3 factors-affecting-l2-learning-1225479052924337-9

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Factors AffectingFactors Affecting
Second Language LearningSecond Language Learning
 Intelligence
 Aptitude
 Personality
 Motivation and Attitude
 Learner preferences
 Learner beliefs
 Age of acquisition

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The “Good Language Learner”The “Good Language Learner”
 Are there personal characteristics that make
one learner more successful than another?
In your experience, as an English learner, which
characteristics seem to you most likely to be
associated with success in L2 acquisition?
(Please turn to p. 50 and do the questionnaire)
Then share your opinion with your group members.
Find three most important and three least important
learner characteristics.

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Before looking atBefore looking at
learner characteristics…learner characteristics…
 Difficulties in research on learner characteristics and SLA:
1) A learner’s language proficiency can be defined and measured in
many ways (e.g. *CALP vs. BICS). That is, there are many ways
to define the “success” of language learning.
2) It is not possible to directly observe and measure qualities such
as motivation, personality, aptitude, and intelligence. They are just
labels of behaviors.
3) These psychological variables are often not independent of one
another. Researchers may use the same labels to describe
different sets of behavioral traits.
4) A correlation of two factors does not mean that there is a causal
relationship between them. That is, the fact that two things tend to
occur together does not necessarily mean that one caused the
other.
*Note: CALP – cognitive/academic language proficiency
BICS – basic interpersonal communicative skills

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IntelligenceIntelligence
 Intelligence has multiple types:
 Traditionally, intelligence refers to the mental abilities
that are measured by an IQ (intelligence quotient) test.
It usually measures only two types of intelligence:
verbal/linguistic and mathematical/logical intelligence.
 There are other types of intelligence such as spatial
intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, musical
intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, and
intrapersonal intelligence. (see the handout)

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 Linguistic intelligence: speaking, using words, writing, giving
presentations, solving word problems.
 Logical-mathematical intelligence: using numbers, logic,
calculations; learning and understanding grammar rules.
 Spatial intelligence: drawing, painting, using color, art,
graphics, pictures, maps, and charts.
 Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: muscular coordination,
athletic skill, body language, drama and theater.
 Musical intelligence: using music, tones, hearing; producing
the intonation and rhythm of a language.
 Interpersonal intelligence: talking with other people,
understanding them, using language to communicate.
 Intrapersonal intelligence: self-knowledge, self-confidence,
using language to analyze yourself.

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 Research findings:
1. Intelligence, especially measured by verbal IQ
tests, may be a strong factor when it comes to
learning that involves language analysis and rule
learning.
2. On the other hand, intelligence may play a less
important role in language learning that focuses
more on communication and interaction.

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 Conclusions:
 It is important to keep in mind that “intelligence” is
complex and that a person has many kinds of
abilities and strengths.
 An individual with strong academic performance
does not necessarily mean that s/he is a
successful second language learner.

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AptitudeAptitude
 Aptitude refers to potential for achievement. An
aptitude test is designed to make a prediction about
an individual’s future achievements.
 Aptitude for language learning is usually composed of
four different types of abilities:
1) The ability to identify and memorize new sounds
2) The ability to understand the function of particular words in
sentences
3) The ability to figure out grammatical rules from language
samples
4) The ability to memorize new words

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AptitudeAptitude
1) Earlier research revealed a substantial relationship
between aptitude for language learning and
performance in foreign language that was taught
with grammar-translation or audiolingual methods.
2) However, aptitude seems irrelevant to L2 learning
with the adoption of a more communicative
approach to teaching (i.e., with a focus on meaning
rather than on form).

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AptitudeAptitude
 Conclusions:
 Successful language learners are not necessarily
strong in all of the components of aptitude.
(e.g., Some may have strong memories but only
average ability to figure out grammatical rules.)
 Teachers can select appropriate teaching
approaches and activities based on learners’
aptitude profiles to accommodate their differences
in aptitude.

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PersonalityPersonality
 There are a number of personality
characteristics that are likely to affect L2
learning, such as
 Extroversion vs. introversion
 Inhibition vs. risk-taking
 Self-esteem (self-confidence)
 Anxiety
 Empathy

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PersonalityPersonality
1. Some studies have found that learners’ success in language
learning is associated with extroversion such as assertiveness
and adventurousness, while others have found that many
successful language learners do not get high scores on measures
of extroversion.
2. Inhibition is a negative force for second language pronunciation
performance.
3. However, in general, the research does not show a clearly
defined relationship between personality and SLA. The major
difficulty is identification and measurement of personality
characteristics.
4. Personality may be a major factor only in the acquisition of
conversational skills (i.e., oral communicative ability), not in the
acquisition of literacy skills (i.e., reading and writing skills).

