SlideShare a Scribd company logo
1 of 85
Download to read offline
Evaluation of Forest
Ecosystem Services (FES)
in the Republic of
Moldova
July 2015
This publication has been produced with the assistance of the European Union. The content, findings, interpretations, and con clusions of this publication
are the sole responsibility of the FLEG II (ENPI East) Programme Team (www.enpi-fleg.org) and can in no way be taken to reflect the views of the
European Union. The views expressed do not necessarily reflect those of the Implementin g Organizations.
Technical Report:
Evaluation of Forest
Ecosystem Services (FES) in
the Republic of Moldova
Prepared by:
Transilvania University of Brașov (TUB)
Faculty of Silviculture and Forest Engineering
The material in this publication is copyrighted. Any
copying or transmitting portions of information
without permission may be a violation of applicable
law. The author encourages dissemination of this
work and will normally grant permission to reproduce
portions of this report.
The interest and willingness of Moldovan forestry
and environment protection sectors as well as other
key stakeholders to actively engage in collaboration
with the Transilvania University of Brașov team on a
diverse range of topics is gratefully acknowledged.
We render thanks to all stakeholders from forestry,
water management, agriculture, and tourism sectors
as well as to local public administrations and
academia who actively participated in consultations
undertaken by the TUB Team in predicting the
evolution of variables for the two alternative
scenarios, collecting data and applying the valuation
techniques.
Photos: Transilvania University of Brașov, ENPI FLEG
Design: Transilvania University of Brașov & Amedia
July 2015
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
3
Content
Introduction........................................................................................................................... 7
1. Snapshot on the forestry sector of Moldova ................................................................... 7
1.1. Forestry sector........................................................................................................ 7
1.2. Economic Impact of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) ........................................ 12
2. Qualitative assessment of FES ....................................................................................... 13
2.1. Conceptual framework.............................................................................................. 13
2.2. Ecosystem services (ES) identification ..................................................................... 15
2.3. Brief description of ES that Moldovan forests provide............................................... 16
3. Benefits of FES to local communities .............................................................................. 22
3.1. Wood and NTFPs for rural communities ................................................................... 22
3.2. Carbon sequestration benefit as a FES ................................................................... 29
3.3. Landslides and floods prevention.............................................................................. 30
3.4. Cultural and recreational benefits for local communities from forest ......................... 31
4. Methodological aspects................................................................................................... 33
4.1. Sector Scenario Assessment (SSA) ......................................................................... 33
4.2. Targeted sectors and evidence of economic FES benefits ....................................... 37
4.3. Management scenarios design................................................................................. 39
5. BAU and SEM scenarios description............................................................................... 41
51. Business as Usual (BAU) .......................................................................................... 42
5.2. Sustainable Ecosystem Management (SEM)............................................................ 42
5.3. Sectoral description of BAU and SEM scenario ........................................................ 43
5.3.1. Tourism.............................................................................................................. 43
5.3.2. Forestry.............................................................................................................. 45
5.3.3. Agriculture.......................................................................................................... 47
5.3.4. Water management sector ................................................................................. 49
5.3.5. Disaster risk reduction........................................................................................ 50
6. Monetary valuation of FES.............................................................................................. 51
6.1. Tourism .................................................................................................................... 51
6.1.1. Baseline value.................................................................................................... 51
6.1.2. FES value for tourism sector in BAU and SEM scenarios................................... 53
6.2. Agriculture ................................................................................................................ 56
6.2.1. Baseline value.................................................................................................... 56
6.2.2. FES value for agriculture sector in BAU and SEM scenarios.............................. 59
6.3. Forestry .................................................................................................................... 62
6.3.1. Baseline value.................................................................................................... 62
6.3.2. FES value for forestry sector in BAU and SEM scenarios .................................. 63
6.4. Domestic water supply sector................................................................................... 66
6.4.1. Baseline value.................................................................................................... 66
6.4.2. FES value for domestic water supply sector in BAU and SEM scenarios ........... 68
6.5. Natural disaster risk and climate change mitigation .................................................. 70
6.5.1. Baseline value.................................................................................................... 70
6.5.2. FES value for domestic water supply sector in BAU and SEM scenarios ........... 71
7. Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) mechanisms................................................... 74
8. Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 77
9. Recommendations .......................................................................................................... 78
References ......................................................................................................................... 81
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
4
List of figures
Figure 1: National Forest (NF) of the Republic of Moldova.................................................... 8
Figure 2: Species distribution in the Moldovan NF ................................................................ 9
Figure 3: People usually collect walnuts from trees and use them mainly for food or cashing
on local markets.................................................................................................................. 17
Figure 4: Logs and branches gathered at felling site are meant primarily as fuelwood (Forest
Enterprise Straseni, Moldsilva)............................................................................................ 18
Figure 5: Lake Beleu, the core area of the Nature Reserve “Prutul de Jos” (Moldsilva), is
home to a great biodiversity and provider of fish and water to local communities................ 18
Figure 6: Moldova is not a mushroom country, but many people collect them for personal
use...................................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 7: Income shares by source for the three sample villages ........................................ 24
Figure 8: Frequency of forest product collection in the three sample villages ...................... 25
Figure 9: Value share of forest products collection in the three sample villages .................. 25
Figure 10: Value for cash/subsistence for main forest products .......................................... 26
Figure 11: RFI over income quintiles – centralized results for the three sample villages ..... 27
Figure 12: Chopped wood of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) sold as energy wood,
placed on a road market along with other stuff for construction (Chisinau city, 2014) ......... 28
Figure 13: Oak plantation created within carbon sequestration projects by Moldsilva.......... 30
Figure 14: The National Park Orhei – Curchi church and forest landscapes are important
objectives of the touristic trail (http://www.cuvintul.md/article/2093/) .................................. 33
Figure 15: Overview on the SSA approach (Flores, 2012) .................................................. 34
Figure 16: Forest cover (%) in the Republic of Moldova ...................................................... 50
Figure 17: Relationship between forest cover (%) and water treatment cost (Ernst, 2004).. 50
Figure 18: Tourism sector FES values in BAU scenario ($/years) ....................................... 54
Figure 19: Tourism sector FES values in SEM scenario ($/years)....................................... 54
Figure 20: Eco-tourism FES value under BAU and SEM over 25 years ($) ......................... 55
Figure 21: Cumulative FES value of SEM over BAU in tourism sector ($ million) ................ 56
Figure 22: C factor (Corine land cover) – vegetation coverage............................................ 57
Figure 23: Soil erosion estimation at country level using Terente (2008) formula................ 58
Figure 24: Agriculture sector FES values in BAU scenario ($/years)................................... 60
Figure 25: Agriculture sector FES values in SEM scenario ($/years)................................... 60
Figure 26: Agriculture FES value under BAU and SEM over 25 years ($) ........................... 61
Figure 27: Cumulative FES value of SEM over BAU in agriculture sector ($ millions) ......... 61
Figure 28: Forestry sector FES values in BAU scenario ($/years)....................................... 64
Figure 29: Forestry sector FES values in SEM scenario ($/years)....................................... 64
Figure 30: Forestry FES value under BAU and SEM over 25 years ($) ............................... 65
Figure 31: Forestry FES value under BAU and SEM over 30 years ($)............................... 65
Figure 32: Relationship between forest coverage (%) and water treatment and distribution
cost ($/1000 cubic meters) at rayon level (based on Ernst, 2004) ....................................... 66
Figure 33: Domestic water supply FES value under BAU and SEM over 25 years ($)......... 68
Figure 34: Water supply sector FES values in BAU scenario ($/years) ............................... 69
Figure 35: Water supply sector FES values in SEM scenario ($/years)............................... 69
Figure 36: Cumulative FES value of SEM over BAU in water supply sector ($ million)........ 70
Figure 37: Disaster risk FES value under BAU and SEM over 25 years ($)......................... 72
Figure 38: Carbon sequestration FES value under BAU and SEM over 25 years ($) .......... 73
Figure 39: FES beneficiaries in Tourism sector (cumulated values for 2014-2038, mill $)... 75
Figure 40: FES beneficiaries in domestic water supply sector (cumulated values for 2014-
2038, mill $) ........................................................................................................................ 75
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
5
List of tables
Table 1: Potential Forest Ecosystems Services(FES) and links to productive sectors......... 14
Table 2: Results of the qualitative assessment of ES provided by forests ........................... 15
Table 3: Overview of how sectors benefit from FES and management challenges.............. 35
Table 4: Overview on how sectors benefit from ES ............................................................. 38
Table 5: Indicators and valuation techniques ...................................................................... 40
Table 6: Comparing BAU and SEM – potential indicators ................................................... 40
Table 7: Key features for BAU and SEM scenarios for tourism sector................................. 44
Table 8: Key features for BAU and SEM scenarios for forestry ........................................... 46
Table 9: Key features for BAU and SEM scenarios for agriculture....................................... 48
Table 10: Baseline for FES – Tourism ($, 2014).................................................................. 53
Table 11: Baseline for FES – Agriculture ($, 2014) ............................................................. 59
Table 12: Baseline for FES – Forestry ($, 2014) ................................................................. 63
Table 13: Baseline for FES – Domestic water supply ($, 2014)........................................... 67
