, and justmagnitude. (1~) It is c"ident from the papillœ themselycs, that the conditionsof taste are c1ifferent from those of toueh; for the papillœ of tnste arcuot eongregated iuto buudles like those of toueh, but arc clivided anddiserimiuated from each other; iu order that each saporifcrons or cdiLJlepart carried to them by I11Cans of its liquid, may approach and affcctits papillœ indi"idllally, and thus distinctly excite the unities of thissense, so that thc eommon affection that is eallcd taste may procccdlrom many thus exeited; fol the sellsorio-organie fon11 of touch is twofold (n. 565, (ul fin.)

572 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 582. The figures or configurations of pm·ts produce all thevmÏeties and difJetences of this sense; consequently the sense itself, inasmuch as it consists in variety; but not so the forces ofthe same parts, or the circumstance that they me intrinsically andnaturally inert or active, for the fmces only excite the life of thatsense, or cause taste to erist. But the measures or vmious dimensions of parts, merely sharpen or blunt this sense, or render it moreor less distinct or obscure. The same law prevails in each of theother senses; for example, in hearing, which has sounds for itsabjects; for the figures or fonns of the glottis, palate, tangue andmouth, produce aU the varieties of sound, sa far as relates ta degrees of altitude, or ta differences between acuteness and gravity :but the forces increase or diminish the intensity of each tone,and cause the sound ta strike the organs of hearing with forceor feebleness; thus either excite or extinguish its life. Quantities, again, make the sound distinct or obscure, shriU or duU.The case is similar in sight; the forms and images that are itsabjects, according ta their varieties, induce valieties coordinatcwith sight. But the forces of light, according ta their degrecs,illustrate, exalt, and intensify the same; while shades, as beingnegations of force, completely obscure and extinguish thcm.Magnitudes cause these forms ta appear distinctly or obscurely,that is, acutely 01 obtusely. And the same obtains in theother senses. Thus the figures of parts cause sense to be in potency, for al! sense consists in variation of modes. The forces ofparts cause sense to be in act, or to exist. But quantities prescribelimits to its spheres; and if it transcends these limits, it becomesobscure, or fails from excessive subtlety. But ta apply this tataste specificaUy: inasmuch as figures cause this sense ta be, orta be possible, it is plain how many diffelences of it there maybe; ta wit, as many as evel there are species and varieties ofmineraIs, salts, flowcrs, grasses, shrubs, roots, fruits, seeds,jnices, ails, spirits, tinctures, menstrua, drugs; also as thcreare varieties of flcsh and humors in the subjects of the animalkingdom, bath in the simple and in the compound; or as thcreare shapes intermediate betwecn those bodies that are mostpointed, and those that are cntirely devoid of angles; or in general terms, between trigons and sphercs, the surface of which latter is a kind of infiuity, wherc every angle and di

THE SENSE OF TASTE. 573versity of planes is obliterated: whereforc if saline acid beassumed as the first boundary of simple taste, the sweetestsaccharine flavor will be the last boundary corresponding to thisfirst. But each species of savor has its first and last, consequently innumerable middle terms: for taste comprises not onlyacidity and saltness, but also bitterness, austereness, acerbity,acrimony, and many other terms with their opposites, answering to aU the diversities of composition in natures kingdoms(y).But as regards the nature of forces specificaUy, impressions aremade not only according to the gravity of the object, but at thesame time according to the forces acquired by the motion ofthe fluid vehicle: for the salivas and certain ex.tracts of the foodare of such a characte l, that they envelop inert parts, applythem closcly to the papillre, and by their quick roUing power,make them either impinge tooth and nail ~pon the points, orgently rub against the plane and concave smfaces (z). But thecase is different with elastic, soft parts, possessing intrinsicactivity, which when applied to papill::e similarly elastic, soft,and active, yield to them, and vice versâ,. these cause onlykisses and salutations, but not touches and impulses. Such appears to be the nature of the intercomse between many of thesalivas and the conical papillre; and also between the finestchyle and the papillre of the stomach and intestines; for thesefluids either affect most blandly, or else enter the little mouthsof the pores absolutely without the papiUa or vein being con (y) Bitterness, as in emetics, purgatives, rhubarb, wormwood,aloes, colocynth. AWlteleneSs, as in certain unripe fruits, and even ingrapes. Acerbity, as in galls and cypress-nuts, &c. AClimony, asin mustard, pepper, pellitory, euphorbium, &c.; besides other differences, also involving something generic; for instance, unctuoWl softness, as exhibited in fats, ointments, glutinôus things, and oils andbalsams, the degrees of which run from the varieties of tenacity to thegreatest extremes of toughness. The varieties of saltness are equal innumber to the genera of salts, from common salt, or rock salt, downto insipid alkaline salt. Mawkishness, as in certain earths and boles,whereof various species produce nausea. (z) Resperting the nature of the saliva, see Part 1., p. 99-102,n. 81 (m, n). Respecting its varieties and different offices, see Ibid.,p. 83, 84, n. 71 (i, k, l); p. 85, n. 72 (n).

574 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.scious of the circumstance; the particles of the food seem to betempe!ed in the lahoratories to so high a degree. Whereforethe differences arising from the nature of forces, make theirstated boundaries between the highest life or sense of savor, andits extinction. But with respect to the dimènsions of the corpuscules specifically, they sharpen or blunt the sense, or renderit distinct or obscure, and prescribe limits. For if there heseveral things that simultfl.neously engage and irritate one papilla, indistinct and confused mutations are produced; and ifcontinuous quantities exceed the dimension of one or more papillee, they also equally obscure the sense; giving rise to indistinct general ideas, and not to particular ideas. On the otherhand, if quantities be so very small as only to touch, hit, orsooth sorne fibre of a papilla, no sensation of this degree orgenus results; for an cntire papilla is the unity of the sensorium, and hence a change of the entire unity produces the firstparticular of the sensation (n. 549, 565). The larger quantityfalls above the sense, the smaller falls beyond it. 583. But the larger parts, which do not faU under the senseof taste, or under savor, in the tongue, faU under a sense mmeakin to touch: and from this miTture [of senses], an additionalnumber of varieties and species of this sense arise, whiclt cannotby any means be discriminated distinctly. Touch is present distinctly in the organs· of the other senses, and governs in a general manner as it were with them as companions (n. 525). And not only in the papillary cutis, but in every fibrous texture whatever, therefore also in the sensorial organs (n.530). Touch also admollishes the organ of taste of the existence, quality, and quantity of that which is either taken in openly, or glides in furtively, and which that organ is shortly about to explore in a different manner (n. 570). Nevertheless, touch, taste, and smell are different from each other in nature and character; this being proved by the origin, degree, effect and use of each, as weIl as by the evidence of our own feelings (n. 524). There are three kinds of papill<e, to wit, capitatœ, lenticulares, and conicee (a), aIl seated upon the upper surface of the tongue; (a) Heister mentions only two kinds of papillee, for he distinguishesthe pyramidal papillœ into greater and lesser (n. 575). Winslow says:

THE SENSE OF TASTE. 575the one receiving the marks of impressions alt.ogether differently from the others, if each be recipient according to its organic form: that is to say, undergoing changes from impressedobjccts differently, and reaeting differently (b) j applying thernselves also severaUy to different objects, because they severaUydiffer in magnitude j to wit, to particles and minute pieces [offood], which are resolved again and again into lesser pieces, andultimately into least j which shews that the papillre are littleorgans that correspond to every dimension of thc divided parts.It is cvident that each specics eujoys a pcculiar sense, from thefibrous tcxture of cach j for fibres creep up iuto cach from thecommon basis or body (c). But what this sense iS,-whether itis properly taste in one kind of papillre, properly touch in another, is an object for investigation: if it be touch, it shouldnot be identified exactly with the touch of the papillary substancc of the cutis, since this substance is formcd of contiguous,coherent papiUre, and feels under the scales of the epidermis,with which it is covered in. But not so the three kinds of papiU::e in the tongue, which arc not confasciated but discrimi~nated, and not cû"cred in with scales, but only with a thinmembrane, or cornmon cap, which is elastic, and yields when"Tluee sorts of papillœ are distributcd ovcr the uppcr surface of thetongue : capitatœ, semilenticulares, and villosœ [or conicœ)" (n.576).According to Malpighi: "In thc ox, the goat, the shcep, and in thehuman subject, thesc papillœ may be dividcd into threc kinds, according to their threefold configuration and magnitude" (n. 5ï7). "Onthc dorsum of th.e tongue," says Boerhaave, "espeeially at the apexand edges thereof, under the skin, lie obtuse papillœ, whieh appearto be of three different kinds; in a tongue that is alive, warm, moist,thmst out, and applied to taste anything, they projeet from the surface, particularly when the person is hungry." (Part 1., p. 30, n. 30.) (b) Aecording to the peculiarities and successive modes of operatingstated above, n. 552. (c) "Both thesc kinds of papillre," says Heister, [alluding to hisdivision of thc papillœ into greater and lesser,j "arise from tne internai membrane of the tongue, and from its nerves; they pass throughthc little foramina in the retieular membrane" (n. 675). The papillœof the first kind, or fungosœ and capitat::c, "originatc," says Malpighi," lrom the ncrvous and papillary substance.... Thcy have, however,

576 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.the subjacent papilla extends (d). Therefore, in order to explOTe the appointed peculiar sense of the papillre, it is necessaryto examine their forms, both pmticular and gencral; for inorder to the existence of a sensorium that can apprehend theseveral varieties of an object with their diffelences and distinctions, the fibres must be disposed into an organic form: for thefibres are put together and the form conceived with reference toevery kind of variety and idea of use (n. 531). Wherefore itwould be right and proper, if we would be instructed by thesciences in the secrets of nature, to judge of the sense from theform, and of the form from the sense; for in the organ, as in amirror, we may contemplate the sense, and see the nature ofit; and vice versâ; the one being exactly represented in theother (n. 548). Since then we find three kinds of papillre, eachkind with a distinct form, planted upon the tongue, hence wchave tlnee kinds of senses, an however related to touch, andwhich correspond to the parts disengaged from the dry food, orfioating freely in the liquids that have been drank; namely, tothe larger, the middle-sized, and the least parts: so that no sothis peculiarity, (which l hear has also been observed by Fracassatus,)that in the base of each there is a nelvous twig, to which it is appendeù, or rather grows. The nervous papiUre of the second kind ...proceeding from the common papillary substance, ... from their summits put forth ne lVOUS offsets" (n. 577). And with respect to themore slender and couical papillre, he says: "Many nervous twigs proceeding from the trunk terminatc in the nervous and papillary sub.stance." (Ibid.) (d) Winslow states that the papillre act under the coyer of Il continuous membrane resembling the epidermis, and not under the coyerof scales. "The upper surface of the tongue," says he, "is entirelycovered with a thick membrane or tunic of a papiUary texture, uponwhich lies a fine epidermoid membrane, which is likewise continuedover the lower surface, but without papiUre" (n. 576). And Malpighisays [respccting the conical papillreJ, that they "terminate in the direction of the cxternal membrane" (n. 577); anù [respecting the fungiform papiUreJ, that they "end in a little round head, that is placed ina sort of cavity in the thin exterior membrane" (Ibid.) And according to Bcister, the papillœ "terminate in the vaginulœ of the externalmembrane" (n. 575).

THE SENSK OF TASTE. 577lutions or divisions escape without being explored by an appropriate sense, and manifesting their external qualities and accidents. This again is the source of infinite varieties j in fact, ofvarieties thrice multiplied into themselves, or tripled j and whichit is the more difficult to display by the sense alone, inasmuchas we have not yet explored the proper powers of each sense,and so many varieties are involved in every one of the senses,that myriads of them produce but one common affection (e) :and there is again a further source, if these varieties be implicated with another sense equally luxuriant in varieties of itsown. Wherefore, not to set sail on a boundless ocean, it isbetter not to venture far from port, but only to make a short excursion into general, and perhaps only into most general,predicates. 584. The papillœ of the third class, conicœ, pyramidales, orvillosœ, are the principal sensoriola of taste or savor (1). For they are the most numerous of aU the papiUre, filling every little hollow of the tongue, and covering its upper surface from the top and both the edges j and moreover they are so minute, that they fill the interstices between the lest of the papillre (g) ; (e) We may see this clearly by a little attention, while we are eating, or bathing the tangue with sapid liquids: for ail the papillre thatbeset the surface of the tangue, are saluted by the circumfused liquids,or the ground and extracted food; and not only the conical papillre,but also the others, as the lenticulares and capitatre: and neverthelessfIam these infinite touches, in which there may be innumerable varieties, nothing but one common savor arises: as though we shouldcommix the most diverse essences, distinct in taste, whether essentialjuices, or wines, or service-berries, into one, and form a common produd From them ail. (f) The reader may see it explained also in Part L, in the Chaptcron the Tangue, that the cOllical or pyramidal papillre are the propersensoriola of taste (p. 49-52, n. 43) ; and that figured parts are theabjects of taste. (Ibid., p.52, n.43,ff.) (g) "T4e papillre of the third kind," says Winslow, "or villosre,are the smllllest and most llumerOllS, and occupy the whole of the uppcr surface of the tangue, and even the interstices between thc other papillœ. They woulù be more properly named papillre conicre, than villosre, From thc figure which the) appear ta have when examined in VOL. II. PART III. CHAP. II. PP

578 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.they are extensile, contractile, elastic, susceptible of every va·riety of state and form (lt); adapted for scrutinizing the leastpoints of tangible substances; the first-born offspring andgrowth of their parent fibres (i); therefore exquisitely sensitive;most numerous, fine, simple, and modifiable, and most likctheir parent fibres in nature and genius, on the apex and borders of the organ, at the points which the food first touches,and where it is first received; and as they are smaller thau theother papillce, so also they are more perfect; closely resemblingthe papillce of touch that exist in the lips and other prominentor receding parts of the circumference of the body; the onlydifference lying in the simplicity, origin, place, aud perfectionof the papillce of taste, and in their being sundered from eachother, and not grouped together in buuclles, but each searchingits own particle by sense, and aIl bringing together modesand as it were shares of sensation into one; and conveyillg thecornmon modification and affection thence resulting, to the sensorium, or to the organie prineiples of their fibres: hence thedifference is, as between parts that aet separately, and partsthat aet simultalleously in a continuous expanse: or as betwecnthe lights, colors, or images of one plane, that fall into oursight distinctly and yet simultaneously; andlights, colors, orimages that represent themselves confusedly as one thing. Theclear water through a microscope" (n. 576). Respecting the saillepapillce, Malpighi says: "They [the nervous papillce of the secondkind] are surrounded by almost innumerable papilIre From the sameorigin, ... but which are conical and more slender, and entering particular cavities in the mucous substance, at length terminate in thedirection of the external membrane" (n. 577). These latter, beingconical, exactly resemble the papillre of touch, which likewise riseFrom a broad base: not so the other papilIre, which grow from a narrowand small base, and expand iota a broad surface. (1.) "They [the papillœ conicœ]," says Winslow, "are naturallysoftish, but they bccome sa flaccid after death, that by handling themthey may be made short and thick, whereas they are naturally long andsmall" (n. 576). And Boerhaave says: "Laurence Bellini has shewnby careful experiments, that thcse papillœ are the organ which receivesthe impressions of taste from sapid objects." (Part I., p. 30, n. 30.) (i) Sce above, note (c).

THE SENSE OF lASlE. 579former create a joint modification of a delicious kind, fuU ofdiverse harmonies and pleasant play; the latter, an unpleasantmodification, destitute of variety and satisfaction, and chaotic,confused, and obscure. W"e see from the papillary organ of thecutis, that the papiUœ that rise through the foramina of thecorpus reticulare, represent the unities of our touch; and thatby the mutual apposition of these unities, and their orderly association, an organic forro is produced, which is the organ, oras it is commonly caUed, the sensorium of touch. The scalesof the epidermis regulate and temper the sense (n. 549). Fromwhich it appears, that touch is the most obtuse and indistinctof aU the senses; and more obtuse and indistinct in proportionas a larger number of papillœ is pressed, 01 affected, at thesame time (n. 550). In this respect, taste is discriminated touch,and thercfore its papiUœ are furnished and covcred with an epidermis that is not divided into scales, but continuous, and gathers together the particulars and ratios of touches in harmonious concert. Therefore, what principally distinguishes taste fromtouch, is, that the papillœ of taste are discriminated, but thepapillœ of touch collected; and thus the former bring out thei1sense separately, but the latter bring out tlzeirs conJ9intly, 585. But the papillœ lenticulares, as well as the papillœ fungosœ, seem to possess a kind of intermediate or obscu1e sense oftaste. For they likewise are organic offsets or growths produced from a fibrous stock, yet not fashioned for receiving aUvarieties, as sensoriola should be; inasmuch as they ~,re at thesame time designed fol foretasting and sipping the first chyliferous, essences, and the salivas themselves. Thus they are comparatively fiat, and resemble snails horns, or fungi; for theystand on a slender stalk or peduncle, and swell out at the topinto a little head, so that they are not pyramidal, but almostthe reverse. Then again they are perforated with little holes inthe middle and round about, to enable them to admit the morerefined lymphs, and the innocuous extracts, into the bosom oftheir cavities, and to propel them onwards t1nough little tubesinto the blood. Thus they are inaugurated at the same timeinto another function besides the serisorial function (k), in their (k) The papillre fungosre or capitatre of the tongue are the veryorganic parts that take the first taste of the nutrient essences of the pp 2

580 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.performance of which they do not attend, like little sensoria,to single varieties j nDr every moment assume fitting changesaccordiug to the solicitation of contingencies, and the use thatmust ever be present. But still we may conclude from theirfibrous structure, and flOm their surfaces being even put fo1ward iuto contact with advancing objects, that they do enjoyan intermediate or second-rate sense (l). Touch exists not onlyfood, imbibe them with their little mouths, and transmit them throughcontinuous ducts and channels immediately into the blood. The glandulœ semilenticulares represent the same as the larger glanduh:c fungosœ, only in a still more perfect manner. Rence these two sets oforgans do not belong properly to the sensation of taste, but to thelibatory and manducatory offices of the tongue; not excreting saliva,as commonly supposed, but drinking the first extracts and occultessences of the food, or the juices that it yields, and satisfying andrenovating the needy blood, and breaking its fast. This is abundantlyproved by a multitude of effects. (Part 1., p. 44, 45, n. 42.) Thepapillœ fungosœ, according to Winslow, "resemble small conglomerateglands, seated on a narrow basis, and a little hollowed in the middle oftheir convex side.... These are glandular mammillœ or papillœ, or salivary or mucilaginous glands .... The papillœ ... lenticulares are smaUorbicùlar eminences, only a little convex.... When we examine themwith a microscope in a fresh tongue, we find their convex siùes full of small holes or pores, like the end of the spout of a watering-pot"(no 576). (l) Sensibility is not to be denied to the papillœ fungosœ and lenticwares, simply because the papillœ conicœ are properly sensorial. (Part 1., p. 49, 50, n. 43, aa.) For they tao, according to IIeister, are" .capable of protrusion and retraction" (n. 575); and according to Malpighi: "In substance and shape, these [papillœ fungosœJ resemblethe emissile and retractile cornua which are observed in snails ; they stand on a long peduncle, which having risen through the mucous sub stance, ends in a little round head" (n. 577). But here it will be weIlto annex a part of the ùisquisition by the last mentioned illustriousauthor, respecting the sense of these papillœ. "Whether," says he,"aU the three orders of ne lVOUS papillœ mentioncd above, or onlysorne of them, contribute to the production of taste, ... is a question.The large size of the papillœ of the first kind; their intimate and firmconnexion with, and their continuation from, the nerves, seem to identifY them principally with the office of tasting. Yet as they are few in

THE SENSE OF TASTE. 581III the papillary cutis) but in every fibrous texture whatever(n. 530). Fol it is excited by contiguous objects that strain theconnexion of the parts, and especially of the fibres; or influence their position) order, and series, and thus change and invert their states) properties, and functions (n. 529). If anynumber, compared with the othelS, and are not observed in aU theparts in which taste is probably exercised, ... and in other parts aredisposed in such an order, that a very considerable space is left betwecnthem; and nevertheless, there seems to be a sense of tasting in theselittle parts [or little spaces],-on these grounds there is sorne room todoubt whether the passion of taste may not find convenient organs inthe other papillre also. Whether or not they perform other uses, isequaUy doubtful. Angelus Fortius in the last century taught that thefiner pllrticles of the food ascend to the brain through the radicles ofthe nerves, &c.... There is a celebrated observation of Cardanus, in[the case of) Augustus Corbetta, to whom pepper gave the feeling ofpain, and not of taste, &c." (Exercit. Epi8tolic. de Linguâ, p. 18,19; fol. Londini, 1686.) By the principles already laid down, wemay see how touch is excited instead of taste, according to the experience of Augustus Corbetta, as handed down from Cardanus, by Malpighi; and indeed according to the proper experience of each individual.For since taste is principaUy distinguished from touch by the circumstance, that the papillre of taste are discriminated, but the papillreof touch coUected, and thus the former bring out their sense separately, bnt the latter bring out theirs conjointly (n, 584); it foUows,thllt the papillre and glands of any one of the three kinds, whenaffected simultaneously, present the sense of touch, and not of taste :for touch is a cornmon or simultaneous affection, but taste is the manifested idea of particulars, aU agreeing in harmonious variety. Hencewhen mallY papillre of the tangue are affected simultancously, -forinstance, by sorne large object, the idea of touch arises, and not thatof tllste. This again is clearly perceptible from the pieces of the food,which come under the sense of touch, before they com~ under that oftaste. When pepper is taken and loUed upon the tongue, it evidentlyproduces both senses, for whatever is dissolved into parts by the process of extraction, faUs instantly under taste. vVherefore, accordingto the proposition, touch admonishes the organs of taste and smell, ofthe existence, quality, and quantity of that which is either taken inopenly, QI glides in furtively, and which those organs are shortly aboutto explore in a different manner by thcir senses (n. 570).