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Motivation & AttitudeMotivation & Attitude
 Types of motivation (in terms of communicative needs):
Purpose
Source Intrinsic (Internal) Extrinsic (External)
Integrative
The learner wishes to
learn L2 for personal
growth and cultural
enrichment.
Someone else (e.g., the
learner’s parents) wishes
the learner to know L2 for
an integrative reason.
Instrumental
The learner wishes to
achieve practical goals
using L2 (e.g., for a
career).
External power wants the
learner to learn L2 for a
practical purpose (e.g., a
corporation asks its staff to
get language training).

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1) Both integrative and instrumental types of
motivation are related to success in L2 learning.
Most L2 learning situations involve a mixture of
each type of motivation.
2) Research strongly favors intrinsic motivation,
especially for long-term retention. Intrinsically
motivated learners are striving for excellence,
autonomy, and self-actualization.

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 An individual’s identity and attitudes towards the
second language community:
 Positive learning L2 is enrichment.
 Negative learning L2 is resentment.
 Social dynamics and power relationships between
L1 and L2.
 Minority group members learning the language of a
majority groups may have different attitudes and motivation
from those of majority group members learning a minority
language.
 Think of why an ESL learner’s and an EFL learner’s
attitude may differ in motivation and attitude.

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 Motivation in the classroom setting:
 Motivating students in to the lesson.
 Varying the activities, tasks, and materials to
increase students’ interest levels.
 Using cooperative rather than competitive goals to
increase students’ self-confidence.
 Creating a supportive and non-threatening learning
atmosphere.

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Learner PreferencesLearner Preferences
(Learning Styles)(Learning Styles)
 Learning style :
An individual’s natural, habitual, and preferred way of absorbing,
processing, and retaining new information and skills (Reid 1995).
 Types of learning styles related to L2 learning:
 Perceptual learning styles:
visual, aural/auditory, and haptic (kinesthetic & tactile)
 Cognitive learning styles:
1) field-independence vs. field- dependence
2) reflectivity vs. impulsivity
3) right-brain dominance vs. left-brain dominance
4) tolerance of ambiguity

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 Perceptual learning styles:
 Visual learner: learns more effectively through the eyes
(seeing).
 Auditory (aural) learners: learns more effectively through
the ears (hearing).
 Haptic learner: learns more effectively through touch
and body movement (a combination of the kinesthetic
and tactile styles).
 Kinesthetic learner: learns more effectively through
concrete body experience (body movement).
 Tactile learner: learns more effectively through touch
(hands-on).

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 Cognitive learning styles (1):
field-independence vs. field-dependence
 Field independent (FI) learners pick out hidden
figures in a complicated drawing more quickly. They
tend to perceive elements independently of a context
or field and focus on details. They are more
analytical.
 Field dependent (FD) learners are more inclined to
see the whole drawing and have difficulty separating
it into parts. They tend to perceive the whole field or
situation and focus on general meaning. They are
more relational.

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Here’s a puzzle for you. Look at the row of strange
shapes below. Can you find what the message is?

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Research findings:
 FI is related to classroom language learning that involves
analysis, attention to details, and mastering of exercise, drills, and
other focused activities (CALP).
 FD is related to the communicative aspects of language learning
that require social outreach, empathy, perception of other people,
and communicative skills (BICS).
 FI/FD may also prove to be a valuable tool for differentiating
child and adult language acquisition due to the fact that FI
increases as a child matures to adulthood.

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reflectivity vs. impulsivity
 Reflective learners tend to make a slower, more
calculated decision. They are usually more
systematic and more cautious in learning L2.
 Impulsive learners tend to make a quick or
gambling guess at an answer to a problem. They
are usually more intuitive and more willing to take
risks in learning L2.

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right-brain vs. left-brain dominance
 The right brain perceives and remembers visual, tactile,
and auditory images. It is more efficient in processing
holistic, integrative, and emotional information.
 The left brain is associated with logical, analytical
thought, with mathematical and linear processing of
information.
*Note: Though we all tend to have one hemisphere that is more dominant, it
is important to remember that the left and right hemispheres operate
together as a “team”. Most best solutions to problems are those in
which each hemisphere has participated optimally.

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ambiguity tolerance
 The person who is tolerant of ambiguity is willing to accept
innovative and creative possibilities and not be cognitively or
affectively disturbed by ambiguity and uncertainty.
 In second language learning a great amount of apparently
contradictory or ambiguous information is encountered (e.g.,
words, grammatical rules, and cultural systems in the L2 differ
from the L1). Successful language learning requires tolerance of
such ambiguities, at least for interim periods.
 However, too much tolerance of ambiguity can have a
detrimental effect. People can become “wishy-washy” and may
make many mistakes without awareness when using the second
language.