Table 14: Baseline for FES – Natural disasters ($, 2014).................................................... 71
Table 15: Baseline for FES – CO2 sequestration ($, 2014)................................................. 71
Table 16: Summary of FES valuation in SEM and BAU scenarios ...................................... 74
Table 17: Summary description of possible PES mechanisms for tourism and water supply
sectors ................................................................................................................................ 76
Abbreviations and acronyms
AAC Annual Allowable Cut
BAU Business as Usual
CIFOR Centre for International Forest Research
CBD Biodiversity Conservation Convention
ENPI FLEG European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument Forest Law
Enforcement and Governance
ES Ecosystem Services
ESA Ecosystem Services Approach
EU European Union
FE Forest Ecosystems
FES Forest Ecosystem Services
FMP Forest Management Plan
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GHG Green House Gases
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
LPA Local Public Administration
LULUCF Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry
MDL Moldavian currency
MP Protected Area Management Plan
NBSAP National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan
NEF National Ecological Fund
NF National Forest
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
NPV Net Present Value
NTB Nature Based Tourism
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
6
NTFP Non timber forest products
PA Protected Area
PEN Poverty Environment Network
PES Payment for Ecosystem Services
PV Present Value
RFI Relative forest income
SEM Sustainable Ecosystem Management
SRF Short Rotation Forestry
SSA Sector Scenario Analysis
TUB Transilvania University of Brașov
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
VAT Value Added Tax
WTP Willingness to Pay
$ United States Dollar
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
7
Introduction
This report, prepared by the Transilvania University of Brasov, offers an analysis of
the Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova. The study is based on
existing information and data of Moldovan economy sectors relevant to forests, findings from
meetings and discussion with Moldovan institutions responsible for forestry, results of
background studies undertaken during the implementation of both phases of the ENPI FLEG
Program, and materials from other projects and initiatives in the Republic of Moldova. This
work includes also FES approach and experience of other countries.
The report identifies and describes the main FES that are beneficial to Moldovan
people. It offers facts and conclusions regarding the relationship between local communities
and FES. The economic, social and environmental benefits are presented based on both
data collected during the surveys done in the communities and data offered by different
institutions and other sources (statistics, research etc.) in the country. Then, all gathered
data and information were reviewed by the team of Transilvania University of Brașov (TUB).
The focus of the study is put on rural communities (54% of Moldova’s population is
concentrated in rural areas) having an intimate relationship with the forest ecosystems.
The study focused on several important economic sectors in the country that have cross-
sectional linkages with forests, such as agriculture, water management, tourism, fishing,
natural disaster risk and climate change mitigation. The sector approach is an important
methodological aspect of the research as it aimed at processing and presenting information
that are quantifiable and relevant for specific decision makers in each studied sector. Some
sectors, such as forestry, are benefiting from the provisioning services that forest
ecosystems deliver. However, the majority of them – agriculture, water management,
tourism – are benefiting from the regulatory and support services, far more difficult to
quantify. Disaster prevention (including attenuation and mitigation of climate change) can be
considered a special case: even if it is not exactly an economic sector, it is significantly
benefiting from FESs.
1.Snapshot on the forestry sector of Moldova
1.1. Forestry sector
Moldova has relatively low cover of forest vegetation (circa 450000 ha or 13,7% of
country’s territory), while forest cover is only 11% or 379300 ha1
. This is significantly lower
than the European average (45%), but comparable with other European Countries (UK -
12%, Denmark -13%). Forests tend to occur in hilly areas with the majority of forests located
in the central part of Moldova, with slightly less forests in the north and even fewer in the
south (see Figure 1). The forests are mainly broadleaved (oak, ash, hornbeam, black locust
and poplar being the most significant species, see Figure 2).
1
According to some estimations, the true forest ecosystems cover circa 7-8%, the rest being
plantations (circa 6-7%), mainly of acacias.
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
8
Figure 1: National Forest (NF) of the Republic of Moldova
The National Forest (NF) of Moldova is composed of forests, lands meant for
afforestation and other land designated as forest by the existing legal and normative frame2
.
The NF is the main strategic forest resource of the country; it includes most of existing forest
vegetation (circa 800 forest bodies ranging from 5 to 1500 ha) and some insignificant forest
vegetation outside the NF (mainly represented by shelterbelts or spontaneous forest
vegetation). Generally, forests are distributed non-uniformly and are highly fragmented.
Oak-type forests have historically been the most representative in the country and
nowadays only 27% of oak stands are regenerated from seeds (generative origin), while the
rest regenerated vegetatively as a result of former coppice management.
According to the National General Cadastre Registry6
, 81.1% of the NF is owned by
the state (through Agency Moldsilva and its forest units), 18.3% by Local Public Authorities
(LPAs), circa 4% are properties of other state institutions (e.g. Botanical Garden, Central
2
Also, according to the Agency for Land Relations and Cadaster of the Republic of Moldova,
subordinated directly to the Government.
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
9
Authority for Waters), and private ownership is low and represents circa 0.6% now (but it is
likely to grow after afforestation and forest expansion campaign).
Figure 2: Species distribution in the Moldovan NF
3
According to the Forest Code (1996), the main function of forests is the protection of
environment and, thus, all forests are considered primarily to have protective functions and,
then, production functions. There are five protection subcategories: water protection (1.6%),
soil and land protection (7.9%), climatic and industrial damaging factors protection (47.4%),
recreational (26.4%) and scientific interest or genetic resources protection (16.7%)4
.
Agency Moldsilva (www.moldsilva.gov.md) is the central public authority in the
country with responsibilities for implementing state policy in forestry and hunting. Moldsilva
also has both management as well as regulatory and administrative functions. Moldsilva
manages most of the NF (circa 85%), being essentially a self-financing institution since
1998, it does almost not receive support from the state budget and it is not subject to state
subventions. Moldsilva had revenues and expenditures in 2013 of $20.46 and $21.51 million
respectively.
The forest sector’s direct economic contribution is relatively small at just 0.27% to
GDP in 2010. Additionally, the forests provide critical habitats for biodiversity5
and other
essential environmental benefits such as soil protection, water regulation and carbon
sequestration. Most sector analyses highlight the underused potential of the forestry sector.
In particular this refers to (a) carbon sequestration valued at $460000 in 2011, (b)
ecotourism, which is valued at $7.9 million6
per annum and employing circa 1400 persons7
,
3
Mitchell A., Capcelea A., Rinnerberger N., Phillips H., Popa B. & Lozan A. (2014): Republic of
Moldova – Forest Policy Note. The World Bank. – Ch.: Ştiinţa, 2015 (Combinatul Poligrafic). – 68 p.
4
Botnari F., Galupa D., Platon I. et al. (2011): State of the Forestry of the Republic of Moldova 2006-
2010. Agency Moldsilva. Chisinau. – 60 pp. (Report prepared under the ENPI FLEG Program).
5
According to NBSAP, forests provide shelter and indispensable habitats for circa 80% of Moldova’s
biodiversity.
6
Popa B. (2013): The Economic Value of Ecosystem Services in Republic of Moldova. GEF/UNDP-
GEF project National Biodiversity Planning to Support the implementation of the CBD 2011-2020
Strategic Plan in Republic of Moldova, Chisinau.
7
WTTC (2013): Travel and Tourism Impact 2013: Moldova. World Travel & Tourism Council, London.
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
10
(c) watershed management reducing soil erosion and water costs valued at an net present
value of $27.8 million over 25 years, (d) flood disaster mitigation valued at $19.7 million, (e)
wood energy, which could be worth circa $2.25 million annually (5000 ha, yields of 15m3
per
ha annually and current fuelwood prices), and also its contribution to emission reductions
targets.
The challenges to increasing the economic contribution of the forestry sector include
(a) institutional centralized system, (b) poor management (e.g. coppice management in the
past) at all property level, namely of the LPA forests, (c) unsustainable levels of forest use8
,
and (d) the scale of illegal forest activities9
.
Forests managed by Moldsilva have up to date forest management plans (FMPs),
while most of LPA forests do not have such. Moldsilva has capacity and staff to manage
their forests, whereas LPAs are hampered by lack of trained staff and available resources.
Consequently, a more disproportionate and unregulated harvesting occurs in LPA
forests. In the absence of FMPs and arrangements for their active management and
protection, LPA forests will continue to degrade and be over-exploited.
The state forest policy is promoted through a legal frame that includes the
Constitution of the Republic of Moldova, circa 20 laws, a number of regulatory acts approved
by the Government, and other regulatory documents that are approved on sectoral level.
The main policy document in the country is the “Strategy for the sustainable development of
the forestry sector of the Republic of Moldova” (approved by Parliament Decision no.
350/2001). In 2003, the Government issued a law on the implementation of the Strategy for
the sustainable development of the forestry sector of the Republic of Moldova (no.
739/2003), which was abrogated in 2012 by the Government along with other policy
documents (through Governmental Decision no. 796/2012).
Existing legal frame encourages the expansion of areas covered with forest
vegetation through afforestation of degraded and affected by sliding lands, creation of
protection shelterbelts for water, rivers and other water bodies.
Specific requirements are implementing the state policy through a technical
regulatory framework. The forest normative framework is more or less applied in Moldsilva’s
forests, but less or almost not applied over forestlands outside Moldsilva (such as
community or LPAs, private and other types of forest vegetation).According to recent
analyses10
, Moldovan forests are likely to be significantly impacted by climate change.
Researchers expect that even small changes in temperature and precipitation could greatly
affect future forest growth and survival. Within the 2010-2039 period, the phytosanitary
conditions will change significantly in the north of the country where it is expected that areas
susceptible to die back (trees drying out) will expand by circa 15-25%. By 2040-2069,
conditions will deteriorate further extending southwards. Building stable, diversified forests
8
ENPI FLEG (2011): Pădurile Moldovei – Recoltarea și consumul lemnului. Chișinău.
9
Galupa D., Ciobanu A., Scobioală M., Stângaci V., Lozan A. (2011): Tăierile ilicite ale vegetaţiei
forestiere în Republica Moldova: Studiu analitic. Chișinău, Agenţia Moldsilva, – 38 p. (Anul
Internaţional al Pădurilor – 2011). Raport pregătit în cadrul Programului ENPI FLEG.
10
Mitchell A., Capcelea A., Rinnerberger N., Phillips H., Popa B. & Lozan A. (2014): Republic of
Moldova – Forest Policy Note. The World Bank. – Ch.: Ştiinţa, 2015 (Combinatul Poligrafic). – 68 p.
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
11
adapted to climate change presents a significant challenge and will require ongoing
measures including research on species selection, adaptive provenances and genotypes.
Soil degradation in the wider landscape has increased due to unsustainable
agricultural practices and/or poor management of waters and the degradation of forest belts.
The agricultural sector is crucial for Moldova, both as an important part of the economy and
as a source of rural employment. Moldova has unique agricultural land resources,
characterized by productive soils, a high utilization rate (>75%) and rugged topography.
Many of Moldova’s pastures are either degraded or in poor condition, with 47% of
agricultural land classified as degraded. A new program for conservation and increasing the
soil fertility for 2011 – 2020 has been approved. The National Plan on extending forest
vegetation for 2014 – 2018 envisages the afforestation of 13000 ha of degraded lands and