582 TUE ANIMAL KINGDOM.particle in the living fabrics of the body be destitute of thesense of touch, it is also destitute of life (n. 567). From whichit follows, that these parts are excited by their sense, both toundertake and go through their functions j which consist indrinking the first extracts and occult essences of the food, andsatisfying the needy blood, and breaking its fast en. 42J ; forparts, and series construeted of parts, are excited by the irritation of touch, both to undertake and go through their functions(n. 573). 586. The cartilaginous bodies that are found in the tongues ofcertain animals, elevate this common and cmnpound sense to a very91eat deg1·ee. These corpuscules are implanted in the samebasis and membrane as the other papillœj they also rise thronghthe foramina of the reticular tunic or mucous substance; theylikewise are concealed under the common cloak j are covered inby a land of fine peridemis, or rather perichondrium, and coverthe papillœ in a kind of excavated hollow j and those contiguousto the papillœ transfer the individual concerns of aIl into thegeneral. Thus making the sensations more evident, they convert them into a species of finel touch (m). To say nothing ofthe other offices that they attend to at the same time. Thisprovision is c1esigned to meet the case of those animaIs that liveon ltcrbaceous food, and have to receive their conditions of lifcfrom the external senses, and not like the human race, chieflyfIom the internaI senses (n). 587. Touch, or the sense arising from the impulse of bodies (m) The reader will fincl a complete dcscription giycn by Malpighiof tlicse little cartilagcs, n . . 7Î ; from which description wc may obtain 1confirmation of our propositions: for sense is greatly exalted wbcre thefibres and membranes are connected to cartilaginous, horny, or osseousparts, as demonstrated above, n. 530. (n) This is also a reason, why the tongues of the more imperfectanimaIs, as fish, and insects, that live almost in sense alone, or in theinstinct of a nature produced or excited by the senses, are likewise furnished witb cOll1icles and squamous cartilages of the kind. Snch forinstance is the case, according to Swammerdam, with the naked orhouse-snail, the covered snail, and the cuttle-fish ; in which latter, "thetongue," says tbat anthor, " ... consists ... of sevcn little cartilagin)IS l<IIHS, • . • 1:lIld 1 ((,1," 011( nI t 11( S("(11 . • • is )lloYil1<d Vith lIhoU

THE SENSE OF TASTE. 583endowed with gravity or vis inertiœ, is sa universal, that it pre-vails everywhere in the body, bath in its circumference, and inits innermost recesses; fol if any palticle in the living fabricsof the body be destitute of the sense of touch, it is also dcsti-tute of life (n. 567). Yet as it is sa luxuriant in variety that itis nover alike in any two points, but plays most diversely, ac-cording ta an the organic forms upon which those [gravitating]corpuscules impingc; thelefore, in arder that this sense, withits sa ~nnumerable, not ta say infinite, varieties, may fall undermore distinct ideas of thc understanding, l will divide it into itspropel classes, or into genera and species, and present its diver-sities for contemplation under these. 588. There are three univelsal species, or superior genera, ofthe sense of touch, each of which has its aUotted regions andprovinces in the living body. The first genus, and the mostgeneral, prevails aU over the circumfelence, and is properly caUedtouch: in other words, it prevails in the boundary intermediatebetween the ambient world and the eorpoleal world; or betweenthe great world, and the little world made in its image (n. 484).For which reason this sense, placed in this station, has the pro-vince or function of attending ta, and occupying itself with,an the mutations that can possibly assail the body from theworld without; and of exploring and indicating them, by takingupon itself in each case a corresponding mutation. These mu-tations are the abjects of this sense: for the fibres arc puttogethel and the form conceived with reference ta every kind ofvariety and idea of use; as the papillalY form with reference tatouch (n. 531). Its filst use is, ta perceive all the changesoccurring in the cilcumambient world, and communicate themta us: and thus ta keep bath watch and ward; ta notice what-ever happens, and by means of its organ placed on guard, taprotect, at thc same time that it institutes communications(n. 568, 569). 589. The second genus prevails in the innermost parts of thebody, beginning f?om the tongue; namely, in the œsophagus, thestomach, the intestines, and in fine in aU the m[Jans of the infe-sixty curved, dentiform, cartilaginous papillœ, somewhat resembling thepapillœ of the tongue of the (lx." (Part L, p. 29, 30, n. 2!l.)

584 TUE ANIMAL KINGDOM.rior region, or viscera of the abdomen. This sense, on its jîrstthreshold, is called taste. It is a most remarkable circumstance,that the hollow viscera in a continuous series, from the firstmouth of the lips down to the very end, are covered with thesame papillary down, or silky villosity as it is called, as the pIolabia themselves, and as the tongue, which is prefixed to thoseviscera, and sits in the rostrum or pulpit thereof. 1 am nowalluding to the œsophagus, the stomach, and the small andlarge intestines: and not only is it the case with these viscera,but also with the liver, in its glandular follicles, which a secondtime digests, filters, and washes the portion of chyle receivedfrom the above viscera; lastly, with even those viscera thatcarry down the liquid excrements, 1 mean the ureters and thebladder. And corpuscules of the same kind as affect the tonguewith touch or taste, above, in the threshold of the viscera, thatis to say, in the mouth, also go to affect these succeeding cavi.ties with a similar sense. Again these cavities in like mannerdirect and apply their little villous sensoria to those corpusculesthat have passed down to them; and by their vermiculaI creeping, as the tongue by its rolling and folding, they suffer nopart to pass them, without taking a complete account of it, andexplorillg it by continued touch. Nay, that they search thelittle fragments offered to them, with some unlmown power offeeling, is evident from various symptoms; for instance, fromsudden changes, recoveries of strength, longings, loathings, unnatural appetites; from anxieties, windy gripings, heartburn,nausea, head-aches, fainting, &c., arising from the presence inthe stomach of incongruous food; bitter, styptic, emetic, orvirulent drugs; and particularly of worms, such as ascarides, trenire, &c., that twitch and gnaw the internaI coats of the above viscera, and the tender villosity of those coats (0). From these (0) These particulars belong properly to this place, and therefore 1have transferrcd them hither velbatim from a former paragraph (n. 526);but as they were there corroborated in the notes by the experimentalevidenee supplied by our authors, 1 forbear to dwell upon them again,lest 1 should do my task twice over. Meanwhile, the reader will findthe subject more fully canvassed in Part 1, on the organs of the inferior region, or the viscera of the abdomen, in my analytic investigationsof the several organs.

THE SENSE OF TASTE. 585 and many other considerations it is evident, that this sense hasthe office of taking cognizance of, and exploring, the whole ofwhat is taken by the mouth fO? the purpose of serving as nut7itionto the body, and principally to the blood (p). An such materialsare objects of this sense. But since the papillary forms of theseviscera do not depend upon fibres originating in the cerebrum,but upon fibres originating in the cerebellum, hence the touchesin them do not reach the consciousness of the general scnsorium, that is, of our innermost sensorium (n. 527). 590. The third genus of titis sense likewise prevails in the innermost parts· of the body, but beginning from the nares; namely,in the lmYnx, the trachea, the lungs, and theit· vesicles; conse quently in the organs of the superior region, or thorax. Thissense in its first entrance is called smell. This sense, in the province thus appointed for it, diligently scarches out thosc figuredand inert, but nevertheless volatile parts, that are flitting aboutin the atmospheres of the world, (not like taste, those that arefloating in water and other liquids,) and penetrate in abundance into the secret reolian recesses of the lungs (q). 591. These-are the supmior genera of this sense, which speaking generally, is named touch; but with respect to the middlegenus, whiclt is properly called taste, it is divided into as manyinferiO? genera, or less universal species, as there are visce1a ofthe abdomen. Offices differ from each other proportionably as (p) 1 think there is no occasion to establish this proposition byfurther arguments, since 1 believe it was proved satisfactorily in Part 1.,where 1 treated of the viscera of this region, that aIl these organs areformed entirely for the sake of preparillg the blood, and nourishing thebody by means of the blood. Thus: the blood is the principle of aIlthings in the body. (Part 1., p. 236, n. 179, b.) The viscera of theabdomen are entirely for the sake of the chyle, the blood, and theserum. (Ibid, p. 267, 268, n. 201, c; p. 510-526, n. 326-334.)The offices of those viscera, in general terms, are chylification, sanguification, purification, and again chylification. (Ibid., p. 510, sc1q.,n. 326, 327, seq1) (1) Havillg made up my mind to treat of SmeIl in the very nextChapter, 1 think it would be premature and superfluous to illustratethis subject further at preseut.

586 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.objects; viscera or organs, as offices; and sensations, as organs;for one thing determines another, and all things flow in seriesaccording to use, which is the first and last line and rule: forthe sake of use, sense is placed on guard as an informant andmessenger, and keeps watch and ward everywhere. The objectsthat excite this sense, are not the same in the tongue as in theO3sophagus, the stomach, and the other cavities and masses;for with respect to their objects, the tongue rolls and foretastesthe comparatively crude and still undigested matters; the o3sophagus merely sips hastily the materials carried along it; thestomach exquisitely explores the slowly digested essences expressed by trituration, together with the other fluids and solutions; the intestines are different again in these respects, andreduce the ill-conditioned, but unexhausted food, and search itby a sense analogous to our taste. The case is still otherwisewith the other members of this province: for by the objects weknow the character of the organ, because the two mutually correspond to each other; for the organ represents a common form,whereof the mutations are so many types fashioned exactly tothe impressing objects as their ideas [or ante-types] (n. 578).For the fibres are put together and the form conceived withreference to every kind of variety and idea of use (n. 531).Moreover, the differences between the different species of thissense are very conspicuously represented in the papiHre of eachviscus; for in one place we find large, in another comparativelysmall papillre; in one place the papillre are tender and delicate,in another hard; in one place thiuly scattered, in another placeset more thiekly (r). In these and aH other partieulars we see a (r) "The fourth or inl1ermost coat [of the œsophagusJ," saysWinslow, "resembles that of the intestines, except that instcad ofvilli it has very small and short papillre." (Part 1., p. 91, n. i6.) Respecting the duodenum the same author says: "the entire surface ofthe valves [valvulre conniventesJ is villous, as well as that of the interstices between them. The villous coat of this intestine is thickerthan that of the stomach; but its substance does not so much appearto be "illous, as fungous and granular, composed of an immense number of fine papillre of different figures, in which the microscope dis

THE SENSE OF TASTE. 587condition and disposition of parts manifestly corresponding toall the most minute details of uses. But the viscera themsclveshave their bonds and relationships, and form series of affinitiesaccording to their functions. Thus the stomach and intestinesform the closest affinities with each other: the spleen, the pancreas, and the liver with the gall-bladder, with each other: thecellular coat of the intestines, the mesentery, and the thoracicduct with the conglobate glands, with each other; and so OIl(S).By this we may comprehend something fl1rther respecting thellatural partition of this sense into specifie differences, supeliorand inferior. 592. These speeies me divided again into as many particulardiiferenees as tltere me unities in eaeh vise~tS. So that there areas many specifie diiferences, as viscera j and as many partieulardifJe1ences, as unities. This again is concluded, not only fromcloses a multitude of depressed points and pores, by which their wholesurface is pierced." (Ibid., p. 145, n. Ill.) In the jejunum, again heobserves, that "the papillre of the villous coat are ... more raised andwavy than in the duodenum; and each of them seems to be dividedinto several others, in a pecuEar manner. They have been very accurately delineated by Helvetius." (Ibid., p. 146, 147, n. 112.) In thegall-bladder, "the internaI or fonr.th coat has on the inside a greatnumber of reticular folds, covered with small lacunre, Eke perforntedpapillre." (Ibid., p. 260, n. 195.) The case is otherwise in the stomach, the liver, the ureters, and the bladder, respecting which seeabove, n. 526 01). (8) The viscera of the abdomen form one series, which is dividedand subdivided into many others; and they all respect the blood.(Ibid., p. 312, n. 227.) A trine is necessary in order to concIude anything; and therefore a triad of viseera presides over every function.(Ibid., p. 315, 316, n.229.) How the viscera constitute certain serieswith each other, and how each viscus again constitutes a series in itsown parts. (Ibid., p. 316, 317, n. 230.) How there is a series betweenthe stomach and the intestines. (Ib·id., p. 156-164. n. 124-126.)How, between the spleen, the pancreas, and the liver with the gallbladder. (IMd., p. 317-322, n. 231, and the notes.) Between thecellular tunic of the intestines, the mesentery, the thoracic. duct, andthe conglobate glands. (Ibid., p. 196-198, n. 149, 150; p. 222, n.170.) Abo hetw(cn the ki<llrys, thr nrrtcrs, anrl thr hlallctrr, &r.

588 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.compound forms, but also from the forms of unities or parts (n. 531). For the parts of the same organ are specifically distinguished from their companions .by differences and variety,and at the same time are conjoined with them in fitting harmony (n. 536). The tongue itself is a clear instance and exponent of these differences between the sensoriola or papillœ;consequently between ·the minute particulars of the sense itself;for its parts, papilliform, glandular, cartilaginous, and the lest,are constantly and everywhere various; in its extremes, or apexand borders, they are more slender, thus more capable of passion and reaction, than in the middle, or in the base, where,following the law of use, they decrease in fineness, number,and mutual intercourse (t). So likewise in the stomach and intestines (u). For nature ever plays her game through continuaIvarieties. Hence it follows, that 593. F~om the variety of the particular sensations of one viseus, a eommon sensation arises; and from the variety of sensationsof many viscera, a still mO~e common sensation arises. And fromall and each of these sensations conveyed by the fib~es to the ce~ebellum, the sout, by means of this sense, here apperceives specifically the states of chylification, sanguification, and purification; (t) The papillre of the first kind are arranged in such a manner,that the anterior ones form an angle. The papillre of the second kindlie on the middle and antcrior parts of the tongue, in greater or lessernumbers, and are sometimes most visible on its cdges (n. 576).The larger papillre, or those of the first kind, according to Malpighi,"are disposed in a square on the superior area of the tongue; aboutits middle region . . . very few are observed: but there are sorne,and those of considerable size, at the sides of the base ... About thebase of the tongue, instead of the cornua, the nervous papillre ...[the papillre of the third kindJ project outwards, and changing theirform, ... successively become more obtuse, rounded, and depressed"(n. 577). And again he says, speaking of the cartilaginous bodies,"Near the sides of the tongue they become so small, as to be almostobliterated ; and at the base their place is supplied by certain membranous bodies, whereof the anterior resemble cones, but the posterior,obtuse papillre." (Part J., p. 26, n. 28.) Respecting these varietiesin the tongue, see Ibid., p. 55, 56, n. 47. (u) See above, note (").

THE SENSE OF TASTE. 589in a ward, of nutrition (.1); and according ta the perception, disposes those viscera ta the conservation of the whole and the parts,which is the effect and use that this sense produces. Since thepapillary forms of these viscera do not depend upon fibres priginating in the cerebrum, but upon fibres originating in thecerebellum, hence the touches in them do BOt reach the perception of our general sensorium, which is laid in the cerebrum (n. 527). According to the sensation and affection there arisesa disposition to the preservation of the part or the whole; or achange of state in agreement with the affection; then an effectembodying the use that the sensation produces (n. 552). Thissense has the office of taking cognizance of, and exploring, thewhole of what is taken by the mouth Îor the purpose of servingas nutrition to the body, and principally to the blood (n. 589).But at the first point where the tangue is affixed ta the os hyoides,and is succeeded by the pharynx prefixed ta the œsophagus, thissense in a manner flies away, and betakes itself ta another senso1ium, that is laid in the cerebellum (n. 527). 594. From taste as eœi,sting in the tongue, and the idea thereofperceived in our general sensorium, we may in some measurecomprehend how this sense is circumstanced within the viscera.When we carefully examine the anatomy of the tunics of theviscera, we find, as noticed above, that similar little papilliformcones, analogous to villi, stand out upon the inside of them,as upon the tongue ; and these are rubbed against by particlesof the edible class, similar to those that rub against the tongueitself: and that the ton gue is abundantly furnished with sense,we have good reaSOll to Imow from taste. But as saon as theseparticles, which are gravitating figures and inert forces, escapepast the tongue, and are swallowed by the gorge of the pharynx, (x) The TIscera of the abdomen are entirely for the sake of thehlood. (Part L, p. 267, 268, n. 201.) Speaking generally, theiroffices are chylification, sanguification, and purification; and they formtogether the following circle and everlasting chain of uses; namcly,that chylification must take place; that what is chylified, must undergosanguification; that what is sanguified, must undergo purification; andthat what is purified, must undergo chylification; and so on perpetually. (Ibid., p. 269-274, n. 202; p. 510, 511, seqq., n. 326,327, seqq.)

590 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.this sense is as it were drowned in an abyss, or flies away insmoke, and no longer stamps its mark upon our sensorium.Renee we are indueed to believe, that the sense has really evaporated into nothing j and this so eompletely, that thereuponwe seem to wish to extirpate it from the family of the senses,and to reject it among empty shades: supposing that what wetoueh and apprehend by sense is the sole reality. But thisjudgment ploceeds from the ignorance and real darkness inwhieh we are, respeeting thc principles of our sensations, partieularly respccting the soul, and even rcspecting our rationalmind itself. It is surely plain and clear from the common suffrage of an experience, that there are more things that fall beyond and also above our sensitivc sphere, than fall within it.Beyond it lun all the forces and modifications that mount immediately by the fibres to the cerebellum(y): above it, aIl thoscthat f1y up through the simpler fibres, which are the unities ofour sensorium: and within it, those only that are formed ofmyriads of forces and modes gathered together, and that riseto the cerebrum. But bcfore l can loosen this knot, and openup a knowledge of the soul, and of our common and innermostscnsorium, l will in the meuntime complete this matter, whiehis the object of our present investigation, by certain positions,whieh the reader may still regard as doubtful if he pleases. Suppose then that there is a sou!, that explores those thillgSthat do not reach our general sensorium (n. 565, 566). Supposethat this soul, as being most minute, pereeives even proximately (y) It Vas explained above, n. 52ï, that ail the variations ofmodes that rise ta the cerebellum, are stolen quite away from our common sensation. This is what we mean by falling beyond the sphere ofour sensations, because beyond the cerebrum, where our sensorium islaid (n. 528). And we sa term it also on this account, that not onlythe simpler modes, which are sa subtle, that thcy may be said to belifted aboyc that sphere, or cIse to be hidden within it, but also thecompound modes that arc carried up to the cerebellum fi-om our visccra, lie concealed from and escape our common sensation. The fibreof the cerebrum occupics the very ultimate boundaries, or the muscularand scnsorial circurnference of our kingdom: but the fibre of the cerebellum has for its lot the whole interior field circumscribed by theseboundaries, where the viscera of the thorax and abdomen live (n. 527).

THE SENSE OF TASTE. 591the very essences of objects (n. 564). Suppose, therefore, thatit has a full sense, internaI to itself, of the agreement of those objects with the state of the body (n. 572). Suppose still fur ther that it is the souls chiefest end and love, to hold in society and connexion with itself, entire and together, aU and singular things that are rightly coéirdinatec1 and subordinated in the sys tem of the body: consequently that aIl those things that favorthat conjunction and love, represent themselves to the soul by a specics of delight; and all others, that infringe the connexion and disturb the order, are undelightful to the soul, and it re gards them with aversion and dread. From these positions itfoUows, that this sense affects the soul altogetlter differently ta the manner in which it affects the principles of our geneml sensorium : those things which are delightjul to us sometimes affecting the soul unpleasantly; and those which are unpleasant to us aJfecting the soul with delight ; for aU things taste according to knowledge and affection resulting tlterefrom. The senses do not indicate to us the essence, form, and nature, that objects have inwardly, but only that they have outwardly j consequently only their figure or cxternal form (n. 559). From these considerations, l think we in a measure comprehend how this sense is circumstanced within the viscera; and still more dearly when we know, that the soul judges of pleasure from utility, but our sensorium, in the inverse way, or of utility from pleasure. 595. Moreover in the tangue itseif tltere are few things tltatfaU under our perception or sensation; or within the sphere of our sensation j which few things consist only of the general mutations existing simultaneously in the whole crowd of papillre, both those of the first, second, and third kinds; for aIl these, when excited by touch, exhibit but one simultaneous idea, he cause one confused harmony, or ratber agreeable or disagreeable discordance. The varieties answering to the diversity of touches in the several papillre, multiplied in eacb genus of papiUre (n. 583), introduce such infinitc things into one sense, that no quantity can measure that sense, and no number comprehend it. And furthermore, not only do fibres from thc sensorium of the cerebrum insinuate themsclves into the papillœ of this sense, but also fibres sent forth from the cerebellum, the latter of which draw this sense away from our perception, and carry it

592 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.quite in another path. There are in fact three pairs of nervesthat go to the tongue and construct it, and are dedicated to itsthree functions. The fibres of these nerves are so connectedand complicated, that in each funetion of the tongue theymaintain something common with those fibres to which suchfunetion is peculiar and proper* (z). Such is the groundof our ignorance respecting the distinct functions of the tongue,or respecting the offices of its papillre, lespecting the organismand seat of taste, the functions of the glands, whether theysip the essences that escape from the solutions of the food, orwhether they pour forth saliva, and whether at the same timethey exercise a preliminary taste: and respecting other questions, that arise simply from the obscurity of our sense, devoidof which we feel our way like the bliud, and guess out uses byanatoroical inspections of the viscera. The case would be alto (z) For there are nerves both from the fifth pair, and from thecighth and ninth pairs, that enter the tongue; some of which, withtheir fibres, principally construct the muscles, some the glands, andsorne the papillœ; yet still they seern· to be so complicated together,and so mutually intertwined, as everywhere to stand in a social relationship to each other. "Ve observe foUi nervous fasciculi or cords,"says Winslow, "going distinctly to the base of the tongue, and continuing their course to the apex. Two of these are branches ... of the thirdbranch of the fifth pair.... The other two are branches of the ninthpair. The lesser portion or first branch of the eighth pair, sends likewise a nerve to each side of the tongue. The great lingual nerve ... isdistributed to the muscular fibres all the way to the apex of the tongue;eomrnunicating by several filaments with the ... branch of the fifthpair, and with the nerve from the eighth pair," &c. (n. 57G). Theeighth pair of nerves, or the par vagllm, arises from the rnedulla cerebelli (n. 527, c, d). The tongue has three common offices, to undcrgomotion, to take a preliminary sip of the essences of the food, and toexplore those essences by sense; and ils proper offices are derived fromthese. (Part 1., p. 35-37, n. 34; p. 37, 38, n. 35; p. 42-44,n. 41, &c.) * The meaning appears to be, that each organ of the tongue, motorial, libatorial, and sensorial, besides having its own function in a particular manner, involvesthe two other functions also in a general manner.-(Tr.)