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 Research findings and implications:
1) Every person, student or teacher, has a learning style;
therefore, there is no particular teaching or learning method
that can suit the needs of all learners.
2) Learning styles exist on wide continuums, although they are
often described as opposites.
3) Learning styles are value-neutral; that is, no one style is
better than others.
4) Very little research has examined the interaction between
different learning styles and success in L2 learning;
however, students should be encouraged to “stretch” their
learning styles so that they will be more empowered in a
variety of leaning situations.

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Learner BeliefsLearner Beliefs
 Virtually all learners, particularly older learners,
have strong beliefs about how their language
instruction should be delivered.
 Learner beliefs are usually based on previous
learning experiences and the assumption that a
particular type of instruction is better than
others.

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The available research indicates that learner
beliefs can be strong mediating factors in
learners’ L2 learning process.
e.g., L2 learners’ progress was negatively affected by an
instructional approach that was not consistent with their
beliefs about the best ways for them to learn.

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 Implications:
1) Learners’ preference for learning, whether due to
their learning styles or to their beliefs about how
language are learned, will influence the kinds of
strategies they choose to learn new material.
2) Teachers can use this information to help learners
expand their repertoire of learning strategies and
thus develop greater flexibility in their second
language learning.

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Age of AcquisitionAge of Acquisition
 The relationship between a learner’s age and
his/her potential for success in second language
learning is complicated.
 The relationship needs to take into account
1) the stage of L2 development, 2) the goals of
learning L2 (i.e., In what aspects of the L2 the
learner has achieved), and 3) the context in which
the learner learns L2 (including language input,
learning environment, and socio-cultural context).

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1) L2 development in informal language learning
environments where the TL is used primarily:
 Children can eventually speak the L2 with native-like
fluency, but their parents and older learners (i.e., post-
puberty learners) are hard to achieve such high levels of
mastery of the spoken language, especially in
pronunciation/accent.
 Adults and adolescents can make more rapid progress
toward mastery of an L2 in contexts where they can make
use of the language on a daily basis in social, personal,
professional, or academic interaction.

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2) L2 development in formal language learning
environments (i.e., classrooms):
 In the early stages of the L2 development, older learners
(adolescents and adults) are more efficient than younger
learners (children).
 Learners who began learning an L2 at the elementary school
level did not necessarily do better in the long run than those
who began in early adolescent.
 It is more difficult for post-puberty learners to attain native-
like mastery of the spoken language, including pronunciation,
word choice, and some grammatical features.

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 Conclusions (I):
- At what age should L2 instruction begin?
 Those who support critical period hypothesis (CPH):
Younger is better (particularly in the phonological
achievement)
 Those who consider that the age factor cannot be
separated from factors such as motivation, social identity,
and the conditions for learning:
Older learners may well speak with an accent because
they want to keep their L1 identity, and the language input
for adults is different from that for children because they
rarely get access to the same quantity and quality of
language input that children receive in play setting.

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 Conclusions (II):
 When the goal is basic communicative ability of the TL,
rather than native-like mastery, and when children’s native
language remains the primary language, it may be more
efficient to begin L2 or FL learning later (e.g., in early
adolescence – at age 10, 11, or 12).
 When learners receive only a few hours of instruction per
week, those who start later often catch up with those who
began earlier.
 One or two hours a week will not produce very advanced
L2 speakers, no matter how young they were when they
began learning.

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SummarySummary
1. Age is only one of the characteristics which affects
the learner’s L2 learning. The opportunities for
learning (i.e., context - both inside and outside the
classroom), the motivation to learn, and individual
differences in intelligence, aptitude, personality, and
learning styles have also been found to be important
determining factors in both rate of learning and
eventual success in learning.

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SummarySummary
2. The study of individual learner variables is not easy
and the results of research are not entirely
satisfactory, partly because of the lack of clear
definitions and methods for measuring the individual
characteristics and partly because of the complex
interactions of those characteristics. Thus, it
remains difficult to make precise predictions about
how a particular individual’s characteristics influence
his/her success as a language learner.

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SummarySummary
3. Implications for second language teaching:
Even though the research findings are not
conclusive in the relationship between personal
factors and second language learning, teachers
should take learners’ individual aptitudes,
personalities, and learning styles into account to
create a learning environment in which virtually all
learners can be successful in learning a second
language.

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The EndThe End
 Now review the diagram of
Learner Characteristics.
http://www2.nkfust.edu.tw/~emchen/SLA/intro.htm

3 factors-affecting-l2-learning-1225479052924337-9

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