water protection forest belts with funding from the National Ecological Fund and other
donors.
The total growing stock is estimated at 46 million m3
representing an average of 124
m3
/stocked ha. The average age of the forest is 40 years, but the age class distribution is
uneven11
being skewed towards the younger age classes as a result of previous
management / exploitation practices and the fact that more than 2/3 of stands are of coppice
origin. Total annual increment is estimated at 1252000 m3
(or 3.3 m3
/stocked ha). In
addition, the annual increment of the forest outside the NF is estimated at 110000 m3
. The
annual allowable cut (AAC) in the forests administrated by Moldsilva is approximately 45% of
the annual increment compared with a European average of 64% for 201011
. The officially
reported annually harvested volumes are in line with the AAC.
Between 2006 and 2010 timber represented an average of only 10.3% of harvested
wood volume, the balance being firewood12
. This timber was mainly processed by the state
enterprises under the umbrella of Moldsilva. Between 2006 and 2010 Moldsilva processed
28000 m3
annually or 7% of the total harvested wood volume with the balance processed by
private entities outside Moldsilva.
As a parallel process to the implementation of Moldovan forestry policy, the ENPI
FLEG Program (www.enpi-fleg.org) in Moldova focused on building capacities for forest
institutions and strengthening sustainable forest management practices. Non-timber forest
products (NTFPs) are generally defined as any biological resources found in woodlands
except timber. Harvesting of NTFPs (fruits, berries, herbs etc.) is an important activity
undertaken by entities subordinated to Agency Moldsilva. Volumes of NTFPs harvested vary
depending on environmental factors and market requirements. While harvesting and
marketing of NTFPs have certain potential for expansion and an increased level of added
value, it will require further market research and investments in technology as well as
development of more efficient supply chains and improvement of the skills of personnel
involved.
An important and as yet untapped potential of the forests in Moldova is their
recreation function. In the absence of attractive tourist places, the increasing tendency and
11
State of Europe's Forests (2011): Report jointly prepared by FOREST EUROPE Liaison Unit Oslo,
the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) and the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO).
12
Botnari F., Galupa D., Platon I. et al. (2011): State of the Forestry of the Republic of Moldova 2006-
2010. Agency Moldsilva. Chisinau. – 60 pp. Report prepared under the ENPI FLEG Program
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
12
demand of the population is to spend their leisure time in forest areas, usually during holiday
people go to the forests for picnics. The potential of ecotourism market is estimated at $7.9
million per year (direct and indirect expenditures, including $2.4 million public investment,
$1.4 million capital investment in excess as well as 1400 full time equivalent jobs13
). The
better the forest ecosystems are managed, the bigger the increase in number of visitors is
and the bigger the contribution to local economy can be.
This untapped value of the forest could be considered as a starting point for future
payment mechanisms for ecosystem services. This will also help protect forests from visitors
dumping their refuse, especially during holiday periods.
1.2. Economic Impact of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES)
Recent studies, triggered by the process of National Biodiversity Strategy and Action
Plan (NBSAP) elaboration, made estimations of the monetary value of the forest
ecosystems14
. The studies were based on comparing two scenarios:
(a) Business as Usual (BAU) meaning the continuation of current practices – wood
harvesting continuing to support wood consumption at present levels, with high
incidence of illegal logging and under potential use of NTFPs, while forest
ecosystems are likely to degrade and have a decreasing regulatory capacity in terms
of water nutrient and soil erosion;
(b) Sustainable Ecosystem Management (SEM) meaning a lower emphasis on wood
production and more exploitation of the NTFPs at a higher sustainable level, while
the illegal logging is significantly decreased due to a better institutional, legal and
technical framework. However, this is not entirely feasible unless there are alternative
energy supplies for the rural population, e.g. short rotation forestry (SRF) crops,
energy plantations, or increased afforestation.
Based on our research, the value of forest ecosystems services (wood, NTFP, etc.) is
estimated at $28.3 million per year.
Under BAU scenario, forestry activities may add some $0.6 million over the next 25
years to Moldova’s economy14
. However, this revenue will disappear after 27 years as the
capacity of ecosystems to generate economically valuable wood and NTFP is eroded. This
ignores the considerable losses in other forest ecosystem services such as carbon
sequestration, water and soil erosion regulation, landscape provision and tourism.
SEM implies a decrease in wood/timber and NTFP values in the short term, but will
display a significant change in terms of illegal logging reduction, as well as increase in
scientific forests area. Nevertheless, in the long run, the value of FESs under the SEM
scenario will recover and, thus, generate a higher net present value (NPV) beyond a 25 year
horizon. In addition, other ES generated/maintained by sustainable forestry (e.g. carbon
sequestration, water and soil erosion regulation, landscape) will be ensured. As the main
users of the forest ecosystem services are local communities, the values described above
represent net socio-economic benefits.
13
WTTC (2013): Travel and Tourism Impact 2013: Moldova. World Travel & Tourism Council, London
14
Popa B. (2013): The Economic Value of Ecosystem Services in Republic of Moldova. GEF/UNDP-
GEF project National Biodiversity Planning to Support the implementation of the CBD 2011-2020
Strategic Plan in Republic of Moldova, Chisinau.
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
13
2. Qualitative assessment of FES
2.1. Conceptual framework
The conceptual framework is grounded in the Ecosystem Services Approach (ESA).
An ecosystem (e.g. forest, wetland, marine area) is a natural unit of living component
(animals, plants and microorganisms) and their physical environment, or non-living
component (soil, rocks). Ecosystems services (ES) relate to a flow of resources or services
from the natural environment that directly or indirectly benefit people. The Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment (MA 2005) presents a framework to assist in the identification of ES,
classifying them into the following four categories:
Provisioning services relate to the tangible products, such as timber/wood, non-
timber forest products (NTFPs), and fish and pharmaceuticals products provided by
ecosystems;
Regulating services refer to ecosystem natural processes, such as carbon
sequestration and water regulation that contribute to social wellbeing;
Cultural services relate to the non-material benefits obtained from ecosystems, for
example, through tourism and educational use or aesthetic experiences; and,
Supporting services are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem
services (e.g. soil formation, nutrient cycling, photosynthesis, primary production
etc.). They differ from the other services as their impacts on people are either indirect
(via provisioning, regulating or cultural services) or occur over a very long time.
The Ecosystem Services Approach (ESA) explicitly recognizes that ecosystems (e.g.
forests, wetlands) and the biological diversity contained within them contribute to individual
and social wellbeing. Importantly, it recognizes that this contribution extends beyond the
direct provision of goods, such as timber and fish, and the natural regulating functions, such
as carbon sequestration. The ESA therefore provides a framework for considering whole
ecosystems in decision making and for valuing the services they provide.
It is important to note that in order to avoid double counting, economic valuation was
focused on the ‘final benefits’ or ‘outcomes’ realized by society from the services an
ecosystem provides, and not on the services and functions that contribute to those
outcomes. The benefits generated by supporting services, while fundamental to the
provision of final benefits, are not valued independently as they are intermediate benefits
which contribute to the provision of a range of final benefits. Their value is captured in the
valuation of the final outcomes associated with the services they support. Supporting
services include soil formation and retention, primary production and habitat provision.
Health is also not explicitly listed as an ecosystem service as health benefits are
considered to be provided by a range of services, such as fish, flood protection benefits and
a clean environment for recreation. The health cost associated with a decline in these
services may be used to measure the benefits provided by an ecosystem.
Biodiversity as a regulator of underpinning ecosystem processes is also considered
to be cross cutting, the final benefits of which could be associated with a range of services.
An exception is biodiversity non-use which is listed as a separate service.
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
14
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA, 2005) emphasizes that ecosystems
provide critical ES that support human prosperity and survival though clean water, flood and
storm mitigation, fish stock replenishment, and carbon sequestration. Conceptually, healthy
and bio-diverse ecosystems generate greater amounts, higher quality, and more stable flows
of ES over time. It is therefore critical that countries establish protected area (PA) systems to
protect viable populations of diverse species and representative ecosystem samples. The
system level approach aims to broaden PAs from a set of scattered sites that protect few
species to a system that provides viable support to biodiversity and ecosystems at the
national or regional level (Flores in Bovarnick et al, 2010), thus further enhancing the
provision of vital ES.
Table 1 provides a typology of ecosystems services that may be associated with
forest ecosystems. The table notes which sectors of the economy may benefit from the
provision of forest ecosystem services.
Table 1: Potential Forest Ecosystems Services (FES) and links to productive sectors
15
ES
Type
Service Benefit / outcome
Sectors supported by
ecosystem service
ProvisioningServices
Food
Wild meats, fruits, freshwater fish and
seafood harvested for commercial and
subsistence purposes.
Households Fishery, Tourism,
Agriculture
Wood Timber, fuel wood and fibre Households, Industry
Water
Public water supply, water for industrial and
agricultural usage
Agriculture, Industry, Tourism
Natural medicines Natural medicines Household
Biochemicals Biochemicals and genetics Agriculture, medicine/healthcare
Ornamental
resources
Ornamental resources Industry
Source of energy
(fuel etc.)
Energy provision (e.g., hydropower) Energy
RegulatingServices
Regulation of GHGs Carbon sequestration Potentially all
Micro-climate
stabilization
Air quality Potentially all
Water regulation
(storage and
retention)
Flood and storm protection Tourism, Industry, Households,
Agriculture
Waste processing
Detoxification of water and sediment / waste Tourism, Industry, Households,
Agriculture
Nutrient retention Improved water quality Fisheries, Agriculture
CulturalServices
Spiritual, religious,
cultural heritage
Use of environment in books, film, painting,
folklore, national symbols, architecture,
advertising
Tourism, Households
Educational
A ‘natural field laboratory’ for understanding
biological processes
Households
Recreation and
ecotourism
Bird watching, hiking, canoeing, Tourism
Landscape and
amenity
Property price premiums due to views Tourism, Households
Biodiversity non-use
Enhanced wellbeing associated for example
with bequest or altruistic motivations
Potentially all
15
Popa B. (2013): The Economic Value of Ecosystem Services in Republic of Moldova. GEF/UNDP-
GEF project National Biodiversity Planning to Support the implementation of the CBD 2011-2020
Strategic Plan in Republic of Moldova, Chisinau.
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
15
2.2. Ecosystem services (ES) identification
Based on the list of ES associated to forest ecosystems of Moldova, a qualitative
assessment was made to see what are the FES, what are the benefits from FES, what are
the economic sectors supported by the ecosystem services and what are the sectors
influencing the provision of ecosystem services. Data were collected from various sources,
including partially through interviews and discussions with stakeholders or their
representatives - Ministry of Environment, Agency Moldsilva, Moldovan State University,
Forest Research and Management Institute, Institute of Geography and Ecology, Institute of
Botany, forest and forest-hunting enterprises, PA management units, NGOs (Biodiversity
Office, Ecological Movement of Moldova, Ecological Society Biotica) and other experts. Data
were also collected from various available studies. The results are summarized in the table
below (Table 2).
Table 2: Results of the qualitative assessment of ES provided by forests