THE SENSE OF TASTE. 593gether different dic1 not the greatest part of this sensation slipaway from us (a). 596. The essential and innermost [impressions] of titis sensereport themselves distinctly to the soul alone: just as in the senseof touch, in which it was observed, that the mutations thatexist within each papilla give the real essence and life that thereis in this sense (n. 564). Which mutations are most distinctlypresented to the soul, which alone gives the power to feel; andthis, according to the organic form in which the soul has disposedand combined the fibres and papillre (n. 565). The essential orinnermost [impressions] of sense are those that transcend, orrise abovc the sphere of our sensorium, or what amounts to thesame thing, hide tbemselves deeply within it: as, for instance,in the tongue, those that conceive and generate the sense as itwere from its seed j which sense, after it has developed itselfinto a large organic body, is then for the first time perceived bythe sensoria of the body, and being palpable, is acknowledgedto be something. Thus the tongue, like the other sensorial organs,is governed by two rulers; to wit, by our understanding accordingto the will, and by our soul. (n. 565, ad fin.) (a) "No less disagreement is there among anatomists," says Malpighi, "respecting the precise seat of taste. The generality of writershave believed it ta be the office of the parenchyma of the tongue ;others have thought that it is seated in the nervous offsets; others, inthe extended and surrounding membrane; and the last opinion given tothe world is, that the tonsils, which are placed at the root of thetongue, should be considered as the principal gustatory organ. l neednot notice the lengthy controversics respecting the division of thetongue, ... and its uses; further than to remark, that amid so greata finctuation of opinion, l shaH regard my labor as not altogether invain, if l can establish firmly any point, he it ever so smaH." (Exclcit.Epistolic. de Lingul1, p. 13; fol. Londini, 1686.) THE END. VOL. II. PART ru. CHAP. II. QQ

INDEX OF AUTIIüllS. III this Index, tlu: nnlnilll nUJnCrah inrticatc the vnlllU}(. Fhere Swc41cnb(lq~, aftCf cxtrlct.illg:l 1:t;olS,IK(~ (ro/ll ail otlilhor, :.;ub5t:(llIcntly :ld<luc~!1 porlilills of it, a:l fi ~~J1(lal J nle Illl: odginalpa::s~~c ollly is rcf(:rr(cl ro. ---~--- llagr:. ltt;C.Adolphus II. 426 Bohn 254, 255. 263Alberti, Mich. . , .. 154 Dorelli 233Albinus . .. .. H3, 154 Doyle ...•................ II. 186Albreeht, .1. Pet. 154 Brown II., 9,31Arantius ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 333 13rowne 69, n, 461Aristotle . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 329 Brunn 140, 147, 154, 155, 159,Aselli .........•........ 186, 187 174, li5, 196.Daglivi 494 Dncoldianus II., -12 iDartholill, Caspar , :-1%. II., 188 Camerarius II., 188, 426llartholin, Thonlas G3, 69, 211, Cant 69, 86, 8l), n, 03, 210. 306,370, 3%,426,461. II., 217 II., 4.13artholin, Caspar, Son of Thomas .... Canlanus II., ;,81 II., 215, ·128. Casserius II., 45llauhiu , 155, 25·1, 3% Celsus 86. II., ·1, 121Bellinger , II., 267 Charleton 211Dellini. 30, 92, 233,416,425, 442 Cheselden 69, 1 n, 2:11, 461.Déncclictus II. 427 II., 538.Bianchi. 155, 25·1, 255, 458,461, Cicero .........•....•......... 86 ·179. Citesius , , .. IL, 427Bible, The ..... 451. II., 140, 142, Cole , ,........ 92, 2,,5 365. Collius , 19Biclloo .... 31, 32, 36, 92, 210, 254, Cornelius II., lOI 264, 265, 282, 298, 309, 336. II., Cosehwitz 18, 19, 426, H7 9,34,162,171,447. Cowper 31, 60, 62, G9, i3 89, 92,Doerhaave.... 30, 31,69,92,99, 125, 155, 191,210,217,221,233,461. 130,154,159,191,220,230-233, II., 3, 4, 9, 31, -15, 122. 263, 281, 29,1, :l05, 308, 309, 336, Doebelius .. . . .. .. .. .. 11., 188, 428 349, 350, 355, 3l.il, 370, 375, 390, Donatuii ..... ,...... 11., 188, 426 3%, 426, ·133, 4,,5, 461. IL, 8, ])ulI151a, ., .. 8!), H2, 155. II., 5". 36,38. 45, (l4, n, 144,175,179, Drake 6!), 87, ln, 210, 461. 247,379,380,433,435,466. II., 0,

596 INDEX OF AUTHORS. Page. Page.Dre1incourt 336 Hoffman, J. Maur 255, 309Duvernay IL, 376 Hoffman, Maur. . . . . . . . . .. 306 Duverney, G. J 468 Hoffmann, Caspar 336 Duvernoy 18 Hooke 262, 466 Erisistratus 187, 329 Horne 309 Eustachius 31, 69, 73, 75, 86, 92, Horstius II., 427, 428 97, 98, 154, 167, 173, 183, 184. Joliff 211 185, 191, 195, 201,203,208,210, Jonston .. . . . . . . . . . . .. II., 188, 426 212, 264, 309, 370,392,396, 413, Jussieu 38 425, 435, 442,4-16,453,461,471. Kerkring 140, 155 II., 3,8,34,45,54, 55, 117, 124, Lancisi. 81, 263,266,461. IL, 8, 215,248,278,311,312,410. 45, 70, 74, 122, 220, 221, 224, ]<ablicius ah Aquapendente ..... , 370 248,251,279,305, 121, 424, 425. Fabricius, Hildanus ......•• II., 427 Langius , , IL, 427 Fallopius . . . . . . • • . • . • . • . • .• 62, 483 Leal 233 Fantoni 88, 93, II., 400 Leclerc 88 Fortius ....•......•.......... 40 Leeuwenhoek 56,99, 103, ll5, 150, Fracassatus . . . . . . . . • . .. .. II., 565 151, 196, ,137. II., 373, 377 Galen .. 62, 187, 329. II., 122, 126 379, 466, 547. Glisson .... 118, 119, 211, 253, 254, Lentulus IL, 427 263, 336, 370. Lister ........•............. 329 Graaf 233,309,461 Littre 263, 425, 441. 11., 40 Gregorius , II., 427 Locke II., 537 Grew ........•.......... , .... 154 Majolus IL, 188, 426 Hartmar,n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 119 Malpighi 26-29, 31, 35, 40, 58, Harvey .............•........ 261 110, 189, 191, 192, 212, 227-230, Havers .....................• 329 247,254,261,262,263,331,332 Heister .... 17-21, 31,47,48,50,59 336,342, 346,347,364,367-369, -64,69, 82, 86-89, 93, 109, 110, 395,396,415,420-425. IL, 121, 137, 140-lH, 154, 155, 163, 166, 125, 128-132,136,143,162,171, 179, 186-188, 191, 198, 210,211, 179,190,191,194,218-220,373, 233, 234, 253-256, 260, 264, 289, 374, 389, 399, 414,418,419,437, 306,307,318,328, 329,363-365, 447,466,564-566,580,581, 593. 392, 393, 415,416,425,457,458, Mangetus .... 31, 92, 155, 174, 191, 481, 482. IL, 1-4, 29, 39-41, 298, 309, 356, 387, 425, 426, 439, 87, 88, 121-12·1,212-214, 217, 453, 461, 499. Il., 9, 208. 266, 267, 294, 295, 372-374, 393, Mayer II., 213, 266 399, 420, 562, 563. Mayow ...•...•......•... II., 503Heister, the French Commcntator upon: Mery .........•......... , 154, 204 see Senac. Molyneux II., 537Helvetius .... 63, 110, 143, 147, 154. Morgagni. 19, 21, 31, 63, 86, 88, II., 125, 128. 93, llO, 147, 154, 155, 182, 204,Henllinger 210 209, 210, 254, 309, 350, 364, 396,Hessus •..••...••.•...... II., 427 426, 457, 460, 461. IL, 2,3,4,Highmore 61. IL, 9 5,8,43,44,15, 501,56,57,67,77,Hippocrates 247, 329, 387, 409 78, 80, 91, 92, 106, ll5, 122, 128,lEst. de lAcad. Roy. des Sdences 304 132, 133, H6, 248, 272, 311, 376, 418.

INDEX OF AUTHORS. 597 Page. Page.Munnicks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 69 Schenck (John) ...... IL, 188, 426Muralto .. .. .. .. .. IL, 266 Schenck (J. Theodore) ..•..• 370, 387Musgrave 192 Schelhammer .•.... 92, 191, 25·1, 329,Needham 204. IL, 136 336, 345.Nicolai .......•••...••...••••.. 87 Schneider ......•••...•..... II., 2Nuck .... 64, 69, 191, 212, 220, 222, Schurig .. 119-121,153,154. 11.,426 224-227, 233, 234, 263, 290, 293, Senac .... IL, 304, 305, 309, 312, 314, 426,450,453,481,485. 321.Ortloh .......••............. 255 Sennertus Il., 188, 426, 428Palfin 69. IL, 9 Sievogt IL, 29Pascal . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. IL, 141 Smith .....••...•.•....... IL, 538Pascoli II., 400 Spigelius •..•....•.... •.•• 22, 253Paul II., 40 Steno .... 60, 62, 63, 67, 69, 92, 233.Pechlin 174 IL, 2,9, 123,374,418,420.Pecquet 210. II., 284 Swammerdam .... 29, 30, 68, 69, 91,Peyer 144,147,155,159,166,174, 92, 115-118, 151-153, 155, 157, 196, 233. 174, 176, 184, 194,262,263,369,Plancus ....••...•.....•....•• 254 370,514,515, 516,517,518,519,Plato ...•....••••....••..•... 8, 9 520, 521, 522, 523, 524. IL, 133Plempius II., 503 " -137, 152, 175, 313, 380, 381.Pliny ....•...••...•.•..•• II., 372 Swedberg Il., 428Purcell . . . . .. . . .. . • .. .. .. .... 329 Swedenborg (Economy of t!te AnimalQuercetnnus ..•... IL, 188, 426, 427 Kingdom) .. .. 34, 37, 43, 95, 133,Ray 191 156, 159, 205, 214, 215, 216, 218,Redi .........•...............• 88 286,303,374. 11., 207, 248,251,Rcies II., 188, 426 263, 313, 335, 336, 349, 352, 355,Reverhorst ..••........ 263, 265, 293 361, 371, 414,417,419,421,425,Ridley II., 16 429, 430, 454, 456, 458, 463, 466,Riolan 38, 142, 155, 396 469, 475,476,477,478,490,491,Rivinus 63, 364 493, 494, 495, 49~, 509, 514, 515,Rudbeck 210,211. IL, 284 516,517,518,519, 550, 554.Ruysch ..•• 31, 69, 87, 92, 110, 114, Sylvius ....••.•.. 233. Il., 40, 175 115, 125, 131, 136, 137, 143, 154, Terraneus 461, 472 155, 158, 159,175,191,201,203, Thebesius Il., 217 211, 231, 233, 243,249,263,264, Valsalva 88, 89,93, 392. Il., 4, 280, 281, 298, 309, 313, 329, 336, 47. 345, 347, 351, 356,370,381,390, Vatel 19, 21 415, 425, 426, 427, 439, 441, 445, Verheyen 31, 36, 69, 75, 87, 88, 453, 461, 472. Il., 8, 9, 22, 122, 92, 93, 155, 179, 192, 195, 197, 175, 189, 199, 200,201,208,373, 200, 203, 216, 217, 220, 222, 255, 374, 389, 393, 400,412,418,447, 263, 265, 298, 309,314,319,323, 466, 508. 336, 370,396,426,461,48·1,485.Salzmann ....••••••....•..... 210 Il., 8, 9, 13, 24,45,56, 57,61,75,Sanctorius Il., 379 77,78,79,81,83, 104, 105, 123,Santorinus •••• 64, 69, 75, 89, 92, 110, 146, 162, 170, 171, 179, 201, 228, 125, 154, 155. IL, 3, 9, 34, 40, 240, 267, 268, 271. 272, 283, 284, 45, 295, 393. 418, 421, 503.

508 DIDEX 01 AUTHOllS. }Jal;(é. P"I(C.Vcrcdloni " 87, 93 Winslow .... 21-25, 3A, 45, 4G, 47,Vesalius 20, 35, 69, A6, 8A, 309, 48, 51, 64-GA, 69, 73,86,89-91, 336, 370, 3A7. 92, 104, 110-114, 141-150, 188Veslingius ...•.••........•... 396 -191,200, 204, 211,212, 256Vestus .........•......•....... 254 2GI, 307, 318,319, 329-332,3·13,Vieussens .... 104, 127,200,466. lI., 344, 351, 363, 365-367, 370, 386, 9, 13, 14, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21,22, 393-395, 4lG-420, 458-460, 29, 108, 1-14, H5, 228, 248, 311, 482-484. II., 5-8, 18, 19,24, 312. 32,41-14, 45, 54, 55, 59,8·1, 85,Walther ....••.................. 64 88-91, 10A, 214-216, 217, 218,Vleùdius 211, 218 246,247,248, 267, 295-299,374Wcpfer , 182, 229, 304 -377,408,415,437,462,463,563,Wier II., 427 564.Wharton 17,63,69,192,233,309, Wilsungus .....•....••.•..• " 306 396. Wiuln 210Willis .... 92, 101, 104,107,125,127, Wolffius II., ,127 155, 159, 200, 46G. II., 1G, 26, Zambeccari ..••••.......•....•. 182 1oIG, 1G2, 171. Zeller 457

JnBLIOGRAPIIICAL NOTICES RF.SPECTING CERTAIN AUTROnS CITF.U IN THlê ANBUL KINGDOM.THE following notices comprise those authors only lrom whos~ works Swedenborghas cited passages, or to whose plates he has made dctailed reference. Many of thenames in the preeeding Index are sim ply mentioned by him, 01 else oeeln in thepassages that he quotes lrom oLher authors; and therelore it has app<:ared unneeessaryto dwell upon them here. In general, only those partieulars arc given that connectthe authors with the "Animal Kingdolll;" none of their works being notiecd butthose to whieh Swedenborg refers, nor their diseoveries dwelt upon unless theyillustrate his doctrines. These notices are principally drawn lrom the following works : Hallers "Bibli;ltheca Anatomica," 2 vols. 4to., Zurich, 1774-1777. Eloys "Dictionnaire Historique de la Médecine ancienne et moderne," 4 vols.Ho., Mons., 1778. Th(, " Biographie Unhersclle," :>2 vols. 8vo., Paris, 1811-182H. Chambers "Biogrslhical Dietionary," 32 vols. 8vo., London, IRl2-1HI7. Aikins " General Biography," 10 vols. Ho., London, 17!l!l-1815. The" Penn) Cycl0plCdia of the Society for the diffusion of Useful Knowledgc, "27 015., London, 1833-1843. For the most part these notices lay claim to no greatcr aecuracy than is guarantcedby the above ~ources. BARTHOLIN or BAltTflOLI:<E, THOM,S, a Danish lhysieiun and allutomist, bornat Copenhagen in 1r.IG, <lird at the same place in 1680. 1. Thomas Bar.tholin publishrd the "Institlltioncs Anatomie::e" of his father, Caspar Bartholin,unùer the title, "Anatomia ex Caspari Bartholini parentis Institutionibns, omnilImque reeentiornm ct p"opriis observationibus IOellllctata;" !ho., Ley,(>n, lCi11 ;and the work was trl1nslatcd into ,arious languages. It up)l~a ..e(1 a sc!:o.."l timcwith ad,litions, So., 1,(ytlol(, lCi-I:>. A Lhi ..,1 lime, lilh lnrther (H!,liLioHs, Svo.,1,eyùen, lCi"l; 8vo., the lIugu,", IG5", IGGO, IGG3, IGGG; !ho., Ley<1(n ;l1l11

GOO DIBI,IOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.Rotterdam. 1669. This third cdition of Bartholin was translated into English,folio, London, 1668. The work appeared a fourth time, with the new anatomica!discoveries of Steno, Swammerdam, Regner de Gr:laf, and Ruysch, 810., Leyden,1673; 8,0., Ibid., 1686; 8vo., Lyons, 1677; 8vo., Ibid., 1684. It was thecommon t~xt.book in the schools until the publication of Verheyens Anatomy in1693. II. T. Bartholins " Acta Medica et philosophica Hafniensia," a work containing many contributions from his pupils and others, and sorne papers of hisown, was published in 5 volumes, 4to., Copenhagen, 1671-1680. BIDLOO, GODFll.EY, a Dutch anatomist, born nt Amsterdam in 1649, diedat Leyden in 1713. He published 105 folio plates, representing the anatomy of different parts of the body, which were admirable as works of art, having beenengraved by G. de Lairesse, but deficient in point of accuracy. (" Anatomia Corporis humani ccntum et quinque tabulis pel artificiosissimum G. de Lailesse advivum delineatis dcmonstrata, &c., Amstelodami, 1685, in fol. maximo regali.")This work was republished with sorne additions by Cowper. (See Cowper.) BOERHAAVE, HERMANN, the most celebrated physician of his age, born in1668, at Voorhout, near Leyden, in Holland, died at Leyden in 1737. He wasthe author of numerous works of high reputation on medicine and the collateralsciences. His" Institutiones Mediere in usus annuœ exercitationis domesticos digestœ," was published in 8vo., Leyden, 1708, 1713,1720,1727,1734, and 1746.The edition of 1708 was a very small work, but the followillg editions were graduallyenlarged, until that of 1727, aftcr which nothing was added. This work has beenreprinted frequently in different countries, and translated into various languages,having been a text.book in the medical schools of Europe for many years. It isdoubtful what edition was made use of by Swedenborg. Haller, who was a pupi! ofBoerhaave, published his lectures under the title, "Prœlectiones in Institutiones ReiMedicœ," 7 vols. 8vo., Gottingen, 1739-1744; and the work, together with the"Institutiones," was translated into English, (but without mentioning Hallersname,) as "Dr. Boerhaaves Academical Lectures on the Theory of Physic," 6 vols.8vo., London, 1742; and ed. 2, 1751. Besides this there are two English trans·lations of Boerhaaves "Institutiones;" one by Dr. Browne; the other, rather aparaphrase than a translation, by Dr. John Crawford, entitled, "Cursus Mellicinre ;or a Complete Theory of Physic, &co Done principally from those learned institu.tions of the learned H. Boerhaave," &c., 810., London, 1724. These versions giveno idea of Boerhaaves terse and comprehensive style. His fame is foundedupon his "Institutiones Mediere" and "Aphorismi de cognoscendis et curandismorbis." Perhaps no book of equal size in the literature of medicine involves morethought nnd. learning than the former of these works. The first portion of it con·tains an eelectic system of physiology, mechanical, chemical, and humoral. Boerhaave contends for the existence of the animal spirits, elaborated in the cortexcerebri, and adduces many rational grounds for his belief. (Inst. Med. n. 274285.) It is said that Swedenborg attended his instructions, at the same time asMonr.:> , the reputed discoverer of the foramen of Monro; but this is uncertain. Itis, however, c1ear that Swedenborg was a diligent student of Boerhaaves works,and his style in many parts of the" Regnum Animale" cannot fail to remind thereader of the rapid manner and full sentences of Boerhaave: see a~ examples Swedenborgs descriptions of the spleen, the cutic1e, and the cutis. To Boerhaave theworld is greatly indebted for the preservation of Swammerdams posthumous works.(See Swammerdam.) Haller telms him "the common preceptor of Europe at the

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES. 601beginning of the eighteenth century;" and says of him as a physiologist, that" hewas wont to recognize many causes contrihuting to every function, and not, assectaries do, to lest in some single cause, to the suppression of ail the lest." BRUNN or BRUNNER, J. CONRAD A, a Swiss physician, born at Diessenhofen in 1653, died at Manheim in 1727. His work entitled, "Glandulle Dnodeni,seu Pancreas secundarium detectu~, accedit Dissertatio de Glandulâ Pituitariâ,"was published in 4to., Frankfort and Heidelberg, 1715. There are two editions-anterior to this, one of 1687, the other of 1688, but under the title, .. De Glandulisin Duodeno intestino detectis." Brunn, like Swedenborg, holds that the pituitaryis a conglobate gland, and the percolator of the Iymphs of the brain. CHESELDEN, WILLIAM, an English surgeon and anatomist, born at Somerbyin Leicestershire, in 1688, died in 1752. 1. "Treatise on the high operation for theStone," 8vo., London, 1723. II. "The Anatomy of the Humane Body," 8vo.,London, 1713, 1722, 1726, 1730, 1741, 1750,1752,1778. This is an excellentanatomical treatise. COWPER, WILLIAM, an English surgeon and anaOOmist, died in London in1710. 1. His "Myotomia Reformata, or a new administration of ail the musclesof the human body," was published in 8vo., London, 1694; and a second edition,more correct than the first, by Dr. R. Mead, folio, London, 1724. II." TheAnaOOmy of Human Bodies," folio, Oxford, 1697; folio, London, 1698; editedby C. B. Albinus, fol. max., Leyden, 1737; folio, Utrecht, 1750. This work con·tains the 105 plates of Bidloo, with certain alterations in his explanaOOry text, and40 figures in nine plates proper 00 Cowper. The latter made no sufficient acknow.ledgment of his debt to Bidloo, who therefore accused him of plagiarism, beforethe Royal Society; a charge which he met by a lame defence in a malicious pamphletcalled "Eucharistia." EUSTACHIUS, BARTHOLOMAlUS, a celebrated Italian anatomist, born in theearly part of the sixteenth century at San Severino, in the Marquisate of Ancona,died at Rome in 1570, or 1574. 1. Eustachius published only a few short treatises,which are nearly ail collected in his " Opuscula Anatomica: nempe de renum structurâ, officio et administratione; de organis auditus; ossium examen; de motucapitis; de Venâ qUle a?lIYo, Grœcis dicitur, et de aliâ quœ in flexu brachü com· munem profundam producit; de dentibus." This work was published in 400.,Venice, 1563, 1564; with the notes of Pinus, ibid., 1574; again ir, 1653; by Boerhaave, 8vo., Leyden, 1707; 8vo., Delft, 1726. lt was one of the first worksof the kind, founded upon repeated dissections, and upon the comparison of different subjects; and is of authority even in the present day. II. EustachiuS"devoted many years to a great work, "De AnaOOmicorum Controversüs," which,however, he never published, and the manuscript is lost: but thirty.nine coppelplates, engraved as early as 1552, and intended to illustrate the text of this work,were found at Urbino in 1712, and given to the world two yeaI8 afterwards byLancisi, with the aid of Morgagni and other distinguished anatomists. C" EustachüTabulœ AnatomiCle, quas e tenebris tandem vindicatas, prœfatione notisque illus.trnvit Joannes Maria Lancisi," folio, Rome, 1714.) Several editions of thiswOlk have appeared with voluminous commentaries; by Manget, at the end ofhis "Theatrum Anatomicum," folio, Geneva, 1717; folio, Amsterdam, 1722;folio, Rome, 1728, an excellent edition; by Gaston Petrioli, folio, Rome, 1740; by B. S. Albinus, folio, Leyden, 1744 and 1762. This work contains the thirty VOL. II. R R

602 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES. nine plates which had been discovered, and eight others that were alreaùy known. The best editions are those of Albinus. Swedenborg useù that of Manget, which is not a good edition. It comprises the forty-seen plates in tlVenty-one, and in other respects is a reprint of Lancisis edition. Haller ùescribes Eustachius as a man of keen powers, with a natural aptituùe for discovery, and for ùelicate and difficult anatomical investigations, who embraced in his labors a larger field, and made more discoveries, and corrections of previous errors, than any other llnatomist. FANTONI or FANTONUS, JOAN NES, born at Turin in 1675, died in 1758. 1. "Dissertationes Anatomicre XL," 8vo., Turin, 1701. II. Anatomia cor loris humaui ad usum Theatri Meùici accommoùata," 4to., ibiù., 1711. This edition, which is, in fact, a part of the precediug work, relates to the anatomy ofthe abdomen anù thorax only. III." Dissertationes Anatomicre septem priores renovatre, ùe Abdomine," 8vo., ibid., 1745. GLiSSON, FRANCIS, an English physician, born at Rampisham in Dorsetshire in 1597, died at London in 1677. 1. His" Anatomia Hepatis" was publisheù in8vo., London, 1634; 12mo., Amsterùam, 1659 and 1665; 12mo., the Hague, 1681. The last-named edition is saiù to be the best. II. His" Tractatus ùe Ventrieulo et Intestinis," was publisheù in Ho., Lonùon, 1676; 12mo., Amsterùam,1677. Both the preceding works are given in Mangets" Bibliotheca Anatomica."Glissons works were eollected anù publisheù at Leyùen in 3 vols. 12mo., in 1691and 1711. (" Opera Omnia Medico-Anatomica.") Boerhaave describes Glisson as"the most exact of anatomists." Accorùing to Haller, he was the first who investigated the nature of fibre, and who contraùistinguished irritability from sensibility ;yet his doctrine in this respect must have been unlike the moùern one, for with him"irritabilitas supponit perceptionem," anù "naturalis perceptio fibris insit."(Tl. de Venlo, tr. ii., cap. vii.) Respecting the animal spirits, he says: "Darispiritus animales haud gravatim concessero. Omnes llope Medici omnesque philosophi uno quasi ore iùem testantur." (Ibid., cap. viii.) GUAAF, REGNER DE, a Dutch physician, born at Schoonhove in 1641, died atDelft in 1673. 1. His treatise, "De Succo Pancreatico," or "Disputatio Medicade Naturâ et usu Succi Pancreatici," was publisheù in 12mo., Leyden, 1664; andagain with additions, 8vo., 1671 and J 674; and t"anslated into French, 12mo.,Paris, 1666. II." De Virorum organis generationi inservientibus, &c.," 8vo.,Leyden and Rotterdam, 1668, 1670, 1672. De Graaf introduced the anatomicalsyringe and made use of .liquid injections. His works were collected aCter his death.(" Opera Omnia," 8vo., Leyden, 1677; 8v.o., 1678; 8vo., Amsterdam, 1705.) HEISTEU, LAURENCE, a German anatomist and surgeon, bom at Frankfol·t onthe Maine in 1683, died at Hclmstadt in 1758. His" Compendium Anatomicumveterum reœntiorumque observationes brevissime complcctcns," was published in4to., Altorf, 1717; 8vo., Altorf and Nuremberg, 1719, 1727,1732,1741,1761;8vo., Amsterdam, 1723, 1748; 4to., Freyberg, 1726; 8vo., Venice, 1730: inEnglish, 8vo., London, 1721, 1752. It was trauslatcd into nearly ail the langnages of Europe. (See Senac.) Many additions were made to it in the edition of1732, and again in that of 1741. It is uncertain what edition was maùe use of bySweùenborg. Heisters work is in the tabular form. Verheyens Anatomy, whichhad snperseded T. Bartholins, was in its tum superseded by Heistcrs, which metwith immense and well.merited success, anù maintaineù its ground for a long timein the medical schools of Europe. Heister regardeù anatomy as the hanùmaid of