ES Type Service Benefit / outcome
Significa
nce
Sectors
supported by
ecosystem
service
Sectors impacting /
influencing the
provision of
ecosystem service
ProvisioningServices
Food
Commercial and
subsistence crops;
breeding products
*
Households
Fishery,
Tourism,
Agriculture
Households, Fishery,
Agriculture, Industry
Wood
Fuel wood, timber,
traditional wood
products, commercial
processed wood
products
**
Households,
Forestry, Wood
processing
industry
Forest administration,
households, wood
processing industry,
Forestry
Water
Public water supply,
mineral waters for
commercial use, water
for industrial and
agricultural usage
*
Industry,
households,
tourism
Agriculture, Industry,
Forestry
NTFPs
Natural medicines,
forest fruits, forest
fruits based products
**
Forest
administrators,
households,
industry
Forest administration,
Households, Industry,
Forestry
Source of
energy (fuel
etc.)
Energy provision e.g.,
hydropower
- Energy Forestry, Breeding
RegulatingServices
Regulation
of GHGs
Carbon sequestration ** Potentially all Potentially all
Micro-
climate
stabilization
Air quality ** Potentially all Industry, Forestry
Water
regulation
(storage
and
retention)
Flood and landslide
prevention
**
Tourism,
Industry,
Households/
Urban
Settlement,
agriculture
Forestry, Agriculture,
Breeding
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
16
Soil erosion
regulation
Improved water quality
,
*
Households,
Urban settles
Forestry, Agriculture,
Breeding
Nutrient
retention
Improved water quality *
Fisheries,
Agriculture,
water supply
Forestry, Agriculture,
Breeding
CulturalServices
Spiritual,
religious,
cultural
heritage
Local traditions,
Churches and
monasteries, use of
environment in books,
painting, folklore,
national symbols,
architecture,
advertising
**
Tourism,
Households
Potentially all
Educational
A ‘natural field
laboratory’ for
understanding
biological processes
? Households Potentially all
Recreation
and
ecotourism
Recreational fishing
and hunting,
birdwatching, hiking,
Holiday destination
(aesthetic views)
** Tourism Potentially all
Landscape
and
amenity
Property price
premiums due to views
? Tourism Potentially all
Biodiversity
non-use
Enhanced wellbeing
associated for
example with bequest
or altruistic motivations
? Potentially all Potentially all
Code: ** service important, * service provided, - service not relevant, ? uncertain of provision
2.3. Brief description of ES that Moldovan forests provide
Provisioning Services
Food – Though forests of Moldova are providing small amount of food subsistence
products (due to the an overwhelming share of agriculture in rural activities), there is an old
tradition to plant fruit trees that normally lead to establishing plantations of certain species,
which can be used as food and/or market products. The walnut tree (Juglans regia) is a
typical example16
. There are walnut plantations within the state forest enterprises under
Moldsilva, but the trend in the country is in favour of the many privates (individuals or
companies) that have recently created many walnut plantations based on local or introduced
varieties. Usually, companies are purchasing walnut fruits that are mostly exported, also
consumed domestically by local population or marketed. The main feature of Moldovan
landscapes is easily recognizable by the walnut tree belts along the roads that are used by
population for free (see Figure 3). Republic of Moldova, one of the largest European walnuts
exporters, provides walnuts to more than 25 countries across the world.
16
Walnut plantations seem to be expanding and by 2020 will likely reach at least 14000 ha.
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
17
Figure 3: People usually collect walnuts from trees and use them mainly for food or cashing on local
markets
Wood – There is wood consumed/used from domestic sources, imported
wood/timber (e.g. Ukraine, Russia, and Belarus) used mainly for construction, and
wood/timber in transition. Data collected from local stakeholders (Agency Moldsilva, State
Ecological Inspectorate) and from independent reports (World Bank, ENPI FLEG program)
show that the main source of wood for local population in Moldova is the Moldovan Forest
(see Figure 4). Though there is a small amount of timber (industrial wood) reported by official
sources, the largest portion of domestically harvested wood is used for primary energy
(heating and cooking); however, the timber wood, especially that of hard essence (oak, ash,
hornbeam etc.), is still an important forest product (for maintaining agricultural plantations,
construction, manufacture, and other household needs). According to official statistics,
timber is estimated at 7 to 10% of the total annually harvested wood. Recent studies on the
real level of domestic wood harvesting in Moldova17
rise questions on the quality of wood
estimations. In any case, timber is a scarce product in Moldova and, therefore, important
from the perspective of the ecosystem services provision.
17
ENPI FLEG (2011): Moldovan Forests – Wood Harvesting and Consumption. Chisinau.
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
18
Figure 4: Logs and branches gathered at felling site are meant primarily as fuelwood (Forest
Enterprise Straseni, Moldsilva)
Water – Forests of Moldova are not literally a large water provisioner, but are rather
known as leisure areas for their curative springs. Water provisioning can be explain by the
fact that due to geomorphological conditions, most of forest bodies contain water springs
that are traditionally perceived as clean and pure. The forests are not, of course, a direct
water provisioner, but its role in water regulation (see below) is ascertained and can also be
modelled (see Figure 5). Many local communities are using natural phreatic water, which
originates in forested hilly areas, as a source of drinking water, irrigation water within
households as well as for sanitation. Water has now become a major issue in the country,
especially in the dry seasons and during drought periods, which occur more frequently.
Figure 5: Lake Beleu, the core area of the Nature Reserve “Prutul de Jos” (Moldsilva), is home to a
great biodiversity and provider of fish and water to local communities.
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
19
NTFPs – such forest goods as fruits/berries, mushrooms or plants/flowers as well as
forest soil are largely used by population for various household needs (see Figure 6). The
forest dependency of the rural population is rather low compared with other countries that
have larger forest resources, but this dependency is more sensitive to external factors. Legal
frame allows NTFPs to be harvested/collected by rural population for personal consumption,
so often locals are collecting NTFPs (such as mushrooms, berries, spring flowers/plants)
and sell them either on roads or street markets. State forest units of Moldsilva are organizing
NTFPs collection against money, attracting local population in collecting fruits (e.g. dog
rose), tree flowers (e.g. lime tree) and other medicinal plants. Fruits and flowers are
collected in certain periods of the year by poorer families to be able to complete the cash
needs for their families. Game/hunting activities and products are also included in this
category. Provisioning services originated from hunting activities don’t have significant value
but there is an increased interest for this kind of activities. According to Hunters and
Fisherman’s Society of Moldova, there are 15000 authorized hunters in the country, this
meaning that the interest and demand for hinting activities is significantly bigger than the
actual game resource of the country.
Figure 6: Moldova is not a mushroom country, but many people collect them for personal use
Energy wood (fuelwood) – the most important energy/fuel source for heating and
cooking in rural areas of Moldova is the firewood. The annual allowable cut (AAC) and the
officially recorded actual harvest is around 400000 - 500000 m3
/per year. This equates to
circa 45% of the annual increment (EU average is 64%). Moldsilva, the main supplier of
energetic biomass, undertakes the majority of its own harvesting and operates a centrally
approved price list. However, an ENPI FLEG analysis18
estimated in 2010 a consumption of
domestic fuelwood around 1 million m3
/year19
. This consumption figure almost matches the
total annual increment - which accounts for circa 1,2 million m3
/year20
. Another ENPI FLEG
18
ENPI FLEG (2011): Moldovan Forests – Wood Harvesting and Consumption. Chisinau.
19
The annual consumption of both fuelwood and timber (partially as fuel) was estimated at circa 1,4
million m
3
, nearly 2 times the official harvest in the country.
20
According to data form Agency Moldsilva (www.moldsilva.gov.md).
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
20
study21
revealed a small amount of recorded illegal logging, but it uncovered a trend in illegal
logging activities occurring mainly in forest vegetation outside Moldsilva. The gross value of
this unofficial harvest is conservatively estimated as being $15-17 million per year. While
there can be a number of contributory factors to the imbalance between estimated
consumption and official wood supply, the scale of such imbalance indicates significant
volumes of illegal harvesting. These levels of unofficial removals are unsustainable as these
harvests will be concentrated in areas of easy access and where there is limited control and
monitoring, resulting locally in significant forest/land degradation.
Regulating Services
Regulation of GHGs – carbon sequestration function of Moldovan forests is widely
recognized; moreover, in the last decade it was sustained through the implementation of
various carbon-based projects done by Moldsilva (including its forest units) in cooperation
with local public authorities (LPAs) and the BioCarbon Fund of the World Bank. The total
value of this ecosystem services (based on calculations and increment data and growth
predictions done by Moldsilva) is estimated at $0.5 million /year, counting only the
sequestration capacity. There are also costs of the biomass used by households that were
not taken into account, and this issue requires further investigation22
. Anyway, if the planned
extension of forest land will be enforced over the next decades, the area covered with forest
vegetation is likely to increase up to 15% of the country’s territory23
. This will certainly bring
important values in the future as well as to the image of the sector in providing FES.
Micro-climate stabilization – scientifically proved function, especially for ensuring
local biodiversity and indirectly other subsistence needs for the population. In our survey, all
interviewers mentioned it as very important, but yet unclear service that the forests are
providing. The forest can create an important micro-climate for agriculture, including
conditions that influence agricultural production and enhance biodiversity. This service is
very important and is being also supported by the rehabilitation campaign of circa 31000 ha
of agriculture land protection forest belts24
. Such a micro-climate stabilization program has
not only the purpose to rehabilitate forest belts or to create new ones, it is based on studies
proving that agriculture effectiveness and efficiency may be increased if forest belts can
perform their protection function.
Water regulation (storage and retention) – this is a very important ecosystem
service that forests of Moldova can provide. The climatic features of Moldova and predictions
for changes in environment (e.g. climate change) describe a high frequency of drought
phenomena during the last two decades, especially in the southern part of the country. If
managed sustainably, forest ecosystems can contribute to the regulation of water reservoirs
and thus can mitigate the effect of droughts. In drier areas of the country forests traditionally
21
Galupa D., Ciobanu A., Scobioală M., Stângaci V., Lozan A. (2011): Tăierile ilicite ale vegetaţiei
forestiere în Republica Moldova: Studiu analitic. Chișinău, Agenţia Moldsilva, – 38 p. (Anul
Internaţional al Pădurilor – 2011). Raport pregătit în cadrul Programului ENPI FLEG.
22
Popa B. (2013): The Economic Value of Ecosystem Services in Republic of Moldova. GEF/UNDP-
GEF project National Biodiversity Planning to Support the implementation of the CBD 2011-2020
Strategic Plan in Republic of Moldova, Chisinau.
23
According to the Strategy of sustainable development of the forestry sector of Moldova (2001), at
least 15% forest cover of Moldova would be sufficient for forest ecosystems to perform their eco-
protective functions.
24
Ministry of Environment, 2014, Draft of NBSAP document.
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
21
are regarded as water supplier (e.g. drinking water for humans and cattle in remote areas),
and in wetlands the forests act as sponges by intercepting water.
Soil erosion regulation – landslides and floods are among the most severe natural
disasters causing huge economic losses. Moldovan forest vegetation helps keep soil intact
and prevent it from eroding into other landscapes. Forest quality is directly linked to capacity
of soil to regulate erosion. Soil erosion in an undisturbed forest is extremely low, but any
disturbance can increase erosion processes. Our analysis shows how important is this
ecosystem service. Soil erosion regulation does not impact only the frequency of natural
disasters, but also our day-to-day life. Urban water treatments and other used water are