BIBLIOGR,PHIC,L NOnCES. G03 thcology: and he has the following tine pns~age respecting the cnds of anatomy : "Finis anatomes multiplex est: primarius tamen est operum mirabilium Suprcmi Numinis in corpore humano aliorumquc animalium cognitio et admiratio: cum artificiosissimre fabricœ contemplatio, partium admiranda figura, conncxio, com municatio, actio et usus, Crcatoris non solum existeutiam, sed et immeusam et stupendam sapientiam manifestissime, contra atheos, demonstrent, ct ad cultum ac vcnerationem ejus invitent; ideoque finis primarius Anatomire. gloria Dei csto. Atque hoc sensu Anatomia Philosophica, aut Physica, imo Theologica vocari potest, omnibus verre sapientiœ ac Theologire cultoribus utilissima." (" Comp. Anat.," 11. 8.) Heister wrote severai special treatises ou the applicatiou of anatomy LoTheology. (De Utilitate Anaoomes in theologiâ generatim, 4to., Altorf, 1717: ex ventriculi fabricà, 4to., 1719: ex fabricâ intestinorum tenuium, 4to., 1720: ct ex intestinorum crassorum fabricâ, 4to., 1720: ex musculis et mi.labili corporis motu, 4to., Helmstadt, 1721 : ex nervis, 4to., 1721 : ex partibns generationis, 4to., 1723: ex ossibus et eorum nexibus, 4to., 1727: ex mammis, Ho., 1730.) LANCISI, JOANNES MARIA, an Italian physician, anatomist, and physiologist, born at Rome in 1654, died in 1721. T. His" EpisLola de humorum secretionibus in genere, et prœcipue de bilis in hepate sepamtione eum historiâ hepatis," or, " Epistola dc bilis secretione ad Joannem Baptistam Bianchi," Vas published in 4to.,Turin, 1711: 4to., Geneva, 1725; and with his" Opera Onlllia," 4to., Geneva, 1718; 2 vols. Ho., 172:;; folio, Venice, 1739; ,1 vols. 4to., Rome, 17·15. II. His "Dissertatio de Venâ sine pari," Vas published Vith Morgagnis "AdversariaAoaOOmica" V. (See MO(Jagni.) III. His work, "De Motu cOldis et Aneurys matibus," commenced in 1700, was published alter the authors death, folio, Rome,1728; 4to., ibid., 1735; 400., Naples, 1738; folio, Vcnice, 1739; 4to., Leyden,1743. IV. Laneisi edited the plates of Eustachius. (See Eustacltius.) Ile was aman of philosophical tendencies, and the first portion of his work on the motion ofthe heart is admirable in this respect. He gives the following good advice to thestudents of medicinc: "Interim vero futtllum consulo, nt mcdicinœ tyrones agnoscant, atque identidem revocent in memoriam, permagni interesse ad naturœ operam(eum spe inveniendi) nnnquam acccdere, quin prius leges, ac plincipia, qnibus tumnatura, tum ars operatur, apud animum suum consuluerint: unum enim, idemqueDivinum excmplar tum natura, et ars propriis in actionibus, tllm philosophus inrectis cogitationibus semper imibtur." He recolnll1ends the stlldy of analogies, forsays he: "Pleraque in re medicâ per anaJogiam inventa sunt." (Op. cit., lib. L,sec. L, cap. iiL, prop. xvii.) LEEUWENHOEK, LEEUWE~HOEC.{, or LEUWE~HOECK, ANTONY VON, a celebrated Dutch microscopist, and maker of microscopes, born at Delft in 1632, diedin 1723. I. His" Arcana Natnrre detecta" was published in 4to., Delft, 1695;4to., Leyden, 1722. II." Continuatio Arcanorum Naturre detectorull1," 4to.,Delft, 1697; 4to., Leydcn, 1722. Ill." Epistolre Physiologicœ," 4to., Delft,1719. Many of this allthors Vorks consist of letters which Vere inse~tecl in thc"Philosophical Transactions." They Vere mostly pnblished in Dutch, and afterwards translated into Lutin. Leeuwenhoek devoted himself unintenuittingly folfifty years to the use of the microscope, apparently without any othe. end than theaccumulation of experimental knoVleclge; fol he neither attempted 00 found atheory, nor to draw conclusions: nevertheless, hc pursued his minute rcseurehes withtoo lnuch singleness, not to have clicited ll1any facts which Verc of nse to others.

604 IHHLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES. MALPIGHI, MARCELLUS, a celebrated Italian anatomist, born near Bologna in1628, died at Rome in 1694. 1. He published his "Epistolœ duœ de Pllimonibus,"folio, Bologna, 1661; and the work was reprinted by Bartholin, 8vo., Copenhagen,1663; 12mo., Leyden, 1672; in Mangets " Bibliotheca Anatomica i" and 12mo.,Frankfort, 1678. II." Tetras Anatomicarum Epistolarum, De Linguâ, de Cerebro,de externo Tactus Organo, De Omento. de Pinguedine et Adiposis Ductibus,"12mo., Bologna, 1661, 1665; 12mo., Amsterdam, 1669. III." De Viscerumstructurâ exercitationes anatomicœ, accedit Dissertatio de Polypo Cordis," 4to.,Bologna, 1666; 12~0., Amsterdam, 1669; 12mo., London, 1669; 12mo., Jena,1677, 1683 j 12mo., Frankfort, 1678: in French, 12mo., Paris, 1683; by Sauvalle,12mo., Montpellier, 1683 i 8vo., 1687. These dissertations are five in number.1. De Hepate. 2. De Cerebri Cortice. 3. De Renibus. 4. De Liene. 5. DePolypo Cordis. IV." Dissertatio Epistolica de Fomlatione Pulli in Ovo," 4to.,London, 1673; in French, 12mo., Paris, 1686. V." Dissertatio Epistolica deBombyce," 4to., London, 1669: in French, 12mo., Paris, 1686. The workswritten by Malpighi until 1681 were pllblished with the title of "Opera Omnia,"2 tom., folio, London, 1686, 1687; and 2 tom., 4to., Leyùen and Amsterdam,1687. The Dutch edition is the best, and has a valuable index: the London editionis inaccurate. VI." Epistola de Glandulis Conglobatis," 4to., London, 1689;4to., Leyden, 1690. VII. Malpighis " Opera Posthuma" appeared in folio, London,1697; 2 vols. 4to., Leyden and Amsterdam, 1698, 1700; folio, Venice, 1698.The London edition of the Posthuma is very incorrect; the Dutch edition somewhatbetter. The whole of Malpighis works were published by Gavinelli, folio, Veniee, 1743. Most of his works have been reprinted in Mangets " Bibliotheca Anatomica."Several of the best of them were addressed to the Royal Society of London, ofwhich Malpighi was an honorary member. He wrote in crabbed and difficult Latin,so that it is sometimes almost impossible to guess his meaning. He was one of thefirst who made use of the microscope in anatomical investigations, and who endeavoredto penetrate the intimate structure of the viscera experimentally; in this he was verysuccessful, and laid the foundation of our present knowledge of visceral anatomy. His works on the viscera are constantly appealed to in the present day, but have never been translated into English. He was a sagacious observer, and by no means destitute of method, and philosophical instinct. In philosophy, Malpighi was a follower of Borelli, who, according to Haller, was the first that applied mathematics to physiology. MAKGETUS or :MAKGET, J OANNES JACOBUS, a laborious compiler, born at Geneva in 1652, died at the same place in 1742. His" Theatrum Anatomicum cum Eustachii Tablliis Anatomicis," was published in 2 vols., folio, Cologne and Geneva, 1716. This compilation is not in much esteem : nevertheless it will be useful to the student of the "Animal Kingùom," from the number of well-executed plates by the best authors which it contains , and from its embodying nearly ail the <liscoveries of the 17th century. It was severely hanùled by Morgagni throughout his " Adversaria Anatomica" Il.-VI.; and by Heister in the preface to his " Compendium Anato micum." Le Clerc and Manget published together a large work entitled, " Bibliotheca Anatomica," 2 vols., folio, 1685; 2 vols., folio, Geneva, 1699. An abridgement of it was published in English, 3 vols. 4to., London, 1711. This work is chiefly a thesaurus of the anatomists of the 17th century. MORGAGll, JOANNES BAITlSTA, a celebratcd Italian anatomist, born at Forli

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES. 605in Romania in 16B2, died in 1771. His" Adversaria Anatomica prima" was published in 4to., Bologna, 1706. It is a amall work, but, as Haller says, almostentirely consisting of new discoveries, or of more clear descriptions of parts thanhad been given previoualy. Morgagnis account of the" appendices ventriculorum"in the larynx has been overlooked by later anatomists, and the same cavities havebeen recently brought forward as a new discovery under the name of "sacculi laryngis." Five other collections of "Adversaria" were afterwards published by Mor.gagni; namely, "Adversaria Anatomica" II., 4to., Padua, 1717: Ill., 4to., ibid.,1717: IV., 4to., ibid., 1719: V., 4to., ibid., 1719: VI., 4to., ibid., 1719.They were all published together as " Adversaria Anatomica Omnia," 4to., Padua,1719; 4to., Leyden, 1723, 1740. According to Haller, Morgagni did not describethe parts of the human body as if their form was one and constant; but noting thevarieties in different subjects, gathered from a number of accordant instances whatmight be considered as the usual fabric; and in thus eliciting generalized facts excelled all previous anatomists, perhaps with the exception of Eustachius. NUCK, ANTONY, a Gennan by birth, but professor of anatomy at Leyden, bomabout 1660, died in 1692. His" Adenographia Curiosa, et uteri anatome nova, cum Epistolâ de inventis novis," was published in Bvo., Leyden, 1692 and 1696 ;with Reverhorsts Treatise, "De Motu bills Circulari, Bvo., Leyden, 1722, 1723 (see Reoerhorst); and also printed in Mangets "Bibliotheca Anatomica." The greater part of Nucks works was published in 3 vols. 12mo., Lyons; 1722. The whole were collected and published as bis" Opera Omnia," 2 vols., Leyden, 1733. Nuck skilfully injected the lymphatics with mercury, and made use of the air-pump as an appliance for this purpose. PEVER, JEAN CONRAD, bom at Schaffhausen in 1653, died in 1712. His .. Exercitatio anatomico-medica de glandulis intestinorum, eorumque usu et affec tionibus," &c., was published in Bvo., Schaffhausen, 1677; in Mangets "Biblio theca Anatomica;" also in Bvo., Amsterdam, 16B2. Peyer described the glandul~ agminatre of the smaU intestines, and the glandul~ solitari~. REVERHORST, MAURICE VAN, a Dutch anatomist, and professor at the Hague. His work, "De Motu Bilia Circulari," was published in 4to., Leyden, 1692; Bvo., without date; Bvo., 1696; with Nucks "Sialographia et Adenographia Curiosa," Bvo., Leyden, 1722, 1723. ln this work Reverhorst gives plates of theliver, and maintains that a considerable portion of the bile is reabsorbed by the intestinal vessels. RUYSCH, FREDERIC, a Dutch anatomist and naturalist, bom at the Hague in 163B, died in 1731. His works are numerous, but c.onsist in great part of accounts of the preparations in his museum: they were collected and published at Amsterdam in 1721 (" Opera Omnia Anatomico-medico.chirurgica," 4to.); and a better edition, 5 vols. 4to., Amsterdam, 1737. To this is added a "Historia vitre et meritorum Frederici Ruysch," by J. F. Schreiber; and an admirable index by Ysbrand Gysbert Allebout. Ruysch learnt the use of the syringe from De Graaf, and the art of inject ing with wax from Swammerdam, and made good use of these means, but nevel divulged his processes. His preparations, in making which he was assisted by his daughters, were celebrated aU over Europe; Boerbaave studied from them, and made them the ground of his vascular theory. Ruysch was little more than an anat.omical artist, but in this respect his patience and neatness were wonderful. His great fault was said to he a want of reading, and of acquaintance with what had been dpne by others.

606 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.He was an author for seventy years, and never f1agged in his labors. Althoughaspiring to no other posit.ion than a collector of facts,-and Haller justly says of himthat he was "simplex totus et a ratiocinio remotus,"-yet he recognized the importance of a higher branch of enquiry; for he says: "Ego totus in eo sum, et omnesnervos intendo, ut quantum in me est, veram constitutionem perscruter, e.1:spectansut alii circa usum idem sint facturi. Difficile enim Jl1illi jam utrique negotioincumbere." (" Thes. Anat." Il.) SCHURIG, MARTIN, a physician living al. Dresden about the beginning of the18th century. His works were published between 1720 and 1744. His" ChylologiaHistorico-medica, sive chyli humani, seu succi hominis nutritii consideratio physicomedico-forensis," was published .in 4to., Dresden, 1725. Swedenborg appears tohave made considerable use of this learned compilation, as supplying accounts ofcertain remarkable diseases and diseased conditions, snch as adipsia, asitia, pica,nausea and antipathies, catalepsy, ecstasis, &c. SENAC, JEAN BAPTISTE, a French physician, born in the diocese of Lombez,in Gascony, in 1693, died in 1770. Senac published a translation of Heisters" Compendium Anatomicum," with physiological comments: viz., "LAnatomiedHeister, avec des Essais de Physique sur lUsage des Parties du Corps humain,et sur le Méchanisme de leurs Mouvemens. Enrichie de Nouvelles Figures," &c.;8vo., Paris, 1724; 8vo., Paris, 1735; 3 vols. 12mo., Paris, 1753. Haller speaksof an English translation, 8vo., 1734. (Sec" Animal Kingdom," vol. Il., p.304, 305.) SWAMMERDAM, or SCHWAMMERDAM, JOHN, a celebrated Dutch anatomistand entomologist, born al. Amsterdam in 1637, died al. the same place in 1680. 1.His inaugural dissertation, "Tractatus physico-medicus de respiratione usuquepulmonum," waspublishedin 8vo., Leyden, 1667, 1677, 1679; 4to., 1738; andin Mangets "Bibliotheca Anatomica." II. His" Biblia NatullE, sÏ;e HistoriaInsectorum, in classes certas reducta, &c.," was published in folio, Leyden, 1737,in Dutch and Latin, witb a life of the author by Boerhaave, who bought the manuscript of the work, and printed il. al. his own expense. The Latin version wasexecuted by H. D. Gaubius, respecting whom Boerhaave says: "perhaps it woule!have been a hard matter, if not impossible, to fine! another translator equal to thetask." The work laS translatee! into English, folio, London,1758. (" The Bookof Nature; or the History of Insects: reduced to distinct classes, &c. Translatedfrom the Dutch and Latin original edition, by Thomas Flloyd. Revised and improvedby notes from Reaumur and others, by John Hill, M.D.") Swammerdam intro.duced the use of wax injections, and invented the now received method of makingdry preparations of hollow organs. He was an admirable microscopist, and dissectorof minute objects, and employed many peculiar and ingenious instruments andmethods in his researches. Notwithstanding his experimental studies, he appears inthe "Biblia Naturre" to have constantly had in view the end of displaying thewisdom and power of God as manifested in the animal creation. In the latter partof his life he became a follower of Madame Bourignon, and an admirer of JacobBehmen, and ultimately forsook ail his physical and anatomical studies, in order toattend to his spiritual concerns. VERIIEYEN, PHILIP, a celebrated Belgian anatomist, born at Vesbrouck inBrabant in 1648, died al. Louvain in 1710. His" Corporis Humani Anatomia"was tirst published in 4to., Louvain, 1693; and in 8vo., Leipsic. 1699, 1716.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES. 607The anthor sllbsequently much improved the work, which afterwards appeared withthe title: "Corporis humani Anatomire liber primus. Editio secunda ab Authorerecognita, novisque observationibus et inventis pluribusque figuris aucta," 400.,Brussels, 1710; and with a second volume, viz.: "Supplementum Anatomicumsive Anatomire COlporis Humani liber secundus," 4to., ibid., 1710: lt was reprintedin 2 vols. 4to., Brussels, 1726; 2 vols. 4to., Naples, 1717 and 1734; 2 vols. 8vo.,Leipsic, 1731: the Supplement alone, 8vo., Amsterdam, 1731. This manual superseded that of T. Baltholin; and met with great success, being the anatomical textbook for a considerable period. It is written in a clear and occasionally elegant style,and was certainly the best work on anatomy that had then appeared. Morgagni andHeister attacked it on the score of inaccuracy and want of information, but withoutperhaps making due allowances, or sufficiently admitting the usefulness of the bookin its own generation. HaUer regards the supplement as the most valuable of theauthors works. Verheyens motto, written by himself, is as follows: "PhilippusVerheyen medicinre doctor et professor, partem sui materialem hic in cremeteriocondi voluit, ne templum dehonestaret, aut nocivis halitibus inficeret. Requiescatin pace. fl VIEUSSENS, RAYMOND, a French physician and anatomist, born at Rovergue in1641, died at Montpel;;er in 1716. His" NeuJographia Univelsalis; hoc est,omnium corporis humani nerrorum, simul ac cerebri, medul1reque spinalis descriptioanatomica," Vas published in folio, Lyons, 1685; 8vo., :Frankfort and Ulm, 1690,not so good an edition as the former; in Mangets "Bibliotheca Anatomica;" folio,Lyons, 1761; 4to., Tolosa, 1775; 4to., Lyons, 1774. Vieussens" Neurographia" Vas incomparably more ample and faithful than anything on the subject thathad been done before it. Haller describes Vieussens as a man of unwearied industry,who pursued his researches on the brain and nerves, which had hitherOO been studiedalmost exclusively in the lower animais, in the human subject; and whose contribntions to anatomy were most important. The reader of the" Animal Kingdom" willfind mnch vigorous thought in the "Neurographia," particularly on the subject ofthe animal spirits, lespecting which our author has treated at length in severalchapters; as, " De naturâ et necessitate spiritus animalis, in quo de succo nervosodisseritUl," lib. i., cap. xv.: "De materià spiritus animalis, de loco, et verâ productionis illius ratione," ibid., cap. xviii. "De dispensatione spiritus animalis,"&c., ibid., cap. xix.: "De diflerentiis motuum, qui spiritus animalis ope peraguntur,in quo distincti ipsius fontcs explicantuJ," ibid., cap. xx. On the points treatedof in these chapters, the views of Swedenborg agree in great part with those ofVieussens. WEDELIUS, JOANNES ADor,PRus, a professor at Jena, born at that place inIG75, time and place of dcath unknown. He was the author of a number of dissertations in the form of theses. His" Propempticon de vahulâ venre subclavire<luctui thoracico imposita,,, was published in 4to., Jena, 1714; and again by Hallerin his "Disputationes anatomicre selectre," 7 vols. 4to., Gottingen, 1746-1752. WILLIS, THOMAS, an English physician and anatomist, born at Great Bedwinin Wiltshire in 1621, died in London in 1675. 1. His" Cerebri Anatome cuiaccessit nervorum descriptio et usus," was published in 4to., London, 1664; 8vo.,1670; 12mo., Amsterdam, 1664, 1667, 1674, 1676, 1683; and in Mangets"Bibliotheca Anatomica." l11Îs was Villiss principal work: and contained a newmethod of dissecting the brain, and a much more accuratc account of its anatomy

608 BlBUOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.than had been given previously: it also contained the germs of those modem viewsof the physiology of the brain which are adopted by phrenologists. The iden of thebrain being a congeries of organs is distinctly recognized. WiIIis, like Swedenborg,makes the cerebrum the seat of the voluntary movements and inteUectual faculties ;the cerebellum, of the involuntary movements, as those of the heart. In commonwith nearly ail the great anatomists of former times, Willis held the doctrine of thecirculation of the animal spirits. II. His" Pharmaceutice Rationalis, seu diatribade medicamentarum operatione in corpore humano," Part 1., was published in 4ta.,Oxford, 1673; 12000., Amsterdam, 1674; 12000., the Hague, 1675: Part II., 4ta.,Oxford, 1675; 12000., the Hague, 1677: both Parts, 8vo., Oxford, 1678 or 1679 :in English, folio, 1679. This work contains a good denl of anatomical description.WiIIiss works were published collectively: viz., "Opera Omnia," folio, London,1679; 4to., Lyons, 1676; 4to., Geneva, 1680 i 4to., Amsterdam, 1682; folio,Venice, 1720: in English, 4to., 1681. WINSLOW, JACQUES BENIGNE, a Danish anatomist, born at Odensee in theisland of Funen in 1669, died nt Paris in 1760. His" Exposition anatamique dela structure du corps humain," was published in 4ta., Paris, 1732 i 5 vols. 12000.,ibid. i 4 voIs. 12000., Amsterdam, 1743; 4 vols. 8vo., Paris, 1776; in English,by Douglas, 2 vols. 4to., London, 1733, 1734, 1743, 1749; 2 voIs. 8vo., Edinburgh,1743: in Latin, 4 voIs. 8vo., Frankfort, 1753; 8vo., Venice, 1758. This treatise,in most of the departments of anatomy, superseded aU former manuaIs. Acéordingto Haller, it is the common fountain from which the later, and the French anatamistsespecially, bave gained their anatomy; and it is the model on which the generality ofthe text books of that science has since been constructed. Winslow changed hisreligion from Lutheran to Catholic on reading the works of Bossuet, and on thisoccasion Bossuet gave him the addition of Benigne ta his name. Before his timeanatomists generally took out of the body the parts they were about ta examine,so that the relative situation and mutuai connexion of the parts was lost and rlestroyed; and when the cellular tissue was taken away, the very shape was altered.Winslow has the distinguished merit of being the first who described ail things inthe body in situ and in ne~u. He used ta dissect the organs undel water.

INDEX OF 8UBJECT8. The nurnerals indicate the volume, the flgnres, the page: where the page has no nurneralsprefixed to il, that which has been last mentiuDcd in the same article Ï! implied ; and where nonebas becn mentioned bcfore, the first volume Îe understood. AnDoMllN. The offices of the abdominal viscera go forth and retum in a kindof circle, 268. The viscera of the abdomen constitute four series, with distinctoffices, 302. They fonn a superior universal series, whicb respects the blood; andis subdivided into three inferior universal series, which severally respect the chyle,the serum, and tbe blood already formed, 312. Further subdivision of these series,ibid. Every viseus, organ, and member thereof, reprcsents in itself a kind ofseries, 316. Chylification. sanguification, and purification are the sum of theiroffices, 510. Eacb contributes in sorne respect to the generation and regenerationof the blood, which is the cornmon object of the abdominal viscera, 512. Whythese viscera are not inaugurated into tbeir offices until the lungs are opened, Il., 338. See Series. AnsTINENCE from food, 121; IL, 188. ACTION. A single action is made up of an infinite number of forces, II., 85. There is a connexion and everlasting chain between sensations and actions, 174. The reaction of parts corresponds exactly to the action, this being the source of thei, natural equilibrium, 244. Action arises from circulation in conjllnction lith respira tion: for circulation gives and renews potency, and respiration infuses force; whence action, 461. The conditions of active force and action, what, 559, 560. See Respiration, Sense. ACTIVE, every, to be efficient, must be joined with a passive, 71, Il., 46, 394. The membranes have a passive, the muscles an active power, p., 310. Reactive power results from passive and active combined, ibid. Sec Diapltragm, Fœtus. AFFECTIONS only are innate, not ideas, 2. The affections of the body, anelof the animal and rational minds, Il., 357, 4<12. Ali the affections are given to serve us as the fuel and heat of bodily life, 358. The aft"ections of the animal mind are divisible into inferior, superior, and lroper, 442. The affections Rowing from the body, immediately seize tbe blood; those Rowing from the animal mind. the spirit of the blood; those Rowing from the rational mind, the very so1l1 of the blood and spirits, 443, 539. ANALYSIS commences from effccts, and mOlluts to canses and principles, 7. It is the only way to truths, 8, and II., 346. Requisitcs for attaining truths by this way, 1., 8. When we have lcacher! princilIes by analysis, we may then retum VOL. II. ::: S

6lO INDEX OF SUBJECTS.fmm principles, anù can contemplate ail things in a universal manner, 9. Theauthor considers that he is the first who has endeavored to approach the soul byanalysis, Il. It is the first object of analysis to procure gcneral notions, U. Afterbirth the synthetic way is converted into the analytic, II., 262. ANGLES are hindrances to motion, 126. The angular form is the lowest offorms, and is generated by the circulaI, ibid. See Body. ANIMATION; sec Brain, RespiratÎon. The animation of the brain, what, II.,158. The external re.piratory forces of the lungs, and the internaI animatoryforces of the brain, united with the respiratory, mect in the centres of ail the viscera,and louse every part to operations corresponding to its structure and nature, 231. ANIMAL MIND: sec Affections, Blood; Fibre, Nose, Respiration. ANIMAL SPIRITS. Nature always encloses them deep in fibres, blood.globules,spherules, or ittle ova, lest they should be lost; and only opens these caskets whenthe spirits are requirerl for use, 102, II., 411. The animal spirit is the lmitingmedium betwecn the soul and the body, L, 215, II., 425. There is an afrectionand desire of conjunction between the fresh spirit dcscending from the brain, and thechyle ascending from the body, 1., 215. The animal spirit ie the most universalessence of corporeallife, 250, II., 425. Sec Incitation. The cortical glands 110duce it, II., 425. It is generated from ethereal food, as the blood lrom terrestrialfood, 426. It is inserted into thc blood-globules, and produces the life of the body,ibid. "hen the spirit acts, the blood yields, and vice versil, 445. The p"rogressiveseries of causes in the preparation of the animal spirit, 517. ANIMAL KINGDOM, the, is the last and central work of creation, consisting ofmere centres, II., 315. AORTA, the, obeys both the cardiac and pulmonary motions, 218. Ail thebloorl that comes from it at right angles, escapes beyond its power of determination,II., 246. The blood is not intnlded into the viscera or muscles by the power of theaorta, but attracted by eaeh viscus or muscle according to its wants, ibid. ApPETITE, diseased, instances of, from Schurig, 120. ARTERIES, the, are a continned heart, 157. How a vessel that carries venousblood is enabled to play the artery, IL, 204. Sec Fibre. Ali but the innermostcoat of the arteries is dropped in thc least capillaries, 413, 421. The inncrmost coatof the arteries is continuous with the outermost coat of the veins, 417. The outermost surfaces of the fibres are transposed into the innermost surfaces of the arteries,anù these, into the outermost of the veins, 420. The arteries place their last boun.daries in the cortical glands of the brain, where the fibres place their first, 447.It is the nature of veins, that the fluid running through them suffers itself ta beacted on by the coats of its vessel; but it is the nature of arteries that the vessel orcoat snffers itself to be acted on by its fluid, and reacts, 491. See Veins, Vesse/s. ASSOCIATION. Similitude of function associates parts: exemplified in the proximity between the œsophagus, the carotid arteries, and jugulaI ve.ins, 108. Betweenthe gall-bla(lder and the colon, 301. See Body. ATMosPHEREs. Neeessity for an analogon to animation or respiration in theatmospheres, II., 139, 140. The successive stages of the immigration and arrivaIof the atmosphere in the lungs, 185. The atmospheric vesicles resemble the grandatmospheric world, as a least volume resembles its largest, 186. The vast quantityof efl1uvia contained in the atmosphere, ibid. To minister to the blood of theanimal kingdom is the final office of the air, 191. The action of the several atmospheres upon the microcosm, 383. The spiral gyration of the air, 14.

INDEX OF SUll.JECT8. 611 ATTRACTION in the body is always accompanied by propulsion, 201, 215. SeeFbâds, Invitation, Ton.r;lI.e. Its universality in the body, 271. The blood is notintruded on the members by the aorta, but is attraeted by the members themselves,348, 427. The attraetive power of the viscera exceeds the detrusive power of theaorta upon the blood, 428. See Bloorl. AXIS: sel Centre. There are various axes in the body, more or less universal,217. See Nose. There are two very llmarkable axes in the eerebrum, II., 33.The spinal marrow is the axis of thc cerebellum, ibid. There are three general axesin the body proceeding from the ethmoid bone, 34. The œsophagns is the mostgeneral axis of the body, 315. There are the axes of the respeetive viscera, andalso of several viscera, 01 of one series, 316. AZYGos, the vena, imbibes the blood synehronously with the respirations, 218.Described, II., 248. It is the cornmon receptacle of ail tbe blood of the respiratoryfield, 251. BIŒ. The hepatic bile, with the cystic, is the ultimate salivary menstruum, 277.See Liver, Saliva. The bile is the freces of the blood and chyle that have beentreated in the liver, 2aO. It is not thrown away, but performs a use, and serves as amenstruum, 2a3. The circulation of the bile, ibid. The hepatic bile does notproduce the gall, but serves it as a menstruum, diluting and softening it, 299. Thequantity of the cystic bile fol the most part increases, as that of the hepatic bile de creases, 301. The hepatic bile is the refuse of the chyle, the cystic bile of the blood, 302. The quantity of the cystic bile is aflected by a threefold order of causes,ibid. The treatment of the cystic and hepatic biles never ceases, but continuesthroughout the ducts, and afterwards in the intestines, to the rectum, 304. None but the dead portion of the bile is rejected with the alvine freces, ibid. Sel Pancreas. The pancreatic juice is the first cause, the hepatic bile the second, the cystic bile the third, 327. The infinite diversity of the biles, 326. BLADDER, the, described by Heister, 457. By Vinslow, 458. Particulars re specting from Morgagni, 460. Authors to be consulted respecting, 461. The bladder and rectum being the lowest organs suffer themselves to be pressed and trodden on by ail the others, 464. The ultimate of the will, and the ultimate of nature, concur in constringing them, 465. The top of the bladder first is pressed down and driven inwards, 470. In the fœtus the fundus of the bladder lies close to the umbilicus, and why, 473. The terrestrial and gravitating parts of the microcosm are thrown into the bladder and rectum, as the inert masses of the macrocosm are consigned to the terraqueous globe; the matters in both cases being circumpressed by the forces of the whole system, 473. The mode in which the urine is discharged by external and internai causes, 475. Sel a,avity. The parts of the body act and press on the bladder, not by mass and weight, but by force of motion; and the bladder, on its contents, not by total closing, but by the power of its motive fibres, 476. The action upon the urine is not propagated by continuity, but by series of forces and motions, ibid. The bladder has a constrictile and expansile motion synchronous with the motions of the Jungs, 477. Analogy of the bladder and ureters with the vesicles and little ducts of the minutest glands, 479. BJ,OOD. Whatever takes place in the mind, takes place in the innermost of the blood, 8·4, The blood derives its spirit from the brain and fibres; its body from the stomach and food, 108,371; and II., 192. Sel Life. It attracts into it substances corresponding to the passions of the mind, 1.,208; II., 175. The soul gives the blood its life, the spirit its bond of union, and the chyle its embodiment; so that

612 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. every globule of blood has both a soul and a body, 1.,214, 371. Every time it is resolved into its principles, its finer humors and spirit betake themselves into thecellular coats of the viscera, and into the Iymphatics, 221, 373. No part of itsnobler essence is suffered to waste, 221, 271, 273, 373. It is the complex and seminary of aU the fluids, and continents of fluids, in the body: and comprehends meresimples, 236, 373. Sec Humor. In its parts it is subject to the same fortunes as the body in its compound; it is born, dies, and is born again, ibid.; and II., 192.The distribution of its constituent elements, when resolved, L, 236, 273, 373. Itsspirituous part is ultimately rendered back to it in a circle, and how, 237. Thefunctions of both the abdominal and thoracic viscera are performed on account of the blood, 268, 303. Every time it circulates, it is sundered into its constituent parts, 236, 271. And purified, 272. The lustration of the blood, what, ibid. It lays itself open to give birth to the vital tluids, and immolates itself for the welfare of thekingdom, 272. !ts circle of life, what, 274. See Equation. It differs in differentsubjects, and runs through infinite changes of state, 297. It assumes the state ofthe Iife, and undergoes perpetuai purification and regeneration, ibid. Vl,atever the principles, intermediates, and extremes of the body demand, the universal mass ofthe blood is bound to supply, 301, 337, 351. The purest scrum, united to thespirit, gives the blood, 312. No portion of blood can circulate in the trunk withoutheing purified by either the liver, the spleen, or the pancreas; and this, in consequence of their subordination and coordination, 322. Whatever kind of blood isexpended on use, is proportionately supplicd, 275, 338. Every viscus attracts ablood of its own kind, 351, 428, 429. The various qualities of the blood, 353, 355.The blood serves in the liver as a menstruum, 356. It has in it none of those thingsthat are expressed by the received chemical terms, 373. See Fat, Omentum. Necessity for asylums for the superabundant blood; whence the adipose tissues and theomentum, 383. The blood circulating in the great arteries ncver tums off laterally,still less at right angles, unless a stronger force overcomc a relatively weaker one,428. See Aorta, Attraction. A genus of blood, what, 428. The purely globularblood tends to tlow in spirals, 437. See Spiral. The blood-globule contains aspirit or prior blood, 438. It occupies the axes of cUlved vessels, ibid. The bloodmay be divided into three kinds, 511. The purification of, where performed, 512.It is the souls deputy and vicegerent in the body, 525. It is the proper essence ofthe body, II., 112. The modification and exhilaration of the blood by the vibrationsof the larynx and trachea, 118. The hostility between the air and the hlood, and itsgrounùs, 184. The animal being elects the constituents of its blood from the wholecircumambient world, material, aërial, and ethcrial, 190. See Chyle. The changeof the blood from venous to arterial in the lungs, 192. The blood is fed withetbereal food in the lungs, 429. The red globules are resolved into pellucid globulesin the least arterial capillaries, 430. See Skin. BODY, the. By the body is meant all that lives from the blood, and consists ofthe lowest, or angular and circular forms, 214, 371. The animal body is the templeof all the sciences, both physical and pbilosophical, 317. In it wc leam tbe thingsthat are indeterminate in the sciences, ibid. There can be no intelligence in thebody, except as intelligence in the soul, 377. Distinct division and subdivision ofthe body, 486. There is the same state, order, and form of government in the body,as in a kingdom, 502. It consists of forms within forms, and series within series,II.,315. The two halves of the body, in general and in particular, arenot symme.trical, and why, 329. The adaptations of the animal body arc thc lowest proofs of

INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 613Gods omnipotence, for he has filled the vilest insect with similar miracles, 330.Two principles bear sVay in the body; viz., nature and the will, 337. The ordinances by which concord is established between the soul and the body after birth,336. The body is not subject ta the order and laws of the universe, but derives itsform and determinations from its own principles, 382. See Blood, Gravi/y, Microcos/n, Soul, Spirit. In every point of the body there is what circulates, whatbreathes, and what acts, 4GO. Ve may draw conclusions from the animal body respecting the forms of human societies, 468. Whatever is in the body is extraneousto the cerebrum, 518. BRAIN: see Animation, Cerebrum, Fibre. The animations of the brains arecoincident with the respirations of the lungs, lOG, 3·10; II., 234, 244, 245. Theyconstitute the inmost life of the body, L, 107. The brain is a chemical organ, 235.The firstling blood of the heart is supplied to it, 275, 337, 348. The motion of thehrain is synchronous with the heart before birth, and with the lungs after hirth, 403 ;II., 153, 332. The animation of the brain is a natural necessity, to provide thehody Vith nervous juice, II., 209. Before birth all the blood passes through thehrains, as afterwards through the lungs, and why, 263, 264. Necessity for twohrains, one to be subject to nature, the other to the will, 338. BRONCHIAL ARTERY, the, conceived, engendered, and constructed the embryonic lung, and aU its vessels, aëriferous, arterial, and venous, II., 202. Afterbirth, it teaches the pulmonary artery to play the artery, although it carries venoushlood, 204. It regulates, balances, and equalizes the respective quantities of thecardiac blood rushing into the lungs, and of the pulmonic blood retuming to theheart, ibid. It equalizes the quality as Vell as quantity of the venous blood, 206.By means of the bronchial artery and vein, the lungs concur Vith the organic machineof the thorax, and produce unanimous actions therewith, 207. All the bronchialarteries come origiually from the intercostals, 199, 208. CAUSE: see Efficient, Use. Every cause is an efficient re1atively to thiugsbelow it, and an effect relatively to those above it, 311. See Member. In proceeding to an end, nature makes use of an entire causal series of. subordinations; and multiplies the causes in proportion to the importance of the end, 315. Causesalways tlow into their effect, not by a single mediation or subordination, but byseveral, 321 ; II., 62, 85. The modes of subordination of causes are various; andsomething of their nature may be seen by examining the effect, if the signs of thecausative agents be given, L, 321. An efficient cause necessarily involves an activelrinciple, 377. Whatever belongs to the class of causes must be formed organically, 378; II., 344. See Elfect and End. Causes are divisible into innermost, middle,and outermost, II., 31. The innermost causes act most individually; the outermostact on all the parts generally, and thus represent the common bond of singulars, ibid.The various intlux of causes varies the quality of effects, 85. Every cause andetfcct involves a use, 141. Necessity for a distinct idea of the subordination andsuccession of efficient causes, 332. It is our business to resolve every etfect intoits causes, 529. CELLULAR TISSUE. The cellular tissues, lymphatics, thoracic duct, mesenteric glands, and receptaculum chyli, are ail continuous, and identical in use, structure, and nature, 222. There is a continual circulation through the cellular tissues, Il., 255. See Peritonœum. The path taken by the humor in the cellular tissue of the pleura, 256. The continuity and circumtlexions of the cellular tissue of the pleura, 258. See Cellular Coat.

614 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. CELLULAR COAT, the, of the intestines, ,esembles a conglobate gland thlOwninto a plane; the sphere of motion of the intestines there terminates, and that ofthe mesentery begins, 197. The cellular coat is a Iymphatic p"ojelted into a plane,222,319. See Cellular Tissue. CENTRE. Everything is a kind of centre, 102. In the stomach, the centre ofmotion is the centre of gravity, 134. Sec Gravi/y, Leasts, Mesentery, iIlie"oeosm,Motion, Thoraeie Duet, Uni/ie.v. There arc centres of forces, both uniycrsal andsingular, general and larticulaI, 474. The body consists of mere centres of grayity.which by thei, combination form diameters and circumferenees, 474; IL, 32, 314,485. The mouth is the moveable centre of t~e face; the root of the nose, theimmoveable centre, IL, 35. The body is at once fi perpetuai centre and a perpetuai circumference, 314. The general centre of the body is at the sJlot where theœsophagus meets the diaphragm, 316. The throo lDOSt general centres of the body,325. There are as many ceutres as points, and as many equilibria as centres, 330.See Animal Kingdom, Diaphragm, Organie Forms. Centre of motion, see Pelvis. CERIWELI>UM; soo Ce·rearum. CEREilRUM; see Brain, N.rves. Tt is cognizant of whatever happens without the kingdom; the cerebellum, of what happens within it, 51. Thc cerebrum andcerebellum are uniyersally present in the body by menos of the fibres, 206. Thecerebrnm attracts to it the purer blood, for the putpose of extracting and circulatingits spirit, 213; II., 118. It is a gland, 1., 247. Comparison of it with the glandsof the body, ibid. The cerebrum and lungs are the source of voluntary motion;the cerebellum, of natmal motion, II., 112. The cerebrum rules in the da), thecerebellum by night, 147. The cerebrum presides oyer the will, the cerebellum overnature, 337. In the cerebrum there is an innermost sensorium where the soul resides, 344. The fibre of the cerebrum occupies the ultimate bonndaries of thekingdom, the fibre of the cerebellum, the whole field circumscribed by those boun.daries, 454. Our general sensorium is laid in the celeb,um, which feels; but theorgan of the body acts the part of an instrument only. The cerebrum manifests to us whatever it fools and perceiyes from the organs of the body: but not the eere bellum, 456. The cortical glands of the cerebrum arc the inmost sensorium orintellectorium, 459. They constitute the supreme sphere of the living systcm, ibid. CH ANGE; see Spiral. The innumerable changes of state in the uitimate sphereof the body, and their causes, II., 391. The susceptibilityof the papillary fibreof changes of state, 415. The causes of changes of state in the three spheres of the living body, 441. The generallaws of ail mutations or changes in the body and the world, 478. There are four genera of changes, yb.., change of station, turningof circumfe"ence, internai change of form, and variation of magnitude, 480. See Organ, Organic Forms. Variation of magnitude, Yiz., expansion and constriction, is a natural ehange, the other three are voluntary, 480. The universality of muta tion in ail spheres, ibid. The mutations of state in the body are equal in number to ail the possible affections of the body and of the animal and rational minds, 532. CHYLE: sec Intestines, Stomach. The chyle of the body meds the chyle of the tongue in the subc1avian vein, 85. The chyle of the tongue recruits the cranial venous blood, ibid. The chyle is brought into relation with ail parts, by the saliva, and led into the inmost chambers of the blood, 100. lt consists of perpetuaiglobules, 178. The cellular coat of the intestines is the nrst rcceptac1e of the purer chylc, and when it arrives there, it is beyond the intestinal .phere of motioll, 1 f)7.The animus determines the naturc of lhe chyle; hence of the blood unet the body,

INDEX OF SUllJEClS. 615208. It is both fed and encouraged by the chyle, ibid. The chyle and Iymph areeagerly desired and imbibed by the blood of the jugulaI veins; and why, 213. Thecbyle is carried up to the subclavian vein by a number of means, 215. See Lympft.The purification of the chyle, where efl"ected, 269. Its inauguration, impregnation,marriage, and copulation, 270. The proeesses for forming and purifying it lun in acircle from chylification to chylification, 274. The regeneration, or perpetuaI generation, of the chyle, ibid. The great quantity of chyle that is sent from thestomach and intestines to the livcr, 278. The two veme cayre divide the chyle of thebody between them, 292. The chyle, when in the arteries and veins, is calledserum, 312. The blood deprived of serum is the kindliest menstruum for the chyle,356. The chyle of thc stomach, like that of the liver, is inaugurated by the pureblood into the blood, 357. See Serum. There are three kinds of chyle, terrestrial,aërial, and ethereal, II., 190,426. The chyle of the intestines is of a middle use,that of the stomach is primary, 513. CHYLIFICATION. In chylification the lowest things necessarily provide andsupply whateer the highest demand or desire, 209. It is the first of the chemicaloperations of the body, 269, Where performed, 512, See Digestion, Sanguijication. CIRCLE: see Centre, Use, AlI things that involve an end constitute a circle,379. The simple circle, the progressive circle, and the transcendent circle, illustrated, 379. See Pleu1a. The circles of substances involve corresponding circlesof ail their accidents, and corresponding circles of uses, 380. Sec Ends, Fat, Omentum. The circles of uses in nature are a proof of the existence of an al-providentGod; and in the body, of the existence of the soul, 381; II., 361. PerpetuaIcircle, see Spiral. The circle of uses, or the government of Providence, must notbe measured by the erroneous circles of our minds, II., 361. CIRCULATION: see Circ/e. Ail the humors institute circulations after the imageof the circulation of the blood, 293. See Bile, Fat. There is a transcendent circulation, viz., of the spirit through the fibres into the vessels, and of the blood fromthe vessels into the fibres, II., 460. See Action, Humor. COLOR, the, of the skin, originates chieft y from causes in the body; secondarilyfrom the heat of the sun, II., 394. COMIOUNDS. The eye sees only the last compounds of things, 35. We perceivethe changes of statc in compounds, not in singulars, 207. The form is the onlything that varies the essence of the compound, 236. The senses shew the forms ofthe [ast compounds of things, 310; 11.,19,539. See Organic Forrns, Toue!,. CONFIRMATION. Any preconception may be confirmed bl an infinity of .parti.culars, 5. CONTIGUOUS THINGS, definition of, 33. CO!<TINUOUS THINGS, example of, 33. They are those that are in the sameseries or degree; and they are homogeneous, because referable to the same or similar unities, ibid. CONTINUITY: there is p~rpetual continuity in the organic body, 102. The dis cern ment of li niversal connexion and continuity amounts to the discoery of truth, 157. See Spiral. CONTRACTION: see E:l-pansion. CORONARY VESSELS. They dll not arise from the aorta, 516. TIl~y arc the veins of the heart, ibid. They amwer t.o the bronchial vein in the lung>, and to the hepatic vein in the livet, ibid.