undoubtedly influenced by the erosion regulation capacity of Moldovan forests. The better
the natural filters are (e.g. forests in good conservation status), the lower the costs for
treating and distributing the urban water are.
Nutrient retention – another very important ecosystem service provided by
Moldovan forests is their nutrient retention. The soil richness is considered one of the most
important natural resource of Moldova and the forests can highly contribute to soil nutrient
retention by stopping the erosion and flow of the superficial soil layer – the most fertile one, a
true national heritage25
. Solid and sustainable forest ecosystems can provide this service not
only in the forests per se, but also in the pasture and agriculture systems nearby or downhill
the forest bodies. The agriculture sector of Moldova seems to be facing a very dangerous
degradation process. Almost 40% of the agricultural land (i.e. 858000 ha, according the
National Bureau of Statistics, 2013) are affected by degradation, where 12% of them cannot
support any agricultural activities. Those degradation phenomena occur partially because of
a reduced capacity of forest and pasture ecosystems to provide effectively the nutrient
retention, which is crucial for the soil erosion regulation service.
Cultural Services
Spiritual, religious, cultural heritage – Moldova is recognized for its religious and
spiritual heritage represented by a number of very nice monasteries of the Orthodox Church,
most of which located within forested areas. Those monasteries are visited by thousands of
people (tourists or locals) every year. Historically, Moldova’s forests served as a refuge for
religious people and, thus, most of monasteries gained protection for centuries. Many
historical (including archaeological) and cultural monuments are located within forests, some
included in protected areas. One can see there is a direct link between forests and the
cultural heritage within, which makes this relationship rather valuable for the population.
Educational – Though it is very difficult to capture this ecosystem service, it is
obvious that the presence and variety of forests are important raising awareness milestones.
Recreation and (eco-) tourism – Tourism sector is considered the second, after the
agriculture26
, largest beneficiary of the forest ecosystem services. Most of protected areas
(PAs) in the country are located within forest ecosystems and many of them represent a
conglomerate of natural, historical and cultural monuments (e.g. National Park Orhei).
25
Chernoziom type of soils from Moldova is included in the list of UNESCO heritage.
26
Popa B. (2013): The Economic Value of Ecosystem Services in Republic of Moldova. GEF/UNDP-
GEF project National Biodiversity Planning to Support the implementation of the CBD 2011-2020
Strategic Plan in Republic of Moldova, Chisinau.
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
22
According to our analysis, PAs (namely those associated with forests) that include churches
and monasteries within are one of the major tourism attraction. The forests are seen
traditionally as places where people can rest and spend some leisure time. The total
ecosystem services value (not only forest ecosystems) is estimated15
at $7.9 million in 2011.
It is obvious that forests ecosystems are the most important for tourism, but the value of this
service is still to be determined.
Moldova is primarily an agricultural country, where fewer forest ecosystems are the
best preserved ecosystems out of other remnants of natural habitats (e.g. wetlands,
steppes). The landscape architecture of vineyards and orchards, combined with a range of
other land features and human settlements, creates true amenities that one cannot miss.
The process of ES identification for the landscape amenity and biodiversity non-use as
valuable ecosystem services as well as their magnitude and economic value need further
analysis.
3. Benefits of FES to local communities
Relevant stakeholders in the Republic of Moldova – Agency Moldsilva, Forest Research
and Management Institute, Institute of Geography and Ecology, Institute of Botany, other
stakeholders involved in Protected Areas (PA) management – consider that the most
important FES are those inducing essential benefits for the communities, as follow:
 Wood – having as benefits the fuelwood, timber, traditional wood products,
processed wood products;
 Non timber forest products (NTFPs) – meaning the use of natural medicines, forest
fruits, other products from forests and game;
 Regulation of GHGs – mainly carbon sequestration;
 Microclimate stabilization – with its main benefit of air quality;
 Water regulation (storage and retention) – with significant benefits in terms of flood
and landslide prevention;
 Spiritual, religious, cultural heritage – local traditions, churches and monasteries, use
of environment in books, painting, folklore, national symbols, architecture,
advertising;
 Recreation and (eco-) tourism – with benefits in terms of traditional holiday leisure in
warm seasons, recreational fishing and hunting, hiking, relaxing in nature, aesthetic
views.
In our survey, many stakeholders mentioned also that other FES can be present in
Moldova too, but their importance is lower, such as: food (with benefits in terms of
commercial and subsistence crops), water (with benefits in public water supply, water for
industrial and agricultural use), soil erosion regulation (with benefits in maintaining the soil
quality and improved water quality) and nutrient retention (with benefits in maintaining soil
quality).
3.1. Wood and NTFPs for rural communities
Benefits of forest/environmental products in the rural Moldova and the danger of
unsustainable use of forest products were assessed under the guidance of IUCN staff in
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
23
201427
. The study was done in selected communities based on their representativeness
criteria through conducting 50 interviews in every village using a Poverty Environment
Network (PEN) of the Centre for International Forest Research (CIFOR) derived
questionnaire28
(the PEN questionnaire was adapted to local conditions mainly in terms of
local specific forest products).
The results of the study underlined the fact that forest products are very important
economic benefits for the local rural communities, despite the fact that forest vegetation
coverage in Moldova is rather low and highly fragmented. The conclusions below relate to
three selected communities29
, considering also some space of data generalization
(representativeness criteria for village selection and randomized appliance of
questionnaires).
Forest dependence analysis showed that the forest is the third, after agriculture and
remittances, income source for local communities. It is rather impressive considering big
difference in the share of area covered with forest vegetation in selected regions – from circa
30% in Cioresti (central Moldova) to circa 9% in Alexandru cel Bun (in northern Moldova)
and 6% in Borceag (in southern Moldova). It is interesting that the forest share in the income
is directly proportional with the share of forest and it is an opposite case for the agriculture
income. In both forestry and agricultural related activities, all family members are involved.
27
Popa B., Zubarev V., Moșnoi E. & Lozan A. (2014): Forest dependence based on surveys
conducted in three villages of Moldova. National report produced by ENPI FLEG II regional program.
28
CIFOR (2007). PEN Technical Guidelines, Version 4. Bogor, Indonesia: Center for International
Forestry Research.
29
These villages are Cioresti (in central Moldova, Nisporeni Rayon), Borceag (in southern Moldova,
Cahul Rayon) and Alexandru cel Bun (in northern Moldova, Soroca Rayon),
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
24
Figure 7: Income shares by source for the three sample villages
30
Besides their own consumption, people in Moldova are used to collect nuts due to
their cash potential. Walnuts represent the most valuable forest product (53% share in terms
of value) and also being very often collected (17% in terms of frequency).
30
Popa B., Zubarev V., Moșnoi E. & Lozan A. (2014): Forest dependence based on surveys
conducted in three villages of Moldova. National report produced by ENPI FLEG II regional program.
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
25
Figure 8: Frequency of forest product collection in the three sample villages
Figure 9: Value share of forest products collection in the three sample villages
There are also other NTFPs that are collected and used by local communities.
Rosehip and other forest fruits, together with mushrooms, are collected rather frequent, but
they are perceived to have a low value mainly (due to the fact that such products are not
collected for selling, but only occasionally). Analysis revealed that the market for those
products does not really exist, except for the state forest administrators who buy rosehip
from time to time for exports. However, the price paid by the state forest administrators is
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
26
low and people are collecting them for being granted access to the forest to get tree
branches of firewood. Though men are sometimes participating in collecting rosehips or
other forest fruits, this is basically an activity done by women and children.
As seen in Figure 8 and Figure 9, wood based forest products (pole/logs/sawn wood,
fuelwood and tree branches) represent the biggest share in terms of frequency and the
second share in terms of value (34% as frequency and 42% as value). The fuelwood
represents the biggest share in the wood products showing a high forest dependence of
rural households in terms of primary energy (heating). The fuelwood from the forest is the
main source of energy (heating, cooking) for the most of rural areas in the country.
According the National Bureau of Statistics31
, only 33.4% of the households in the rural
areas are connected to the gas grid. This is why the wood products are so important for rural
communities in Moldova.
Wood products (fuelwood, wood for rural construction, tree branches) are normally
bought by local population from the state forest units of Agency Moldsilva It seems that
members of sample communities perceive this as an income and not as an expenditure
(without cashing it), which greatly supports the fact that larger volumes are consumed
domestically even if through illegal ways (e.g. without paper/invoice confirming its legality).
Our data cohere with another FLEG analysis that revealed an increased level of illegalities
associated with wood purchase, driven by the lack of financial means and low living
standards of local population32
.
Figure 10: Value for cash/subsistence for main forest products
31
Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Moldova. - Chisinau: Statisticã, 2013 (Î.S. F.E.-P. “Tipografia
Centralã”). – 30 cm. (Statistica Moldovei).
32
Kobernic-Gurkovskaya M. (2011): Forestry sector problems from the perspective of local population
based on psychosociological Analysis. Analytical Report on the results of survey in the Republic of
Moldova, done within ENPI FLEG.
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
27
Analysis of the value for cash income for subsistence needs draws back to walnut-
fruit trees (see Figure 10). Usually, household members are collecting nuts for own
consumption and for cashing them. The share of cashing for other products was very low,
and community members were rarely collecting them for selling.
According to our results, in poor rural communities the lower household income is the
higher dependence on the forest is. Nonetheless, it shows an RFI between 1% and 35% per
selected communities. There is also a diversified source of income from other activities,
namely agriculture. A high RFI shows a relative closeness to the forest and also less
diversified sources of income. A dependency of inhabitants from the forest is less reliant on
the total income because everyone in the communities is using forest resources under the
condition of insignificant agricultural resources.
Figure 11: RFI over income quintiles – centralized results for the three sample villages
The results reveal a high dependency of rural population on the forest in the Republic
of Moldova. As expected, the main income source is agriculture, but the low elasticity of the
RIF variation over income quintile shows that the forest dependency is common to almost all
surveyed households, which is a natural corollary of the resource availability rather than
socio-economic characteristics of surveyed households.
The fact that wood products, especially meant for heating (energy) and notably the
walnuts were the most frequently encountered during our survey, indicate on the use of
forests manly as a basic resource and then as a gap filter or a pathway out of poverty.
Interestingly, wood from the forests is a net revenue, and this happens under the conditions
of clear official regulations with regard to access and supply of fuelwood. Most of wood is
harvested by Moldsilva or their subcontractors (companies who leased standing timber),
then the wood products are sold on the market as industrial assortments (but less than 10%
of the total wood) or as fuelwood (see Figure 12). Any other wood getting out of the forest is
considered as illegally logged. Officially, illegal logging is a contravention and it is sanctioned
by Moldsilva units’ personnel. However, it seems that the term ‘illegal logging’ has to be