ülG INDEX OF 8UBJECTS. CORPUSCULES in rapid motion appear in ail parts where there is an abundantafflux of spirits, 103. Corpuscules when gyrated tend through the diameters of thegyre to the circumferences, 198. CORPUS RETICULARE MALPIGHII: see Skin. CORTICAL GLANDS: see Cerebrum. CORRESPONDENCE, doctrine of, 10, Il, 451; II.,359. See Representation. CUTICLE: see Skin. CUTIs: see Skin. DEGREES, doctrine of, 10, Il; II., 333. There are degrees of motion, andalso of heat, 1., 133. DELIGHT. Necessity for delights in order to the insinuation of ideas, .and theopening of the way to the innermost sensorium, II., 362. DETERMINATION: see Relation. The viscera, organs, members, &c., are thedeterminations of the essentials, 493; II., 112, 138. The vessels and nerves arethe essential detcrminations, L, 505 ; II., 138. The blood is determined by the vessels, l2. The essential determinations of the lungs, ",hat, 178. The animalkingdom forms its own lroper determinations, 285. There are in the body axillaryand diametral determinations, particular and general, 315. See Organic Fmms.In the dctermination of organic forms there is always a progression from a lesserunity to a larger, 526. Determinations fiow from the outermost sphere to theinnermost, and from the innermost to the outermost, 544. DIAPHRAGM: described by Heister, II., 294. By Winslow, 295. It is the concurrence of the pleura and peritonreum, 300. As it is the complement, the last line,and the union, of ail the septa of the viscera, so is it also of ail their offices, 301.It is not only mediately attached to the viscera by their coverings, but immediatelyby bands detached from itself, exactly according to the causc in which the visceraare engnged, ibid. See Pe,iton(1!ltm. It transmits and immits the nerves of the parvagum and great intercostal, as internaI bonds, and the blood-vessels, to the sameviscera, 303. As it is the most genernl ligament and uniting medium of ail themembers, so it is the general directory and uniting medium of ail their forces, motions, offices, and uses, 306. It effuses the puhnonic actions into the viscera andpalts above and below itself, ibid. It receives the last serics of thoracic motions, andreduces them from larticulaI and plural series, to a general and single series, 308.It acts entirely under the auspices of thc lungs, 309. It is not only a membrane, buta muscle, and thus compounded of two natures, a passive and an active, rcsultingin an intermediate or reactive power, 310. It never acts cxcepting when acted uponby causes in the body, ibid. See Active. The rcason why the phrcnic nenes comeoff from the ccrvical instead of from the intercostal nerves, and almost at right angles,312. The diaphragm is the most general axillar) planc of the body, transverse to theœsophagus as the most general axis, 316. It is a general hypomochlium or centre ofmotion, 317. It equilibrates ail parts, and Iimits the .allies of the will within thecircles of nature, 319. It is a trigastric musclc, 320. It communicates the collec:ed forces of the thorax and abdomen to the reolian centlcs of the lungs, 322.!ts tendinous space marks the limits of the inthLx ,md contlux of the actions of thethorax and abdomen, ibid. From the configuration of this tcndinous plane we mayinfer the force, or ratio of forces, with which each point of thc circnmference acts,ibid. The foramen through which the vena cava passes is thc innermost centre ofthe diaphragm, 323. Therc are two grcat centres in it, the œsophagus luns downthrough onc, the "ena cava luns up through th~ other; the fornlCr is the centre of

INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 617the sphere of the pulmonary motions, the latter, of the sphere of the pulses of theheart, 324. The lesser muscle of the diaphragm is not a continuation of thegreater, but its antagonist, 325. It is an axis, because it conjoins the three mostgeneral centres of the body, ibid. The invitation and determination of humor byand through the cellular tissue of the diaphragm, ibid. During embryonic life it"ppears to have instituted an intercourse between the pleura and peritonreum, andbetween the thymus gland and succenturiate kidneys, 327. DIGESTION: see Stamach. In its series may be compared to distillation, 162.Pcrversions of the order of digestion, 163. The stomach and intestines merelybegin the work of digestion and chylification, 278. Digestion in the louse, 514.In the covered snail, 519. In the cossus, 522. DISTINCTION. In the mO"st perfect organic fOlms, the fibres are thoroughly discriminated from each other, and most distinct in their action, II., 408, 473. Lifeceases with distinction of parts, 409, 47<1. The great mutua! distinctness of theleast forms in young subjects, 474. The mind is bright in proportion as it is distinct, ibid. Succession and separation in things are necessary conditions of distinct.ness, 527. See Fœtus, Humar, Organie FaYlls, Tangue, Vm·iety. DRINKING: see Tangue. Two powers of the tangue and palate unite in the act of drinking, 79. DUCTUS CHOLIDOCHUS, described by Winslow, 259. E."R: see Lm·ynœ. It is constructed on the principle of modified air, II., 449. See Tauch. E."TING is natural, and in its rudiments precedes volition, 50. See Tangue. ECONOMY, the, of the animal kingdom, is replete with order, stupendous, divine, 339. EFFECTS derive everything from their causc·s, and these, from their principles, 194. Sec Cause, Efficients, End, Pane"eas, Uo·es. 11at is natural and what volun mry in the body may perhaps be concluded from the nerves, hut more surely and plainly from elfects, II., 108. Ali nitimate elfects are brought about by mere suc cessive mediations, 319. In order to unfold the skin we must have recourse to elfects, these being more strongly and easily visible than tissues as examined by the eye, 407. An elfect is the complex and sum of ail its antecedents, 529. See Saliva, Stomach, Viscus. EFFICIEl<T: see Cause, Effeet, Pancreas. The unanimous conspiring of effi cients and elfects, 276, 293. Their vast multitude, ibid. The continuously succes sive progression of efficients and elfects, ibid. ENDS are ail in ail in means and elfects, 34. ldentity of end conjoins parts, 108. The last tlùngs so conspire with the tirst, that the end of the cause is apparent from the elfect, 340. The organic form resembles the end inscribed upon it, 341. The body is a mechanism of elfects, which are ail represented in the soul as ends, 377. See Cause, Effect, Saul, Use. The last elfect or use is the tirst in the cause; or is the end; and thus completes the circle of uses, 379. In the animal kingdom, every end is at the same time a beginning, 1., 283; II., 315, 330, 420, 446. We live more perfectly the more we respect ends, and more sublimely, the higher the ends, 344. End.~, like causes, describe progressively an entire levolution and circle, 361. See Life. The ultimate end of Providence in human life, is the con· stitution of a .piritual heaven, a kingdom of God, or a holy society, in which the end of creation is regarded by God, and by which God is regarded as the end of ends, 366. VOL. II. l T

618 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. EPILOG UE, the, is analogous in its function to the pe"itonreum, 526. EQUALITv, oneness and sameness, produce neither order nor degrees, 55, 56. Nor any society, II., 363. Ali proportion, analogy and relation, perish in equality, and ail sensation; and even union or unity itself, 477. EQUATION. The effort of the fluids of the body, and particularly of the blood, to equilibrium, may be called cquatioo; referring both to the quantity and quality of the blood, 274. In the body there is perpetualloss and restitution of equilibriuDl and lest, and consequently change of equation, ibid, and 275. The bronchial artery tends to produce an equation of the cardiac and pulmonic blood, both with respect to quantity and quality, II., 206. EQUlLIBRruM: see Action, Equation. ERRoRs. One source of errOrs is, that we judge of the things that act within us, from those that pass without us, 173. Another source is, hasty generalizatioll from a few facts of our own discovery, 267. EUSTACHIAN TUBE, the use of, 44; II., 47. EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION. Nothing can be done in any part without expansion and contraction: they are the vital princilles of all operations, 286. The alternate reciprocation and reci procsl alternation of expansion and contraction produce apparent lest, in which no motion is discernible; for the general contraction of the mass, and the synchronous expansion of the glands, give the appearance ofabsolute tranquillity, 325. The office of each organ determines its conditions ofexpansion and contraction, 340. Inmost and outmost causes simultaneously concurto the expansion of the fibres, ibid., A wonderful correspondence between expansionand contraction prevails throughout the system, 341. Ali bodies that expand andcontract alternately have the marks of their motion imprinted on their surfaces,which marks are generally occupied by the blood-vessels, 401. Necessity for expansion and contraction in the whole and ail parts of the body, and of the universe, IL,139, 460. The expansion and constriction of the cortical glands of the brain, 158.hen the blood.vessels are expanded, the spirit-vessels or fibres are compressed,and vice tetsû. See Animation, Atmospheres, Bladder, Kidneys, Liver, Lungs,Mesentery, Respimtion, Spleen, Succenturiate Kùlneys. EXPERIENCE is 11entiful enongh at the present day to serve analysis for the discovery of truth, 9, 15. Experimental knowledge, unless so made use of, islike!y to perish, 9. Care must be taken not to wander far from experience, 18.The confirmation of experience by reason, and of reason by experience, II., 116,The various meanings of the word experience, 3H. Experience supplies the objectsof rational analyses, ibid. Particular experience is not sufficient for the discovery oftruth; general experience is required, 349. Experience cannot arrive at truths,without the aid of the sciences, 350. EXPIRATION: see Respiration. EVE. It is constructed on the principle of modified ether, II., 4049. FAITH. Those who can comprehend spiritual things by faith, need not read theauthors books, 14. FAT, the, described by Heister, 364. By Malpighi, 368. Comparative anatomyof, from Swammerdam, 369. It consists of the exuberant portion of the bodily partof the blood, 373. The blood demands back this deposit, and therewith satisfies itsown hunger, and thnt of the stomach and other visccra, 389. The circulation of thefat is an appendage to the circulation of the blood, ibid. It increases in purity bydegrees, ibid. The pellicle of a globule of fat is a miniature omentulll, ibid. Its ap

INDEX Of SUBJECTS. 619parent tenacity is owing to its membranes; in itself it is like the tllinnest milk, ibid.See Omentum. FIBRE, each, brings with it the nature ofits parent, 51, 206; II., 409, 416, 454.The quality of the animus determines that of the fibre, because of tbe spirit thcreof,L, 52, 339. The fibres of the body return in a circle to the brain, 156, II., 409.The fibres are a continued brain, L, 157. They are the essential powers and vitalforces of the body, 200. The fibre, in its least forms, as the papillre, &c., accom·plishes nimbly and distinctly, what in generals, as the tongue, &c., it accomplishessluggishly and obtusely, 207, 222. Longing, loathing, and other states, may be pre-dicated of the fibres, as of the animus of the cerebrum, ibid. See Mesente;y, Nu.trition. Nervous fibre acts like muscular fibre, only more perfectly, 216. Thesimplest fibres are so mauy determinations of the final ideas of the soul, 242, 339,488. The simple fibre exclusively is what forms and acts in the kingdom of the soul,242,339. The nervous fibres generate the vessels by circumvolution, 243; II., 412.The simplest fibre is the essential form from which ail other forms arc derived, 1.,339.The nervous fibre, what, 489. The corporeal fibre, 490. Every action of the cere·brum and cerebcllum is determined through the fibres, and the fibres are determinedinto act by their principles, Il., 158. Wherever any fibre prorluces a new corpus.cule, there it lays aside its former nature, and derives a new uature from its newbody, 409. The fibre of the soul and the fibre of the body, ibid. The corporealfibre, why 50 called, -41 O. It CODstructs the inmost or DenOUS coat of the arteries,ibid., and 413. It arises in the skin, and terminates in the cortical substances of thebrain, 426. The interstices of the nervous fibres are permeable, as weil as the fibresthemselves, 432. The cortical glands are the principles of the nelVOUS fibres, 461.The varieties of fibres, and the confusion that arises by calling themall by one sub·stantive name, 486. Both the outermost and innermost things are the extremes of the fibres, 551. See Glands. FLuIDs. It is a law that they permeate their canals from a greater to a lesseldiameter, whenever they are going to an outlet, 46. They always tend flOm unquietto more quiet stations, 47, 386; II., Hl, 255, 286,326,327. The f1uids of thebody described by Heister, L, 234. Intrusion of the tluids is never permitted; lcaveto enter must be givcn, 239, 348. The summoning of tluid to the fibres according totheir need, by a kind of attractive force, II., 81. Vherever therc are cavities con·taining organic parts, there must be some humor, vapor, or ungueui, to anoint theirperipheries, radii and axes, that is to say, their joints and articulations, 268. SeeHumor. FŒTUS. The quiescence of the mind, and of many of the organs of the body,during the fœtal state, 398. Ali things at this time proceed accordlng to the tenor ofnatures ends, 400. And the supreme power of the kingdom de,olves upon a feorgans, ibid., 512. See Succenturiate Kidne:~s, Thymus Gland, No larticulaIaction scparate from the general action can be produced in the fœtus, and why, II.,153. The life of the soul in the embryonic body is an order of forCes and operationsproceeding a priori ad posteriOla, but the life of the body is an order proceedinga posteriori ad priora, 154, 262, 332. The conditions of the fœtal state, 263. Therelative perfection of fœtallife, 264. What was active beforc birth, became passi"eand at the same time reactive after birth, 333. The life after birth is the inverse inorder and forces of the life before birth, ibid. The means and accompaniments ofthis inversion, 334. In embryonic life the neryous tibre was the ploximate cause of

620 INDEX Ol SU13JECTS.the hralts action; but after birth, the venous blood, 335. The perfect distinctnessof ail the structures in the embryo, HO. See Brain, Influx, Soul. FoncE. Everything is modcllcd to the forces acting upon it, II., 450. SeeAe/ioll, Lungs, Potcney. FORM. Every larticle has its own form and figure, 52. The least forms are theantetypcs of the larger, 53. Vhencvcr an action is intendcd, a eorresponding motionis iuduccd, and a fonn corrcsponding to the motion gcnerated; thus the form of substances coincides with the form of the active forces; and of the motion producing theaction, 124. Forms aseend from lowest to highest, in order and by degrees, 126.The degrees of forms are the angular, circulaI, spiral, "ortical, eelestial, and spiritnal, ibid. The large, compound, and visible forms in the body, exist and subsistfrom smaller, simpler, and invisible forms, whieh act like the larger, but more perfeetly and universally, 129. Vhatever is manifestcd in compound and u!timatc,arises ftom simple and primai forms, 130. The higher forms assume relations likethose of the gleat sphere of nature, 134, The simple eircle is not the most perfectof forms, and why, II., 314. Our innermost fOIms are nourishcd by terrestrial, ouroutermost by cele~tial, food, 446. See Angles, Cirelc, Spiral. FORMs, DOCTRIl<E OF, 10, 11, 126. Natures miracles iR the animal body canonot be explored without a doctrine of forms, 198; II., 314. See Forma. FORTIUS, ANGELUS, taught that the finer parts of the food ascend to the brainthrough the radicles of the nenes, 40. FUTURE LIFE, the, II., 265. GALL-BLADDER, the, described by Hei.tcr, 255. By Vinslow, 259. Il is thenltimate asylum of the unclcan and obsolete blood, 297, Vhatever im purities cau not be defecated in the liver, are sent away into the gall.bladder, 298. Il derives itsbile, not from the liver, but from the rccrcmentitious blood of the gemellre cysticre, 299. Comparison betwecn the gall-bladder and the large intestines, 300. Il is a blood.intestine and gall-colon; and also resembles the urinary bladder; being the excretory vessel of the impure blood, as the Ulinary bladder, of the impure serum, 301. Il inîtes to it the impUle blood, and hy what means, ibid. Chcmical examination throws no light upon the origin of the gall, 297, 30;,. Sce Livet. GENERAL, or COMMON. Nature for the most part produces a gencral on the model of particulars, 48. From gcnerals we may expatiate into particulars, 74. Every general deries its nature from parts, 194. Neeessity for general principles, 235, See Univcrsal. A gencral is what contains and distinguishes a universe, its integers and singular., 492; and II., 390. There are as many general limitations and boundings, as essential parts, or detcrminations of essentials, 1., 492. A general is more universal in proportion as it is less general, 493. Sec Mcmbmnc and PCIi tonœU1n. In proportion as any part is loose from and ttnconfined by its general, ils importance in the society of the body is diminished, 501. The general bonds are relaxed by degrees as life advances, 505. Vhcrever tbere is a larticulaI, there is a corresponding general, II., 19, 115. Singular states arc in no way changed by the supe~induetion of general states, 58. Vhat is llOpel to one thing mnst also be com· mon to aU, 107, 120, 253, 260. Thegenerallife is but the sum and eomplex ofindi. vidual lives, 192. The laws of influx relating to the common bonds or general membranes, 234. Sec .Diaplll·agm. Partieular states c.onstitute the general state, 319. The parts always construct their general, and bring it forth from their own body, 390. In cvery unanimous society everything must lefcr itsclf to sorne gcneral,

INDEX 01" SUBJECTS. 621402. What is common grows out of its parts, and not vice versâ, 414. See Heart.The form of the general is perfected when the form of the part or unity is perfected.527. See Natnl·e. GEOMETRY: see Philosoplty. The function of geometry in anatomical science,Il., 350. GLANDS. the, described by Nuck, 224. By Malpighi, 227. By Boerhaave, 230.List of them from Nuck, 233. The conglobate glands rcgul~te the quantity andqualityof the lymph, 239. The conglomeratc glands are so many models of laboratories, preparing infinite species of humors, ibid. They are in a continuai series,ibid. The uses of which they are the canses, are general, specific, and particular, 240.A general idea of their operations, 241. AU their conditions are accommodatedthereto, ibid, Every gland in the animal kingdom enjoys a plenary communion ofits goods and f1uids, ibid. Sec lIfesentery. The soul disposes aU the processes ofthe glands by the simplcst fibres, 242. The fibres composing the conglomerateglands are fourfold in origin, nature, use, and determination, 243. The conglomerate and conglobate glands are mutually antagonistic in their functions; the former destroying the blood, the latter restoring it, 245, 246. Ali the glands, and the elementsof ea~h, have their differences and similarities, ibid. A small gland, if harshly pro voked, lours forth as much saliva as a large gland that is t"eatcd with mildness, 11., 280. Necessity for rcgulative glands to preside over the excretion of the sweat, 417.The glands lend themselves to aU circumstances, and supply whatcver is desired, 439. Sec Pancreas, Pitni/mY Gland, Thymus Gland. GOODNESS. The faculty of apprehending the goodness of forms is innate in both the external and internaI senses, 1; IL, 154, 345. See Affections. GRAVITY: see 1I1icrocosm. The parts received into the body are exempted from the ordinary laws of gravity, 80; II., 285. Exemplified in the œsophagus, L, 99. In the stomach, 134. In the intestincs, 172,474. And specifically in the jejunum and ileum, 177. GYRE: see Spiral. HAIR. The hair that appears on the chin at puberty results from the afflux thither of the pituitary and oily lymph of the sheath of the spinal marrow, Il., 77. HEART, the, is produced, and excited to motion, by the small "eins, 15(;. Sanguification is primarily performed in the heart, 213. The heart is a chemical vessel for preparing liquids to enter into the composition of the blood, 214. Hs motions are principaUy kept up by the afflux of blood flOm the brains and medullœ ; but not by the blood of the bod), 215. The heart and lungs supply ail the mem. bers of the body with blood, 337. The hearts office consists in gathering the blood, and transmitting it to every corner of the body, but Ilot in assigning to the viscera the quantity or quality that their offices require, 348. See Intitation, Lungs. No part demands a freer sphere of activity thlln the heart, II., 234. Terms of the covenant between the heart and lungs, 235. After birtl. the heart is raised into diastole by the influx and impulse of the venous blood; ils systole being the result of the reaction of ils nervous fibres, ibid. Before birth the heart acquired its power of action immediately from the fibrcs of the cerebellllm. Thus it was actllutcd by internal causes before birth, by external causes after birth, 238, 239. It unlocks the lungs by means of the pulmonary artery, 340. The hcart grows ont of its arteries and "cins, and not vice versil, 414. It is the common centre of the blood. vessels, but is not a collcction of a number of centres, like other part" ,IR;. .lt j, the invcrse of other sphcrcs of thc bod), and ho, 191.

622 IXDEX OF SUBJECTS. HEAT, the degrees of, in the body, 133. HUMOR. The recrementitious humors always perform Some use before they arethrown out, 183. The use of one humor is a means 1.0 the use of another, 239.The humors, and the glands that produce them, are correlatives with respect 1.0 use, 240. The purer animal juices aspire not onll 1.0 the prolongation, but 1.0 the pel.petuation of life, ibid. There is no possible humor 1.0 which the blood cannot givegenesis, origin, and existence, 242. Ali the humors institute a continuai circuit,after the image of the circulation of the blood, 293, 379, 380. Every humor thatnaturc prodl1ces is of so perfect and consummate a character as 1.0 be a universalmenstruum, 326. See IUember. Ali humors constantly follow the parietes of parts,and descend along their plane surfaces; and never escape from the middle of anaperture, unless their quantity be superabundant, II., 37, 275. See Fluid. Inorder that ail things may act distinctly, they must be kept separate by an interfluentand circulllfluous humor, 269. HUNGER and thirst are a general desire, arising from the sum of particulardesires in ail the veins, 85. The singulars and individual elements of the body arewhat really hnnger and thirst, 207, 236. IDEAS: sec Life. There are no innate ideas, 2; II., 345. The higher idcasarc generated by a continuai formation and as il. were multiplication of the lowerideas, 343,351. This process supposes the influx of a spiritual powcr, ibid. Ideasin themselves are material; but when disposed in analytic order, they are no longerto be reckoned material, bnt rational, 344, 351. Vhen the ideas of imagination aredisposed in a rational scries, there arises an intimate sight which constitutes thought,348. hlAG1NAT10N is referable to the first internai sense which comes next 1.0 ocularvision, II., 95. It cannot reduce the materials in the memory to any order but thatwhich affects the external senses and the inferior mind of the body, 354. It is thcactivity of the memory, ibid. In respect of sensation, it is nearly at one withocular sight, 442. It is distinct from both sight and thought, ibid. It exists inbrutes devoid of reason, but thought is properly human, ibid. INCITATION. Ali parts of the body are excited by Il propulsive, active, andliving force, which mal be called incitation, 274, 294. See Attraction and Invitation. The general cause of incitation or propulsion is t.he unanimous effort of thespirits to eluilibrium, 275. Incitation in thc gall-bladder, 301. The office of eachorgan determines its incitation and invitation, 340. Incitation is produced bl contraction, ibid. INDUCTION. Ve may pass with unfailing induction from continents to contents, and vice versa, 185, 219. INFIDELITY. Its intellectual accompaniments and moral consequences, 14, 15.The author indites his work for those who believe nothing but what they can sec; thusto open up a new way of approach 1.0, and acknowledgment of, spiritual things, 15. INFLUX. After birth ail things flow inversely, or from without to within, II.,335, 336. See Fœtus. INFUNDIDUI.UM, the, represents a preëminent Iymphatic, 251. INSPIRATION: see Respiration. INTELLECT, the human, how generated, II., 346. INTELLIGENCE. There are three causes that lead to intelligence; cxperience isthe first or ministering cause; the scienccs arc the second or mediate cause; thefaculty of thinking distinctly is the third or efficient causc, II., 347. These three

INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 623causes willnot conduct to intelligence of real truths unless we extinguish the impurefires of the body, and our OWn delusive lights, 357. INTERCOSTAL VESSf;J,S. The blood does not enter them synchronously withthe cardiac, but synchronously with the pulmonic movements, 217; II., 246. Theycome off at right angles from the aorta, 246. l~TERCOSTAL NERVE, the great, arises from the cerebellum, II., 455, andplUisim. I)[TESTINES, the, described by Heister, 140. By Winslow, 144. Comparativeanatomy of, from Leeuwenhoek, 150. From Swammerdam, 151. Curious particulars of, and remarkable ingesta found in, from Schurig, 153. Authors to be consulted respecting, 154. The intestines are a new, continued, or consecutive stomach,157. They are analogous to the stomuch in thcir structures, 158. The spires inthe concave surface of the stomach are developed into equal solids in the intestines,159, 160. Theil motion and flmdon are spiral, 160, 194. The operations of thealimentary canal are successive, like the articulations, 160. The intestines receivefrom the stomach nothing but its refuse, 162. They treat the food successively with more vehement motion, grosser heat, longer delay, and a more acrid menstruum,ibid. Each articulation effeets and produces something particular for itself, something general for what comes after it, and something most general for all in theseries, 163. Eaeh has its own spring of saliva, 164, 181. The intestines performmovcments synchronous with those of the lungs, ibid., 515, 520. The movementslun from node to node, to and fro, 165. The small intestines wreathe forwards tothe valvula coli; the large, backwards to the same point, ibid. They meet at thevalve during diastole, but mutually recede from it during systole, 166. The cœcumis thcir field of expansion, 166. The simple expansion and contraction of their muscular coat produces their movements, 167. Theil dilatation involves their extension;their contrac~ion, their retraction, 168. The intestinal gyre respects the fimbriatedborder of the mesentery as its central circ1e, and the receptaculum chyli as the centreagain of this circ1e, 169. See Gravity, Mesentery, Spiral. The intestines firstthrow their contents from their axis, or continued centre, to their concave parietes ;and so into their cellular coat; where another force transfers them to the receptaculumchyli, 171. The duodenum inaugurates the intestines into their spiral form and motion, 174. It digests the exhausted and undigested contents of the stomach, and imbibes their first products, ibid. None of the vapor taken up by ,the arteries of theintestines rises immediately to the cortical substances of the brain, ibid. The glandsand papillœ of the intestines absorb t1uids, and do not ex crete mncus) 175,196. Theintestines do not give, but receive, ibid. Rationale of the operation of purgatives,ibid. The glands and papillœ are the principles of the intestines, 176. The duoèe.num is capable of an inverse movemcnt, 177. The action of the jejunum, ibid. ltevacuates its contents more rapidly than the others, 179. Office of its valvulœ con·niventes, ibid. The ileum imbibes none but the less pure chyle, ibid. The cœcumand valvula coli, 180. The appendix cœci vermiformis is the tongue of the balanceof the intestinal motion; and pours a tluid into the large intestines, 181. This fluidis proximately obtained from the cellular coat of the intestines; remotely from thecellular coats of the peritonœum and abdominal viscera, 182. The harsh and violentaction of the colon, 184. It retains and macerates the food, ibid. The rectum, 185. INVITATION. AU parts of the body are excited by an attractive physical force,corresponding to incitation, which muy be called invitation, 274, 294. See Liver.The general cause of invitation is the unanimous effort of the t1uids of the body,

624 I~DEX 01< SUBJECTS.and particularly of the blood, to equilibrium, ibid. See Equation. Invitation ofthe blood by the gall-bladder, 301. See Incitation. Invitation is a kind of attraction, 340. It is brought about by the particular fabric, situation, connexion, modusopcrandi, and activity of the viscera, 348. See Attraction. By virtue of a corresponding invitation and incitation, there is an equation and perpetuai circle of ailthings, and each has its conditions from the eommunity, 360. Embryos suck outthe maternai blood through the umbilical vessels; so that the blood is not poured inby the womb without invitation, 408. The air does Ilot rush into the nares unbidden, but is attraeted and invited, II., 12. Likewise into the lungs, ibid. Nohumor eyer crosses without invitation into the region of another humor, 260. Nota drop of t1uid can t10w into the bed of an organ, without the organ inviting it, anddetermining both the quantity and qnality to be supplied, 279. The heart invitesthe liquor pericardii into the pericardium, ibid. See Aorta, Spleen. JAWS, the, described by Heister, 60. Their muscles, 62. KIDNEYS, the, and the Ureters: described by Heister, 415. Dy ~rinslow, 416.By Malpighi, 420. Authors to be consulted respecting, 425. The kidneys are mostbusily actuated by alternate expansions and contractions, in the whole and in everypart, 431. Vhich are synchronous with the mo-ements of the respiration, 432.The sinuosity of the kidneys is their central region of motion, from wlùch their expansion and contraction begins, into which it returns, and where it terminates, 432.The cerebellum by menns of the fibres keeps up their interiOi motion; the lungs, bymeans of the peritonreum and diaphragm, their exterior motion, 434. When weknow their motion and structure, we can undcrstand their modus operandi, 436.They expunge the stale serum from the artcrial blood, and how, 436. The vesselsprolonged from the foramina of the blood-vessels of the kidneys, are the first andsimplest urinary duets, 441. The mode in which the urine is excreted and eminged,ibid. The primitive ureters, the middle ureters, and the ultimate ureters, what, 444.The kidneys act upon the serum by violent detrusion, ibid. The tubuli uriniferi arewider above than below, the inverted pyramidal form reigning throughout the urinaryseries, 446. From the outcast serum, throughout its passage, the veins recover and absorb the finer elements of the blood, 44 7. The lymphaties redeem its spirituous andessential palts, 449. The suprarenal glands also rescue their portion, 451. The spiritual meaning of " Searching the reins," 431. The kidneys draw off the sluggish andnoxious phlegm from the peritonooum, and perhaps a portion of the effete fat, 452.The results effected by them are brought about with infinite variety, according to thestates induced by internai, intermediate, or external causes, 454. The varieties inthe urine have corresponding to them as proximate causes the same number of changesof state in the body of the kidneys, 455. See Blood, Serum, Spiral. LAcTEALs, the, described by Heister, 187. By Winslow, 190. Authors to beconsulted respecting, 191. LARYNX, the: see Tongue. The larynx modifies sounds, 77. Described byHeister, II., 39. Dy Winslow, 41. Observations on, by Morgagni, 44. Authorsto be consulted respecting, 45. The larynx and the ear are correlated as active andpassive, and commuuicate with each other by two ways, 46. Unlike the otherorgans of the senses, their construction cornes within the sphere of sight, 48. AUthe mysteries of acoustics, music, and harmony, are inscribed on them by nature,ibid. The larynx ur,dertakes and performs the first department of offices in respiration, modulation, and speech, 50. It must have acquired the faculty of openingthe glottis into aU measures, figures and forms whatever, that can be described by

INDEX OF SUllJECTS. 625 the geometric compasses, or snmmed nI by the analytic calculns; namely, lrom the line or fissure, throngh ail possible intermediate curves, both simple, and com pounded and mixed in infinite ways, to the complete cirele, 52. It must be able to dimiuish and enlarge these diversiform apertures of the glottis, that is to say, the diameters of the above-mentioned figures, within stated limils, and by reason of thc varied dimension, to dilate the field, and multiply the details of the modifications, 57. It must have the power of disposing and conforming the cavity of its tuhe com prehended by the cartilages, to the whole nature of sound, to the relative size of the aperture of the glottis, and to the correspondent condition of the palate, the tongue, the lips, and the month, 62, At the very moment when singing or speaking are in tended, the membranes must be put in readiness to receive the sonorous tremblings, and instantly prepared for the proximate series of varieties, 63. The uses of the ventrieles of the larynx, ibid., and 68, 70, 73. The laryngeal tnbe, with ail the ap paratus below and above il., lrom the lungs to the aperture of the month, mnst suller itself to be extended or contracted, suitably to every heightening or lowering of the sound, 68. There is li correspondence between the apertmes of the mouth, palate, and glottis, in speech particularly, 70. The larynx must have acquired the power of heginning the sonorous modification at any point whateve, and of determining il. whithersoever and in whatsoever qnantity il. pleases, either throngh the labial orifice, or through the nares; also of stopping il. suddenly in midway, snspending il., and thus brellking il. articulately, introducing pauses, taking il. up again, continuing and limiting il., according to the articulations and breathing times i1l speech, 70, 71, 72, 73, 75. In order that the power of performing these offices may subsist in perpetuaIintegrity in its organic parts and membranes, the larynx must renovat.e them in such manner and measure as use demands, with an unfailiug spring of the most snitablehnmor, 77. The laryn.x subserves the pharynx in the office of ellting, 82. By the disposition of the epiglottis, ibid. Dy securing the glottis, 83. Dy reducing theglottis to a mere fissure, and unlocking the sphincter of the phalynx, 84. LEASTS: sec Atmosphere, Fibre, Form, Liver, Lungs, 1Ilotion, Or,çan, Sue/ion.The stomach consista of lesser and least stomachs, exercising mOre perfect and uni versaI offices than the large stomach itself, 131. The nniverse is only the SUffi ofinfinite similar leasts, 173. hen the vessela are in their leasts, they perform theirplay with the most perfect distinctness, 283. The least glands of the hody are theprinciples of ail operations; and also the ends; and therefore resemble centres, 286.The lungs derive their nature lrom their centres, or leasts, II., 195. The least vesselsin the lungs govern the larger, 197, Everything in the visible world has its determinate maximum and minimum, and proceeds lrom its maximum to its minimum, andvice versa, 469. The viscera educe lrom their leasts their power of operating, 475.The greatest is represented in the least, and vice versil, 476. The least fibres thatengender each papilla of the skin are whal. give il. essence and potency as a compound,548. LIFE, in its essential form, is not predicable of the body and the blood, but onlyof the soul and the spirit, 204. Did we not live our life in single parts, consequcntlyin the single individualitics of the blood, we could not possibly live in the whole, orgeneral congeries of the parts, II., ln. See General. Ve are only instmmentsor organs of one life, flom which one intrnmental cause flows into anothe,, 319.The plogression of life lrom infancy to adult age, or from sensations to ideas, ncxtto higher or imaginative ideas, and then to intellechlal ideas, 343. The euds of theinversion of the order of life, 361. The proximate ends, ibid. The remote ends, VOL. II. UU

G2G INDEX Ol; SUBJECTS.:~64. The ultimate end, 366. There are three common fountains of life, the brain,the lungs, and the heart, 429. LIPS, the, described by Heister, 59. By Winslow, 65. Authors to be con·sulted respecting, 69. The passage lrom the lips to the intestines is partitioned byseven doors, 70. The lips commence, and conspire with, the office.;; of the tongue ;and enable thc fac~ to express the affections of the cerebrum, 71, 72, 74. LIVER, the, described by Heister, 253. By Vinslow, 256. Particulars respect.ing, lrom Malpighi, 261. Comparative anatomy of, lrom Swammerdam, 262.Authors to be consulted respecting, 263. It is the general purificatory and defeca·tory of the chyle, the blood, and the selUm, 266, 277, Its functions are the comple.ment of those of the other abdominal viscera, ibid., 277. Its operations may betermed, perpetuai chylitication, 269. It receives the erude chyle and impure blood,and mixes them together, 278. See Chyle. Thc glands of the liver are sa manyleast livers, 280, 286. They are the centres and meeting-places of the abdominalviscera, 282. The relative position of the hepatic vessels in them, what, ibid. Theramifications of the vena portœ probably serve these glands as a basis and wall, 283.The hepatic artery necessary for the defecation of the chyle and the lustration of theblood in the liver, 284. It does not primarily nourish the liver, 285. The littlecapsule of each hepatic gland is permeable, ibid. There is an alternate expansionand contraction of ail the constituents of the liver, 286. The hepatic duct, and thestomach and intestines, exert a similar elaboration and action on the chyle, 289.The cellular tissue of the liver is a most multiple prolongation of the capsule ofGlisson, and external membrane, 290. The biliary passages work and treat thechyle just as the stomach and intestines do the food; and div ide and lay open theantiquated blood, and marry it ta the chyle, ibid. The hepatic veins pass at rightangles into the branches of the vena cava, hecause the sphere of the liver there ends,and that of the heart begins, 291. Powers and forces are almost redundantly luxuriant in it, 293. Ali its parts conspite ta one course of action, ibid. It expandsand contracts synchl"Oliously with the lungs, giving rise to an incitation of ail itsparts, 294. They are also invited to the same movements, 295. Ali the actions ofthe liver proceed so tranquilly that scarcely any motion is perceptible, ibid. Thehepatic duct is analogous to the small intestines; the gall-bladder, to the large, 301.See Blood, Panclwl8. The liver corrects the hard blood, and refines the chyle andinaugurates it iuto the blood, 355. It demands back the embodiment of the blood,lrom the omentum particularly, 390. Sec Gall-bladder. LUNGS. Ali the viscera of the abdomen are under the government of the lungs, 107. The motions of the lungs pour forth into ail points of the body, as do thelungs themselves by the pulmonary pipes in insects, 156. See Head. The lungsprovide the melubers with a universal motion, 337. We contcmplate ail parts ofthe lungs in the trachea, as the smallest effigy in the largest, Il., 93. Description ofthe lungs by Heister, 121. By Winslow, 124. Their structure described by Malpighi, 128. Particulars respecting them by Morgagni, 132. Comparative anatomyof them lrom Swammerdam, 133. The uatural state of the lungs is a state of contraction 143, 145, 147. Not only do the lungs themselves respire, but they alsocause the whole organic system to respire along with them, 150. They cause ail thevis(cra to operate in accordance ta their nature and structure, inspiring force intopotency, 152. They are the very gymnasia of the excrcises, effects, and uses corresponding ta the end., or intuitions of the soul, 153. Vhat the pulsations of thearteries and the respirations of the lungs respectively contribute to the excitation of

INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 627the organs, ibid.; and II., 461. The lungs extend their motive action to the heartand artcrics, 1., 155. The corporeal life is the result of the union of the blood ofthe heart with the spirit of the lungs, 156. Their respiration ~xtends to the cerebrum, and associates itself with its animations, 157, 336. The lungs, the brains, andthe spinal cord perform synchronous movemcnts, and why, ibid., and 336. The lungsconspire in the way of general assistance, to ail the motions, effects, and actions ofthe body, common and partieular, natural and voluntary, 159. How they aecommodate themsehes, by infinitely varying states, to the varieties of action, 161. Theexternal muscles alone are made use of to induce upon the lungs the various states ofrespiration, ibid. The lungs can dispense the air to every form of action, 163. Theair is summoned from one lobule into another according to every requirement; sothat the cavity of the chest may be disposed variously to a single action, while thequantity of air remains the same, ibid. DUling the waking state the lungs associateand marry the voluntalY motive life originating from the cerebrum, with the naturalmotive life f10wing from the cerebellum, 164, 339. They supeladd to actions somewhat of their own powers and propertics, and inspire them with a kind of fire, 167,168, 339. They concur with the trachea, the larynx, and the palate, to produce,exalt, and regulate the sounds of singing and speech, 168. See Sound and Speech.The brains and the lungs concur with unanimous spirit to produce every effect in thebody; and are so absolutcly united, that when the one moves the other moves, andwhen the onc stops the other stops, 173. The lungs initiate the sensual life of thebody, ibid. They are the general colatones of the blood, and evaporatories of itsaweats, 177. They do not really purify the blood, but only correct its serum, 183.Analogy between their office and that of the kidneys, ibid. They are the refectoriesof the blood, the preparatolies that change it from venous to arterial, and the lustratories of the air, 186. See Atmosphere. They are the appendages and productionsof the heart, and not vice versil, 193. In the pulmonic field of leasts, or the vesicles,reside the essential pneumonie power and nature, as well as the circulatory powerthat propels the blood in the lungs, 195, 237. The interlobular cells of the lungswith their vascular lete are always in a state of expansion as weil as of contraction;one half of them constantly alternating through these states with the other half, 196.Effects of this upon the pulmonary circulation, 197. See Le(JJJls. The pulmonaryvessels are completely peyond the sphere of the hearts activity, and undergo theirsystole and diastole synehronously with the movements of the respiration, 197.Likewise the lete mirabile, 198. Attraction of the blood by the lete mirabile, illustrated, ibid. See Bronc/lial Artery, Respiration. The lungs manifest what thebrains conceal, 211. After the lungs are opened all action is invèrted, or proceedsfrom without to within, 227, 262. See Animation, Brain, Heart. External causesactuate both the lungs and heart to perfolm their rcciprocations, 237. The lungsdraw forth the spirit through the nelves into the whole corporeal system, 239, 338.When the order of life is inverted at birth, the lungs perform a mediatorial office between the soul and the body, and thus prevent the fabrics from being ruined in therevolution, 336. They live and aet entirely under the cerebrum, 339. They in norcspect disturb the movements of the heart, ibid. The heart and brain are eoncentred,by means of their external coats, in the innermost parts of the lungs, and thus aeknowledge thc lungs as mediators between the operations of both, 341. The humorin the cells of the lungs performs the offices of a vehicle and menstruum, and how, proved, 506. The three offices of the lungs, ~ 11. LYMPH, the, is the true purer blood, 219. Its nature is shewn by its vessels,

628 INDEX OF SUllJECTS. ibid. It and the chyle require but a slight force to impel them, 220. It is the link betwecn the chyle and the spirit, ibid. It is a kind of ultimate saliva, and digests the chyle as the common saliva digests the food, ibid. It inaugurates the chyle into the blood, 221. Its return into the blood is always attended with an acquisition of new chyle and new spirit, 273. The lymph thrown out rises to the surface of the viscera, and is there first taken up by the lymphntics, 289. LYMPHATIC GLANDS of thc mouth and neck, described by Winslow, 68. LYMPHATICS, the, described by Hcister, 211. See Blood, Ccllulm Coat, Infun. dibulum, Pancreas. The ceUular tissue is the emporium of the lymphaties, 289. The lymphatics demand back the spirituous parts and valuable essences of things, and restore them to the blood, 448. MAGNETISM, a kind of, pervades the wodd, 215. MALPIGHI, his opinion, that somewhat of the subtler food is sucked up by the minute papillre of the tangue, 40. See Fortiu8. MAN is born in dense ignorance, 7. MEANS. There is a kind of chain and cilcie of menns, 240; II., 361. MEDIASTINUM, the, described by Heister, II., 212. It is probably a reservoirfor humors, 278. MEMDER, every, can imbibe aU it wants lrom the common lake, 102, 208, 241. See Glands, Mesentery. No member puts forth aU its forces on contiguous andcontinuous members, 107; II., 339,340. This law prevails in the minutest parts,1., 107. Each articulation of the intestincs has its own sphere of activity, 163.The nature of every member, and the part it plays, œn be learnt only from thewhole, and lrom its connexion with the whole, 267, 297, 310. The more universalthe cause, the more members concur to it, 311, 314. Vhatever the members desireor demand {rom the universal mass of the blood, is accorded to them, 337, 341 ;II., 289. Likewise whate"er the parts of the members require, as the glands, andthe vessels and fibres, 1., 338. AU members that are covcred by a loose sac, aresurrounded by a peculiar humor, 386. lliustrated by machines, 387. Members,viscera, and organs, mean distinct things, 488. ~lEMBRAIŒ: see Diapl,ragm, Peritonœum, Pleura, Tongue. The membranesof the body specified, 486. Each communicates with the othcrs in proportion asthe organs they enclose are dignificd in office and aet in society, ibid. Each makescommon, special, and particular cause with the viscera and members that it embraces, ibid., 493. The common covering produces itself in order into ail itsviscera, and their parts, and parts of parts; and ",hy, 494. Sel Oryanic Forma. MEMORY is the trcasurer of the stores of expelÎence, II, 349. Both experienceand the sciences are matters of the memory, 353. MESENTEItY, the, described by Heistcr, 186. By Vinslow, 188. Its glands,189. Authors to be consulted respecting, 191. By ail their gyrcs the intestinesrespect the orbit or plane of the mesentery and mesocolon, 195. The mesentery isdistinct from the mcsocolon because the motions of thc large and small intestines arereciprocal, 195. Through the mesentery the intestines respect the receptacnlumchyli as the centre of a circ1e, 195. The powers that transfer the chylc lrom theci.rcumference of the intestines, bc10ng to the mescntery; and are gencral, specifie,partieular, and individual. 198. The mesentery expands and contracts synehronously with the lungs, stomach, and intestines, 198. This givcs rise to a physiealattraction of thc chyle and lymph, 199. The blood-vessels enter the mesentery bylill opposite way to thc ncrvous fibres, 201. The plexuscs of the abdominal viscera

INDEX OF SUllJECTS. 629re"pect that of the mesentery as their principal and central plexus, 200. Not afibre lrom the cerebrum enters the mesentery, and why, 205. The fibres in thcmesentery represent the states of their principles in the brains, and exercise longing,loathing, &c., 206. See Fibre. The glands in the mesentery can imbibe theirmilk lrom the common lake, and lrom all the streams at once, 208. MICROCOSM: sec Gravity. The microcosm imitates the maClOcosm in ail itsproperties, 134, 173. There are innumerable microcosms in the macroc:osm, 103.The body is exempt lrom the laws and power of the macrocosm, 193; II., 12,382.A mixed action of the microcosm and macrocosm commences in the bladder andrectum, 1., 474. Man, as weil as every individual living subjec:t, is a microco.m,II., 382. Whut the microcosm derives lrom the great world, and what lrom it.elf,383. Analogy between the microcosm and the macroscosm, 383, 392, 444. MODIFICATION, doctrine of, 10, Il. Its universality and importance in nature,II., 49. We cannot be iustructed respecting it better thun by nature herself in theauimul kingdom, 50. In order to learn the nature of modifications a posteriori, we have only to study the lungs, 140. MORAL. The existence of the moral sphere supposes that of the uatural andthe spiritual, consequently, of the rational, 11., 363. MOTION. In ail parts of the body there are larticulaI, special, und general motions, 217. The form of motion, what, ibid. In every member intended for motion there is throughout a relation of circumference, axes, and centre, 432. In the kidneys the confluence of infinite little motions produces a single and general motion, 433. The division of viscera into lobes is an evident sign of motion, 434. See Sense. The natural and preternatural motions of the visœra, 500; II., 112.The motions of the body are natural, voluntary, and mixed, ibid. There are threcgeneral sources of motion, viz., the animation of the brain, the systole and dias tole of the heart, and the respiratiou of the lungs, 138. The motions of the heartand arteries only give existence and life in potency; those of the brain and lungsgive life iu act, 139. Motion and connexion of parts are exact correlatiyes, 22G.The determination of substances involvcs a corresponding determination of ac:cidentsand motions, ibid. In reality the only universal motions are those of the brainsaud heart, 242. See Substance. MOUTIt and FAUCES, comparative anatomy of, lrom Swammerdam, G8. The varieties in shape and size produced in the month by the muscles, 73. Necessity of the mouth as the moveable centre of the face, 75. The parietes of the mouth eatand drink the purer extracts of the food, and the saliva, 84. MUSCLES, the voluntary, require a more clean and agile blood than the viscera, and why, 350. The moving fibres are the active forces of thc body, of which the tendinous fibres are thc nltimate determinations, IL, 319. The cause of muscular motion is to be sought in the conflicting actions of the blood upon the vessels and of the spirit upon the fibres, 445. MUSIC. Ali the instruments of voice suifer themselyes to be influenced by the inmost principles of music, 77. Sec Larynx. NAR>:S: see Nase. NATURE persists constantly in her measures and degrees, 48. Nature and the will have their separate departments, 51; II., 148. Nature develops ail the re sources of art and science lrom their innermost grounds and principles, 1., 123. She advunces progressively in ail her operations, 132. She never takes the most trifling step, exœpt in order, according to luws, and for an end, 168, 342, 378. Every

630 INDEX OF SUBJECTS.larticle has an order and nature of its own, 193. ln the animal kingdom, theempire is divided between nature and the intellect, 205. Nature is almost universallyoccupied in preparing series of menstrua, more and more universal, to prolong thelife of the body, 235. Nature continually reduces her universes to a kind of chaos,that shI may select ail things therefrom, and distribute them in their places, 279;Il., 176, 342. ln the animal kingdom the word nature signifies ail that principlewhich sets in the cause, 1., 377. Sel Soltl. Whenever nature is mentioned, thesoul is meant thereby, 398. Nature makes use of various means to recall detachedparts to thcir general, 501. ShI is the mistress of ail arts and sciences, and theprinciple of ail minds and faculties, 502. There is perpetuai contention betweennature and the will, Il,, 56. Natures perfection c<;msists in influencing and inspir.ing lvery particular with a common spirit, and making one thing satisfy the necessities of many, 80, 105. Whatever proceeds in consecutive order from prior toposterior, flows according to natures stream, but what proceeds from posterior toprior, too oftcn goes contrary to nature, 103, 262. Ali activity resulting from thewill tends to disturb the natural position and connexion of parts, and nature isobliged altemately to take the reins from the will, and restore them, 149, 165, 166.The will acts from without to within, but nature from within to without, 161, 165,209. The force of nature decreases as that of the will increases, and vice versâ, 209. Nature is perpetual in her measures, proportions, and rules, and her govern. ment lies in equilibrium and equation, 281. That which must be accounted preternatural in natural life, may be natural in the preternaturallife that we live at thisday, 282. Nature and the will flow wonderfully into each other as it were in gyres, 455. The absurdity of attributing life to nature, 554. NERvEs. The importance of rational neurology, 44. The fifth nerve comes chiefly from the cerebrum, and is distributcd to the sensoria of the body; the eighth, from the cerebellum, and belongs to nature, and not to the will, or consciOlsness, 50, 5 J. The nerves of the cerebellum are nerves of nature; those of the cerebrum, nerves of the will, II., 108. See Diapl,ra!1m. The action of the phrenic nerves does not proceed from the expansion and constriction of the spinal marrow, but of the lungs, and why, 313. NOSE, the, described by Heister, IL, 1. By Winslow, 5. Authors to be consulted respecting, 8. The nares open the way, and allow the lungs the possi. bility of respiring, Il. They temper with a gentil warmth the air which is entering, 12. They impregnate with a dewy vapor the air that is departing, 14. They cleanse and purify the air from floating larticles of dust and noxious exhalations, ibid. They anticipate by the sense of smell what the atmosphere of the circumambient world carries in its bosom, 15. By a kind of unison, they regulate the articulate sounds of speech, and to a certain degree, as it were by succenturiate alre, conspire ta modify words themselves, 21. They clear away the viscid phlegm from the arteries, in order that a pure and clean blood may asccnd to the sensoria of the cerebrum, and to the other sensoria of the hcad, ibid. The nose is the common emunctory and purificatory of this blood, the salivary glands being only subordinate emunctories, 23. The power of thc excitative and attractive causes in the nose lloves the gross nature of the excretions it withdraws from the blood, ibid. The nares derive from the lyI and ear, from the medullary and cortical portions of thc cere· brum, from its membranes, and from the sinuses of the cranium, the ichorous streams that threaten inundation, 23, 24, 25. By an extrinsically impulsive force, they ex· cite thc cerebrum to reciprocal animations synchronous with the respirations of the

INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 631lungs, 30. Why man has the power of respmng through the mouth as weil asthrough the nose, 31. Like a cynosure, the nares terminate and complete thecommon axis of the hemispheres of the cerebrum and its parts, and of the cranialbones; and institute and begin the common axis that lUns from thence into thethora.x, and also that which runs into the abdomen, 32, 33. From the ultimateboundary of this axis, the nares transcribe the cerebrum into the face, and give itthe power of picturing its affections upon the surface or countenance thereof, 34.See Centre. The nose often indicates the character of the animal minci, 35. NUTRITION is primarily owing to the fibres, and not to the vessels, 285. ŒSOPHAGUS, the, described by Heister, 86. By Viuslow, 91. Comparativeanatomy of, from Swammerdam, 91. Authors to be consulted respecting, 92. Itacts successively, from point to point, like the tonguc, 98. It is divisible into twotubes, one inside the other, 98. It summons salivas from every province of the headand chcst, 99. It reccives them first in its cellular coat, 101. It supplies them tothe stomach both in such quantity and of such quality, as the food, the stomach, thechyle, and the blood require, ibid. It eructates the air, 103. It unites the lowcstthings with the highest, ibid. As it connects the substances of parts, 50 it connectstheir forces, 105. It transmits the pulmonic motions through the stomach and aIlthe viscera subjacent and appended to it, 105. It is introduced into thesc motionsfrom head to foot, 106. Its inconstant motions during eating soon clie away into thepulmollic motions, 107. The œsophagus lives by the brcath of the trachea; thetrachea, by the food of the œsophagus, 108. Friendship between the carotid arteries, jugulaI veins, and œsophagus, ibid. See Axis, Centre, Diapltragm, Tracltea. OFFICES. From the organic fabrics we may conclude with certainty respectingthe offices that are performed, Il., 524. OMENTU~, the, described by Heister, 363. By Winslow, 365. By Malpighi,367. Authors to be consulted respecting, 370. It is the storehouse of the betterparts of the blood, 375. Conditions necessary for this purpose, 376. The circle ofuses is represented in the omentum, 378, 380. It deposits the exuberant portion ofthe blood in its cells under the form of fat, 380. It is a diverticulum to the blood,381. Sce Blood. It is a balance equilibrating the quantity and quality of blood inthe abdominal viscera, 384. It covers and connects its viscera ; defends them againstheat and cold, injurious vapors, and various impulses, 384. It exhales a rank moisture, to anoint them, and prevent them from falling into atrophy and lethargy,385. Sec Fat, Livl<r, Spleen. ORDEIL Those organs that are superior in situation, are also superior in forces,power, dignityof office, and use, 462. SimUar is the order of the parts in the organs, and of the unities in the parts, 463. The circumstance that one thing fol lows and opens another, originates from order alone, II.; 369. Sec Body. ORGAN: see ll1:t<mbe,, Visclt8. The anatomy of one organ is not suflicient to indicate its nature; we must learn the nature of each organ also from ail that are connected with it, and that succeed it, 34. The auatomy of the whole body indicatcs the nature of each organ, ibid.. Ail the organs are composed of least organs similar to themselves, 37. Each organ of the body has its appointed limits, 95, 107. Each derives its organization anù power of action from thc very nature of its office, 340. Every organ, viscus, and member is so formeù, as to assume and undergo intinite changes of state, and yet to subsist and remain constantly in integrity with respect to its esscnce, 455. See Spiral. The more numerous the statcs into which any organ can change, and the greater the subordination whclewith the gcneral states correspond

632 INDEX OF SUDJECTS. to the individual, the more perfect such organ is, 456. The law by which one organ is a%isted by others, II., Ill. ORGANIC FORMs. In order to the existence of a sensorium that can apprehend the several varieties of an object with their differences and distinctions, the fibrcs must be disposed into an organic form. For th~ fibrcs are put together and the form conceived with referenee to every kind of variety and idca of use; as the paplllaryform with reference to touch, II., 463. In general, the organic forms of the body, whether they be sensoria, or muscles, or viscera, are perfect in proportion to the simplicity of the forms or ideas that they commence from, and which are their unities, 465. The unities of organs associate together mutually, and the associationsso formed, again combine: thus unities generally ascend to the third series or dimension of composition before they complete their determinations, 468. These series,or bodies of trine dimension, viscera, members or organs, are at thc same time conjoined by bonds; the unities themselves, by theirs; the series proximately derivcd from the unities, by theirs; finally the composition itself, or the whole; which iscovered with a coat, as the bond of ail, or the common bond, from which the little coats and bonds of the other parts proceed, whereby the parts are bound to the common service, and live in a harmonious division of labor, 471. Nevertheless,organic forms are perfect, in proportion as the sevcra! parts that essentially entcrand compose the form, are placed distinctly with respect to each other; but yetconcur unanimously to produce common effects and uses, 473. Organic forms againare perfect in proportion as their unities and compounds stand related to a similar type, and shew themselves to be of one genus, in their power and manner of acting. Also in proportion a the parts of the same organ are specifica!ly distinguishcd fromtheir companions by differences and variety, and at the same time are conjoined withthem in fitting harmony, 474. The scnsoria, motoria, viscera, in a word, theorgans and members of the body, and their parts, are perfect in proportion to thepromptitude and case with which thcy can change their states, and after change, recovcr their pristine natural state, and preserve it unimpaired, 478. See Ckanfle.Unities are the centres of their viscus or organ; and theyare the beginnings and endsof its determinations; also the first forces and efficient causcs of its effects, and determinant causes of its uses. so far as they arc uses: but the reason why the unity issuch a cause, is eontained in its form, 482. Unities and continuations of unitiesare the essential determinations that eonstmct the form of the whole, or the commonform; but fibres with vessels are the essential determinations that construct theforms of the unities, or the particular forms, 486. TIte little canals and the brauchesthat flow into the least glands as into their centres, make their end and last boundarytherein; but those that tlow out from them, as from their centres. make thcir beginning or first boundary therein: the former are the active forces of their body; thelatter, the passive forces; which two kinds of forces in conjunction generate and produce the organic fabric, 490. Rence determinations and tluxions proceed from theoutermost sphere to the innermost, and from the innermost to the outermost; orwhat amounts to the same thing, from the greatcst to the least, and from the least tothe greatest, or from eompounds to simples, and [rom simples to compounds, 493.The proper vessels of the organs and viscera, that go out from them, bear in everypoint of them exactly the same charaeter and nature as the unities from which theyare produced; and carry out with them, wherever they go, this character and naturereceived from their unities, as principles; so that they are the unities continued.But the proper vessels that enter the organs and viscera, and terminate in the

INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 633 unities as centres, take the character and nature at once of the compound and the unity: thus again the same, because compounds and unities, as sunilar types, re semble each other in their manner of operation; or mutually represent each other, 493, 494. Hence compounds are only aggregates of simple substances, or sums of their unities put together upon the model of use, 498. In the organic fabrics of the body, tbe series in the progression of causes appears throughout to be as follows : the object or material out of which and by means of which the effect is produced, cornes from without; it is immediately carried away by distinct paths towards the centres; and at the same time is collected in a receptacle, that the centres may con stantly supply theu necessities therefrom. This material is examined and prepared ou the way to the centres; it is then received, turned about, digested, and discrimi nated into parts, by the centres; the finer portion is chosen out, and sent forth for use; the vi1er portion is separated or secreted, sent away, corrected on the way as in the centres; and is expended upon some middle use; lastly, the residue, which is worthless, is thrown out. This is the ratio of ail composition, ibid. Exemplified in the liver, 499. In the lungs, 502. In the stomach, 511. In the heart, 514. In the cerebrum, 517. In the sensorial and motorial office thereof, 520. Such is the influx of sensations into our intellect; such is the treatment of those that f10w in; and such the influx of the will into actions: or if influx is preilicated of sensations, etllux must be predicated respectively of actions, 522. PALATE, the glands of, described by Heister, 62. The palate, described by Winslow, 66. The palate and fauces are modelled to the tongue: they are instru mental causes; the tongue, their principal cause, 71, 76. The palate and the tongue perform a conjugal office for each other, 77. The palate and lips,carry sounds for ward, ibid. PANCREAS, the, described by Heister, 306. By Winslow, 307. The pancreaticjuice, described by Boerhaave, 308. Authors to be consulted respecting the pan creas, 309. It is the link between the spleen and the liver, 313. It purifies the blood for the spleen, and draws off the serum, ibid. As an intermediate member, itcauses the action and sequence of effects, and the subordination of efficient causes, tobe full and perfect, 314. When the pancreas or spleen is absent, its office is transferred to the next member of the series, 315, 318, 321, 360. The pancreatic glandsare the parts wherein the progression of its series ends, and from which it begins,317. The pancreas is the model of the conglomerate glands of the body, because itscontinuons series is most distinct, 316. Vnen examined in series with its fellowmembers, it instructs us respecting the subordination of efficient causes, and the pro duction of effects, 317. Relation and parallel between the pancreas and the spleen,ibid.. The pancreas is the mediate purificatory of the blood, as the liver is the ulti mate purificatory, 318. It is supplied with blood from three sources, and acts inpart independently of the spleen, ibid. It is destitute of Iymphatics, 319. It transmits a fatty and unctuous Iymph to the omentum, 320. See Liver. Use of additional pancreases, 321. See Blood. Comparison between the pancreas and liver, inform, operation, and use, 323. The tranquillity of its operations, 324. It acts byinvitation, incitation, alternation, and reciprocation; and by movements synchronouswith those of the lungs, 325. The pancreatic juice is of a nobler nature and use thanthe two biles, ibid. Like them it circulates, ibid. By the mixture of the three, auniversal salivary menstruum is prepared, 326. The infinite diversity of the pancrcatic juice, ibid. It is both a salivary and a biliary menstruum, 327. See Spleen. PAPILLiE, of the tongue: see Ton,que. Papillre analogous to the papillre conicre VOL. II. X X

634 INDEX OF SUBJECTS.are fonnd on the internai membmnes of manyof the viscera, 50; and 11., 584.Theil source and mode of origin, 1., 50. In the intestines they perceive the natureof the liJuids driven against them, and act as guards, surtounding the glands, pores,and foramina, 178. See Tasle, Touch. PAR VAGUM, the, conspires to the same motions as the lungs, 106. It carnesthe abdominal viseera into thcse motions lrom the innermost, 106. It announces ailthe states of the stomach, and their changes, immediately ta the soul, 138. It ariseslrom thc cerebellum, 205; 11., 108, 147, 455. The reason why the trunk of thepar vagum dare not come in contact with the trachea, 109. How and why it passesthrough the diaphragm, 304. pARTlCULAU: sec General. Ve are instructed in the liver how natnre distin-guishes particulars, and distributes them for various uses, 280. Inexpedieuey ofhcaping up tao many particulars, IL, 160. PASSIVIè: see Acltve. PELVIS: there are as many centres of motion as points of the pelvis, 473. Themost tranquil region of the body is in the pelvis, ibid. PERICARDLUM, the, deseribed by Heister, IL, 217. By Vinslow, 218. Sin-gular morbid appearances in, described by Malpighi, 219. Points respecting, lromLancisi, 220. The lill1or perieardii, inversely ta the liquor pleurœ, f10ws iuto thecavity lrom the cellular surface, 284. See Pleura. The pericardium constitutes inthe chest a gyre within a gyre, and the internaI membrane of the pleura is the exter-nal membrane of the pericardium; hence ",hat tends outwards in the pleura, tendsinwards in the pericardium, ihid. The d(~tenninntion of the liJ11o pericardii, 286.The region of the greatest rest of the pericardium is the region of the greatest motion of the heart, ibid. PERITON,EUM, the, described by Heister, 481. By Vinslow, 482. By Ver-heyen, 48,1. It praduces itself in order into the viscera of the abdomen and their parts, and parts of parts, 494. The members of the abdomen are bound and guarded by the peritonreum and the diaphragm, closely and thoroughly in proportion ta their dignity of office and usefulness in the kingdolll, 495. In proportion as any of them are slightly confined by the peritonreum, they are more apt to rush into ple-ternatural motions, and more difficult ta recall ta the standard of nature, 500. The.peritooalum reduces the preternatural motions of the viseera ta the constant natural motions, ibid. It is the common external bond of the viseera of the abdomen, and the cornillon internai bond of the muscles, eartilages. and bones thereof, 502, The peritonreum and the stomach respect each other rnutually as the eircurnference and axis of a wheel, ibid. It is a general centre of motion to its viscera, ibid. It is the ploximately remote general bond between its members and those or the thorax: and the more remote genelal hond hetween its members and those of the head, ibid. It sustains the motions of ail these as a centre of motion, 50~~. Vhen the peritonreum begins to be slaekened, ail the operations of the viscera are performed imperfectly, 503. See General. The f1uid that permeates the peritonreum cornes from the abdominal viscera, 506. It circulates through the whole of the cellular tissue, 507. It never escapes lrom the eeUs into the cavity of the abdomen, unless the membrall- ous partitions be ruptured by over distention, ibid. The pelitonreum absorbs the fatty vapor with which the cavity of the abdomen abounds, 508. It conveys this serosity ta the kidneys, and in the fœtus ta the renal capsules, ibid. The peritonreum performs 1ll0lemeots synehronous with those of the lungs, II., 154. See Pleura. plèRSPIRhTION: sec Glands, Skin, Va,ifty.

INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 635 PHARYNX, the, described by Heister, 86. By Winslow, 89. Authors to beconsulted respecting, 92. It is the receiving vessel of the palate, and the head of theœsophagus, 94. It is both active and passive, ibid. Its sphere of action beginsfrom its linea alba, 95. Its actions foliow, and reciprocate with, those of the larynxand trachea, 97. It and the œsophagus receive their blood from many sources,because in their actions they conspire with many parts, 96. It attencts various excretions, from the mouth, the brain, the nose, &c., 97. The pharynx and larynxare married partners, 105. See La1·ynx. PHILOSOPHY founded on geometrical principles affords conclusive instructionrespecting the effects of things, IL, 350. Its function in anatomical science, ibid. PHRENIC NERVES: see Diaphragm. PITUITARY GLAND, the, pours new spirit into the blood of the lateral sinuses,213. It is the conglobate gland of the cerebrum, 251. PLAN or summary intended to be followed by the author in the "AnimalKingdom," 10. Plan of constructing the work, 17. Further development of plan,II., 388. PLEURA, the, described by Heister, II., 212. By Winslow, 214. If we pursucits circumflexions, we are conducted at last either to the innermost parts of the lungs,or to the innermost parts of the heart, ibid. They perform a spiral gyre, 223. Thecircle of the pleura is a transcendent circle, 224. It is the common and proper integument, Iimit, and bond of the cavity of the thorax, 226. It connects the outermost constituents of the thorax tn the innermost, and causes external forces andactions to flow in unimpaired to the vesicles of the lungs, ibid., and 229. The tho racic actions flow in by way of the pleura to the lungs, but not vice versc1, 227. Thepleura not only infuses the actions of the muscular chest into the lungs, but effuses the forces of this activity into the viscera of the abdomen, both by the external way of the peritonreum, a:ld the internai way of the nerves, altelies, and veins, 230. It transfers the active efforts of the thorax and lungs to the heart, its arteries and veins, 233. It penetrates to the pulmonary vesicles, and with the pericardium enables the heart and lungs to settle their differences, and make a covenant by means of the blood, 235. It conveys the actions of the spinal marrow tn the dorsal and inter costal nerves, and thereby to the respiratnry muscles, 242. It causes the systaltic movements of the spinal marrow to coincide with the respiratory movements of the lungs, 243. It conveys the actions of the respiratory muscles and lungs to the spiual marrow; and lends round the influx and reflnx of causes and effects in an everlasting spiral, 244. It controla not only the spirit of the fibres, but also the blood, dispens ing it according to the state of the respiration in conjnnction with the bodily actions, 246. The impletion of the plenra with blood, necessary to its fnnctions, 248. The impletion of its cellular tissue with the fluid expressed from its little artcries, neccs sary to its elasticity, and adaptability to the motions of the chest and lungs, and to its offices as a purificatnry and colatnry of the blood, 252. The distribution and elimination of its blood and humora, 253. The communication of its humor to the peritonreum, 260. Analogy between it and the peritonreum, ibid. See Peritonœum, Succenturiate Kidl/1.eys, Thymus Gland. The cavity is permeable for humor into the pleura and lungs, or inwards, but not outwards, 282. PORES: see Skin. POSTERIOR: see Prior, lOTENCY. What potency ulone calI do iu any subjcct, II., 236. One membe, uever imparts tn another auythiug more thau potency; fol it never deprives the other

636 INDEX OF SUBJECTS.of the liberty of acting thus or thus, in one way or another, 237. Nothing resultsfrom potency alone; there must be an active foree ruling by its motion in order thatan action may be produced, 439, 559. The potency of corporeal life requires to bcexeited by sensation, before it can act and live in the shape of foree, 559. Sec Action, Force, Lungs. PRIOR AND POSTERIOR things are in series and degrees above or below each other,33. There is no successive progression froll p,ior to posterior things, 276. The progression from prior to posterior is identical with the progression from the soul to the body; the progression from posterior to lrior is identical with the progressionfrom the body to the soul, II., 332. The prior and interior spherc is relatively perfect and ulÙversal, ibid. Sec Nature. PROGRESSION. In the skin there is a progression from the greatest softness to the least, and from activity towards inertia, II., 403. See Efficient, Prior, Series, Spiral, Use. PULMONARY ARTERIES AND VEINS; see Lungs. RATIONAL ANATOMY, limits of, 96. RATIONAL MlND; see Jdea, Thoug1lt. Its operations, 34. It produces nothingby its will but what it has imbibed by way of the senses, II., 338. Its operationsmay not unfitly be compared with those of algebra, 353. Every rational object hasits OWll soul, 354. The rational mind is in its very nature philosophical, and thefountain of philosophy, 356. It is the uniting medium between the worldly andthe heavenly, the corporeal and the spiritual, 364. It constitutes our plopcrhumanity, ibid. It is divided into two powers, a passive and an active, ibid. REACTION; see Action, Active, Diapl.ragm. RECEPTACLE. The vena portœ is a receptacle of the blood, 278. The omentumis a receptacle, 380. The trachea and bronchia are rec.eptacles of the air, II., 502.The veins, and specificaUy the pulmonary vessels, are so many receptacles of theblood, 509. The stomach performs the office of a reeeptacie, 512. The rightauricle of the heart is a receptacie, 515. There are numbers of receptacles in themedullary portion of the cerebrum, 518. The memory is a receptacie of sensations, 521. RECEPTACULUM CHYLI. It resides.in the centre of the body, 202. Ita tranquillity and security are necessary to the weU-being of the body, 204. Dcscribedby Heister, 210. It exercises a propulsive foree upon the chyle, 2lü. REGENERATION. The fWlCtions of the body are an image of the processes inmans regeneration, 451. RELATION. The perfect mutual relation of ail things in the tongue, 53. Thelis a perpetuai relation of parts to their generals, 54. Relations and detenninationsarise from spheres -:Jf circumgyration, 194. REPRESKNTATION, doctrine of, 10, Il. Extemal things represcnt what internaithings contain, 84. Rational sight is representcd in ocular sight, and rational lightand heat in naturallight and heat, IL, 359. The life in the last sphere rcpresentsthe life in the first, II., 461. See Leasta, Soul. RESPIRATION is the essential outermost life of the body, 107. Sec Brains, Lunga. AU the functions peculiar to the body commence and ccase with the respiration, 399. The muscles of respiration describcd by Heister, II., 123. Respirationopens the scene of bodily life, and in a certain image represents the higher life, 140. Inspiration is brought about by the force of the incumbent air, assisted by the contraction of the respiratory muscles, Hl, 262. Expiration is brought about

INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 637by a general contractile cffort on the part of the internai constituents of the lungs,assisted by the return of the ribs, and the natural compression of the thorax, 145.In ordinary respiration, inspiration alone belongs to the will, and expiration lonature, 148, 264, 337. In extraordinary respiration, the will sometimcs govcl1lsexpiration, 149, 166. Respiration caHs forth the intimate lives of the determina.tions into actions, or into their ultimate lives, 152. See Sound and Speech. Rcspiration is threefold, natural, voluntary, and mixed, 208. Irregularities of therespirations, 209. The different qualities of the respiration are 50 many generaldiagnostic marks of the ailments and diseases of the body and animal mind, 210.The respiratory field, 248. The means by which respiration was prevented dllringuterine life, 262, 331. Every part of the body respires, 460. See Action, Animation, Atmospheres. SALIVA, the, is adapted to aH the offices of the tongue, 41. The tongue is theprincipal agent in drawing the saliva from the glands, 81. The excretion of saliva isthe office of the instrumental cause, not of the principal, 83. The saliva is a men·struum and vehicle, ibid. It is different in every animal, ibid. The oral saliva increases in density from the anterior to the posterior part of the mouth; and why,ibid. The saliva varies continually, according to the affections of the tongue, thebrain, and the mind, 84. Whatever takes place in the mind, takes place in theinnermost of the blood, and of the saliva, 84. The saliva defecates the blood forthe brain and sensoria, 85. The qualities of the saliva are best shewn by its elrects,99. The saliva is in

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