properly defined in the existing legal frame and, most importantly, to be properly enforced.
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
28
Figure 12: Chopped wood of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) sold as energy wood, placed on a
road market along with other stuff for construction (Chisinau city, 2014)
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
29
Our data matched the main conclusions of two previous analytical studies done
within ENPI FLEG I in 2010/2011 - the wood consumption study33
and the trends from the
illegal logging study34
. All this casts serious questions on the use of Moldovan forests,
unsustainable practices present in the forests and the need of new approaches to ensure
supply of energetic wood (e.g. SRF) and maintain productive native forest ecosystems.
It becomes more obvious that fuelwood is not fully legal and the way it is harvested
has become already a tradition. Information provided by this study should trigger some
question marks and probably speed up incentives of energetic sustainability in the rural
areas35
.
3.2. Carbon sequestration benefit as a FES
Recent studies36
revealed a certain potential for carbon sequestration in the forest
ecosystems. Moldova gained valuable experience in the design, implementation and
monitoring of LULUCF carbon projects under the Non-polluting Development Mechanism of
the Kyoto Protocol, notably (a) the “Soil Conservation in Moldova” Project, and (b) the
“Development of the Community Forestry Sector in Moldova” Project. This experience will
help position Moldova to source additional carbon projects that could support the strategy for
reducing emissions. This is also in line with the forest cover target of 15%37
by 2020,
stipulated by the Strategy for sustainable development of the forestry sector of Moldova
(2001), as well as with recent governmental incentives of forest protection shelterbelts
extension38
and rehabilitation39
.
According to our data, carbon sequestration functions of forests could generate an
additional $2.1 million (cumulative value over 25 years), if only started incentives and
projects are continued. There is a significant difference between the annual allowable cut
(AAC) and the increment of state forests estimated through the present management plans –
officially the AAC make only between 40 to 50% of the increment40
. Nevertheless, the
differences between estimations of wood consumption and the AAC41
raise a promising
33
ENPI FLEG (2011): Moldovan Forests - Wood Harvesting and Consumption. Chisinau
34
Galupa D., Ciobanu A., Scobioală M., Stângaci V., Lozan A. (2011): Tăierile ilicite ale vegetaţiei
forestiere în Republica Moldova: Studiu analitic. Chișinău, Agenţia Moldsilva, – 38 p. (Anul
Internaţional al Pădurilor – 2011). Raport pregătit în cadrul Programului ENPI FLEG.
35
Mitchell A., Capcelea A., Rinnerberger N., Phillips H., Popa B. & Lozan A. (2014): “Republic of
Moldova – Forest Policy Note”. The World Bank. – Ch.: Ştiinţa, 2015 (Combinatul Poligrafi c). – 68 p.
36
Popa B. (2013): The Economic Value of Ecosystem Services in Republic of Moldova, GEF/UNDP-
GEF project National Biodiversity Planning to Support the implementation of the CBD 2011-2020
Strategic Plan in Republic of Moldova, Chisinau.
37
Actual forest vegetation cover is nearly 13,7% (almost half of it are plantations).
38
According to a Governmental National Plan for forest vegetation extension 2014-2018 (GD
101/2014), circa 13000 ha of degraded lands and protection belts will be afforested or reforested.
39
A World Bank „Agricultural Competitiveness Project” is now reversing circa 2500 ha of degraded
shelterbelts in the southern region of the country.
40
Moldsilva, 2013. Informative materials regarding Moldsilva Agency activity. Qualitative and
Quantitative indicators of the forest fund, Moldsilva Agency and National Agency for Cadastre – 1
st
of
January 2014 (GD. 432/2014).
41
Botnari F., Galupa D., Platon I. et al. (2011): State of the Forestry of the Republic of Moldova 2006-
2010. Agency Moldsilva. Chisinau. – 60 pp. Report prepared under the ENPI FLEG Program
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
30
potential for carbon sequestration and, as a result of this, a sustainable management of
forest.
Figure 13: Oak plantation created within carbon sequestration projects by Moldsilva
Carbon sequestration economic benefits can be easily evaluated and available.
Though there is a significant potential for such activities, it is likely that local communities will
not be a direct beneficiary. It seems that local communities will benefit only indirectly and
from the perspective of climate change mitigation services provided by forests.
3.3. Landslides and floods prevention
Floods and landslides rank among the major natural hazards facing Republic of
Moldova. Annual average incidence of major flood related events in Moldova is 1.2
events/year42
. The costs of damages produced by floods are estimated at $4.6 million
annually. A total of 84000 ha are affected by landslides annually, with a total cost of
damages estimated at $1.3 million. Eroded areas across the country are estimated at 1.074
42
Zubarev, V. (2012) Identificarea si evaluarea serviciilor ecosistemice cheie din Moldova, UNDP –
GEF Project National Biodiversity Planning to Support the Implementation of the CBD 2011-2020
Strategic Plan in Republic of Moldova, United Nations Development Programme.
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
31
million ha (data of 201143
) with a total damage costs of $127.8 million10
. Flooding is
particularly intense in hilly areas and low-lying floodplains. It is likely that the frequency and
severity of these events will increase in the future, both due to on-going ecosystem
degradation and because of climate change44
.
With the increase in environmental changes (induced by humans or naturally
occurring), economic losses through natural disasters may increase too and would require a
clear understanding of the condition of forest ecosystems. The quality and quantity of forest
ecosystems could significantly impact the occurrence of natural disasters. Multiple forest
services ensured though a proper ecosystem protection under SEM scenario could play a
significant role in hazard regulation and loss risk reduction. If the upstream protection
functions of the forest ecosystems serve to minimize the impact of floods by just 10% below
what it would have been in the absence of the protective functions, then the value of flood
control in terms of damage costs avoided (projected on a pro rata basis) equates to an
average of $13.4 million a year45
. All those economic values can be accounted as direct
benefits of the local communities, even though the costs are also referring to some
infrastructure damages avoided.
Forest ecosystems alone are not the only factor influencing the magnitude and
frequency of the natural disasters. The mixture of forest and agricultural lands (pastures,
orchards, vineyards) is typical and traditional for Moldova, therefore it is difficult to assess
the share of the impact these two main sectors may have of reducing disasters. An
integrated management of the agriculture and forested landscape must be envisaged.
Though rather complex, decision making process (including appropriate institutions and
coordination among them) to mitigate the effects of various hazards is extremely important46
.
3.4. Cultural and recreational benefits for local communities from forest
In Moldova rural communities are very linked to orthodox traditions and
establishments. There are many monasteries and churches located within forests or near
forests. Such places, where religious infrastructure interferes with forest landscape, are
more attractive to people and enjoy wide popularity among communities. Evaluation of the
benefits, especially in monetary terms, associated with cultural/religious activities in forests
is an insurmountable problem; however, social benefits of such important linkage are
undisputable.
As the recreation/tourism, it was easier to evaluate the indirect values that can be
captured by local communities in terms of (eco-) tourism benefits. According to data
provided by the Tourism Agency of Moldova (central authority responsible for the monitoring
of touristic activities), there is a large potential for visitors and the main touristic product
offered would be the amalgam of natural and man-made features. The PAs administrators
43
http://date.gov.md/ro/system/files/resources/2013-08/Cadastrul-funciar_2011.xls
44
World Bank (2008): South Eastern Europe – Disaster Risk Mitigation and Adaptation Programme,
The World Bank, Sustainable Development Department Europe and Central Asia Region and
UN/ISDR secretariat Europe, March 2008.
45
Popa B. (2013): The Economic Value of Ecosystem Services in Republic of Moldova. GEF/UNDP-
GEF project National Biodiversity Planning to Support the implementation of the CBD 2011-2020
Strategic Plan in Republic of Moldova, Chisinau.
46
There is a special Department of Civil Protection and Exceptional Situations in the country,
subordinated to the Ministry of Defense of Moldova.
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
32
(mainly those located within Moldsilva) recorded a number of tourists visiting PAs of Moldova
that increased from 6266 in 2008 to 9020 in 2010. However, according to Tourism Agency of
Moldova, the total number of tourists (with main scope of vacations, recreation and resting)
decreased from 243906 in 2008 to 210809 in 2011. It is therefore obvious that there is a
certain orientation of the general tourism industry towards eco-tourism or rural-tourism.
Tourists visiting Moldova are increasingly appreciating places where natural resources are
protected, but this is not yet the central interest of tourists as it seems that winery47
sector
represents a true attractiveness for the most of visitors.
Accommodation facilities slowly started to grow near or in the immediate vicinity of
areas where natural landscapes may attract potential tourists. Yet the main problem is how
touristic activities are organized. Generally, the tourism is still unorganized across the
country and most of involved companies do not have sufficient resources to optimize their
activity in terms of finding a balance between promoting tourism in natural areas and avoid
unwanted effects of anthropic pressure on biodiversity48
. An example is the natural-historic
complex of Saharna (Rezina rayon), a well-known locality that was promoted by a number of
NGOs and tourism companies, but due to an increased and highly unorganized tourism the
valuable habitats for a number of species (e.g. rare plants, bats and reptiles) were severely
affected in the last decades46
.
There is clear evidence that spending on hotels in areas with attractive natural
landscapes tend to be greater than in other places. Work carried out in Croatia by the
Institute of Tourism has, for example, found that there is a premium of as much as 24-32%
attached to the price that visitors are willing to pay for hotels located in forest areas, and that
landscape is a decisive factor in visitors’ choice of hotels49
.
47
http://wine.md/
48
Capatana L. (2012): Turism, Comert si Transport. Starea actuala, unpublished draft, UNDP – GEF
Project UNDP – GEF Project National Biodiversity Planning to Support the Implementation of the
CBD 2011-2020 Strategic Plan in Republic of Moldova, United Nations Development Prrogramme.
49
Pagiola S. (1996): Republic of Croatia Coastal Forest Reconstruction and Protection Project: Annex
J. Economic Analysis. Staff Appraisal Report: Report: Republic of Croatia Coastal Forest
Reconstruction and Protection Project, World Bank, Washington DC
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
33
Figure 14: The National Park Orhei – Curchi church and forest landscapes are important objectives
of the touristic trail (http://www.cuvintul.md/article/2093/)
The potential for (eco-) tourism in connection with forest PAs or just with forest
landscape can immediately be seen in term of economic opportunities for local communities.
According to some experts and per our own observations, the real potential of the economic
multiplication effect on the development of nature/forest associated tourism is very high50
.
4. Methodological aspects
4.1. Sector Scenario Assessment (SSA)
The Sector Scenario Analysis (SSA) was applied in several UNDP studies – in the
Latin American and the Caribbean in 201051
, in Romania for evaluating the monetary value
of ecosystem services (ES) provided by 5 pilot PAs52
, and in Moldova to evaluate ES value
50
WTTC (2013): Travel and Tourism Impact 2013: Moldova. World Travel & Tourism Council,
London.
51
Bovarnick, A., F. Alpizar, C. Schnell (Editors) (2010): The Importance of Biodiversity and
Ecosystems in Economic Growth and Equity in Latin America and the Caribbean: An economic
valuation of ecosystems, United Nations Development Programme.
52
Popa, B. & Bann C. (2012): An Assessment of the Contribution of Ecosystems in Protected Areas
to Sector Growth and Human Well Being in Romania, UNDP, Bucharest Office.
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
34
at the country level53
aiming to feed the resources mobilization strategy for the
implementation of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP).
A guidebook for SSA broader application was already published and it is publically
available54
. The analysis is at the sector level, but it starts with an understanding and
quantification of ES. A core part of the SSA approach is the comparison of two scenarios -
Business as Usual (BAU) and Sustainable Ecosystem Management (SEM), to illustrate the
contribution of ecosystem services under two broad management scenarios to key
productive sectors of the economy.
The analysis lends itself to the generation of politician-friendly data. An ecosystem-
centric approach cuts across sectors and ministerial mandates, whereas a sectoral
approach aligns with the organization of Ministries. It can therefore be used to
facilitate the incorporation of ES values and their management into economic
planning, policy and investment at the sectoral level.
Key questions that the approach seeks to answer include:
 To what extent do key sectors depend economically on the natural inputs of forest
ecosystems?
 What opportunities do these sectors have to benefit from maintaining FES?
An overview of the approach is provided in Figure 15. Key features of the approach are
discussed below in more detail.
33
• employment
• income trends
• fiscal impacts (tax revenues,
subsidies and green taxes)
• foreign exchange (foreign
investments, exports)
• access to green markets/income
& innovation
• opinion polls /surveys
• avoided damage costs
• returns on investment
• production (volume, value)
• net revenue
• productivity (return to labor,
land, capital)
• changes in natural capital
• equity impact on the poor /
distribution of benefits
SSA FLOW
Figure 15: Overview on the SSA approach (Flores, 2012)
53
Popa B. (2013): The Economic Value of Ecosystem Services in Republic of Moldova. GEF/UNDP-
GEF project National Biodiversity Planning to Support the implementation of the CBD 2011-2020
Strategic Plan in Republic of Moldova, Chisinau.
54
Alpizar F. & Bovarnick A. (2013): Targeted Scenario Analysis: A new approach to capturing and
presenting ecosystem services values for decision making. UNDP, Washington.
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
35
Sector Focus
The approach considers the ES provided by forests as inputs into a country’s
economic sectors and presents data on the economic value of ES to each sector. It also
recognizes that humans are part of the ecosystem and we depend on it as well as that our
activities affect the ecosystem. It is important to acknowledge that ecosystem functions
result in ecosystem services, so for Moldova this is crucial to understand when considering
forest ecosystem quality and the potential for providing products/services.
Forest ecosystems of Moldova provide multiple ecosystems services (ES), such as
water provision and regulation, soil fertility, pollination, pest control, growth and reproduction
of food species, storm mitigation, climate regulation and waste assimilation, which directly
and indirectly provide inputs into the production of key sectors in country’s economy. Key
sectors benefiting from the ES provided by forests are - agriculture, fishery, forestry, nature-
based tourism, human settlements, health, and energy.
The logic to drawing out the contribution of FES under different management regimes
to key sectors is that it can provide a comprehensive and tailored argument to present to
sector Ministries. This can facilitate the integration of ecosystem management and protection
into key sector plans and strategies, and aid negotiations with other Ministries were the
management of an ES by one sector clearly impacts its provision to another (for example,
the tourism sector may be adversely impacted by unsustainable agricultural or forestry
practices). Table 3 highlights how FES can contribute to different sectors.
Table 3: Overview of how sectors benefit from FES and management challenges
55
Sector Key ES Management challenges / Issues
Agriculture
A sustainable, high-quality water supply depends
on well-maintained ecosystems that are often
preserved within forests. Water is critical for
irrigation, farming and other uses.
Agroforest farming, when communities use both
forest vegetation and pastures (or other agro-
systems) for their cattle, also using them as forage
(e.g. hay provision).
Forest ecosystems provide natural habitats for
genetically-important crop wild relatives.
Many species pollinate both crops in agriculture
and plants (trees, shrubs) in forests, and vice-
versa.
Forests provide shelter for a number of biodiversity
that contribute to the biological control of pests and
livestock diseases.
These services are frequently under-valued
and provided for free encouraging overuse.
Further research is needed to assess the
links between reduced water quality, lower
flows, and forest ecosystem management.
Forest ecosystems can be of use in
developing solutions to degradation in
freshwater ecosystems.
Agroforestry (or silvopastoral) approach is
still underestimated, but it is a real solution
for a rational use.
Using appropriate species or varieties in
agriculture is directly linked with the
pest/disease distribution, and pests are
using both forest and agriculture species as
hosts.
55
Popa, B. & Bann C. (2012): An Assessment of the Contribution of Ecosystems in Protected Areas
to Sector Growth and Human Well Being in Romania, UNDP, Bucharest Office.
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
36
Forestry
Moldovan forests represent a very important
remaining of natural hill oak forest type (with circa
80% of country’s biodiversity within) that is under a
high anthropic pressure.
Forests therefore provide an important carbon
storage service. Payments for carbon storage could
mean significant revenues (i.e., foreign exchange
transfers and funding to pay for the transition to
SEM). The argument for that is valid if forest
ecosystems are under direct threat of deforestation.
Under BAU, direct threats to forests include
illegal logging and infrastructure development.
Furthermore, current Income from taxes,
timber, and forest products is low sending
incorrect signals to the market and negatively
impacting government expenditure for forest
management. Taxes and fees on timber and
other forest products need to be set at
appropriate levels, so that the Government
has a vested interest in sound forest
management, sustainable commercial
logging, and prevention of illegal activity, to
ensure future revenue flows. This is relevant
to forest management units that allow
sustainable use of forest resources.
NatureTourism
Forest ecosystems contribute to nature-based
tourism (NBT)/ecotourism. This depends on the
natural attractions provided by forests, such as the
habitats (with wild plants and animals), traditional
food from forest products (berries, mushrooms), fresh
water and air, views capes, and cultural services
essential to NBT. Tourists find NBT experiences,
trekking, wild life viewing (including bird-watching),
hunting, more valuable when they take place in
healthy ecosystems, such as those found in PAs
(Flores, in Bovarnick et al 2010).
Under BAU, PA-based NBT is undermined by
insufficient investment in the conditions
required to manage NBT and the supporting
PA well resulting in negative external costs. It
is assumed that if PAs shift to SEM practices,
NBT will generate greater economic value.
Moldovan authorities and forest management
institutions/companies do not yet realize that
investing into forest PA is likely to bring
benefits under SEM scenario, so maintaining
a forest under its natural conditions (with
excluded intense management for
wood/timber, often illegal) will be much more
effective from economic perspectives (with
more revenue) due to an increased demand
from tourism
56
.
HumanSettlements
Human settlements benefit from forest ecosystems
through the provision of a variety of critical services
such as the provision of fresh water, regulation of
natural hazards, and natural mitigation of climate
change.
Forests provide cheap, clean drinking water to
countless rural and urban populations, including a
third of the world’s most populated cities
57
. Well-
managed natural forests almost always provide
higher quality water, with less sediment and fewer
pollutants than water from other catchments
58
.
Research has shown that about a third (33 out of
105) of the world’s largest cities obtain a significant
portion of their drinking water directly from PAs
59
(Dudley et al. 2010).
Watershed conservation can greatly improve
water quality and quantity, reducing water
treatment costs.
Authorities do not yet see the linkage
between the quality of water and forest
vegetation, and once this is realized things
may change.
Forest vegetation can greatly reduce risks
from flooding, which is not properly
understood by local administrations.
56
This is the case of many countries around the world (e.g. USA).
57
Dudley N., Stolton S., Belokurov A., Krueger L., Lopoukhine N., MacKinnon K., Sandwith T. &
Sekhran N. (editors) (2010): Natural Solutions: Protected areas helping people cope with climate
change. IUCN WCPA, TNC, UNDP, WCS, The World Bank and WWF, Gland, Switzerland,
Washington DC and New York, USA.
58
Aylward B. (2000): Economic analysis of land-use change in a watershed context. Presented at a
UNESCO Symposium/Workshop on Forest-Water-People in the Humid Tropics, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia. 31 July - 4 August, 2000
59
Dudley N., Stolton S., Belokurov A., Krueger L., Lopoukhine N., MacKinnon K., Sandwith T. &
Sekhran N. (editors) (2010): Natural Solutions: Protected areas helping people cope with climate
change. IUCN WCPA, TNC, UNDP, WCS, The World Bank and WWF, Gland, Switzerland,
Washington DC and New York, USA.,
TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV
FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING
1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123
www.unitbv.ro/silvic
37
4.2. Targeted sectors and evidence of economic FES benefits
For the valuation research we used five key sectors (or sub-sectors):
tourism/recreation; forestry/hunting60
; agriculture; water management and disaster risk
reduction. We provide a detailed description of the full range of forest ecosystem-economic
benefits and costs associated with each sector/sub-sector, and the monetary quantification
of key costs and benefits accruing to them.
Our fact-finding research about these six sectors has, after in situ visits and meetings
held with forest institutions or other forest experts, concluded that:
 Tourism/recreation sector valuation would be extensively based on additional
value-added by sustainable forest ecosystem management. This includes primary
production, value-added in the marketing chain and secondary economic impacts
and multipliers associated with forest and nature-based recreation. It also considers
traditional aspects when population is used to spend leisure time in forests during
holidays as well as religious and cultural traditions that local population links to forest
areas (e.g. so-called saint or curative springs in the forests near monasteries).
 Forestry/hunting sector valuation tackled additional value-added by sustainable
forest and agriculture management too, which included the primary production,
value-added in the marketing chain and secondary economic impacts and multipliers
associated with the active management of forests, and with hunting carried out in and
around forests (i.e. sectoral direct values or provisioning services). Forest existence
values (supporting, regulating and cultural services) are covered via their contribution
to other sectors.
 Agriculture sector valuation regarded this closely linked to forestry sector and
focused mainly on the additional value-added by sustainable forest ecosystem
management. This included the primary production, value-added in the marketing
chain and secondary economic impacts and multipliers associated with the active
management of forests and agricultural lands surrounding forests. In the past, many
forested areas were converted into agriculture, and nowadays some degraded lands
(unused for agriculture) are afforested. Also, agricultural sector is extensively using
the practice of forest protection shelterbelts, which are believed to contribute to an
increased productivity and to provide habitats/refugees for biodiversity.
 Water management sector valuation will consider watershed protection services
(associated with run-off/erosion control and soil stabilization) in terms of their impacts
of water flow regulation and water quality maintenance for water supply facilities, fish
farms, bottled water companies. It will mainly focus on the costs, losses and
damages avoided by sustainable ecosystem management.
 Disaster risk reduction valuation considered the climate change mitigation, flood
attenuation and landslide protection services. It focused mainly on the costs, losses
and damages avoided by sustainable forest management.
Sectoral studies done under UNDP Project “National Biodiversity Planning to Support the
Implementation of the CBD 2011-2020 Strategic Plan in Republic of Moldova”61
fully
60
We put forestry and hunting together because (a) most of biodiversity in the country is linked to
forest habitats and (b) most of game species are closely associated with forest ecosystems, given the
high pressure from humans (game species use forests as refugees from poachers or other predators,
as wolfs or wild dogs).
61
Popa B. (2013): The Economic Value of Ecosystem Services in Republic of Moldova. GEF/UNDP-
GEF project National Biodiversity Planning to Support the implementation of the CBD 2011-2020
Strategic Plan in Republic of Moldova, Chisinau.
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova
Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova

More Related Content

What's hot

Low bridge avoidance system
Low bridge avoidance systemLow bridge avoidance system
Low bridge avoidance systemslmnsvn
 
SUA-DEST carpentry workshop training manual-kahimba
SUA-DEST carpentry workshop training manual-kahimbaSUA-DEST carpentry workshop training manual-kahimba
SUA-DEST carpentry workshop training manual-kahimbajumanne joseph
 
Em programmeguide nov2013_en
Em programmeguide nov2013_enEm programmeguide nov2013_en
Em programmeguide nov2013_enFabian Turcios
 
Dumai Vts operator trainee-visiting Batam VTS Center report
Dumai Vts operator trainee-visiting Batam VTS Center reportDumai Vts operator trainee-visiting Batam VTS Center report
Dumai Vts operator trainee-visiting Batam VTS Center reportGunawan Manalu
 

What's hot (7)

Armenia Housing Study
Armenia Housing StudyArmenia Housing Study
Armenia Housing Study
 
Roma Early Childhood Inclusion
Roma Early Childhood InclusionRoma Early Childhood Inclusion
Roma Early Childhood Inclusion
 
Division of Inheritance According to Quran
Division of Inheritance According to QuranDivision of Inheritance According to Quran
Division of Inheritance According to Quran
 
Low bridge avoidance system
Low bridge avoidance systemLow bridge avoidance system
Low bridge avoidance system
 
SUA-DEST carpentry workshop training manual-kahimba
SUA-DEST carpentry workshop training manual-kahimbaSUA-DEST carpentry workshop training manual-kahimba
SUA-DEST carpentry workshop training manual-kahimba
 
Em programmeguide nov2013_en
Em programmeguide nov2013_enEm programmeguide nov2013_en
Em programmeguide nov2013_en
 
Dumai Vts operator trainee-visiting Batam VTS Center report
Dumai Vts operator trainee-visiting Batam VTS Center reportDumai Vts operator trainee-visiting Batam VTS Center report
Dumai Vts operator trainee-visiting Batam VTS Center report
 

Viewers also liked

Analysis of the rate of change of mangrove forest ecosystem in calabar south,...
Analysis of the rate of change of mangrove forest ecosystem in calabar south,...Analysis of the rate of change of mangrove forest ecosystem in calabar south,...
Analysis of the rate of change of mangrove forest ecosystem in calabar south,...Alexander Decker
 
Valuation of forest ecosystem services (FOREST EUROPE Valuation of Forest Eco...
Valuation of forest ecosystem services (FOREST EUROPE Valuation of Forest Eco...Valuation of forest ecosystem services (FOREST EUROPE Valuation of Forest Eco...
Valuation of forest ecosystem services (FOREST EUROPE Valuation of Forest Eco...Forest Europe
 
Grasslands
GrasslandsGrasslands
Grasslandssmg778s
 
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEMS EVS PPT
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEMS EVS PPTGRASSLAND ECOSYSTEMS EVS PPT
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEMS EVS PPTRattan Renu
 
Grass land & desert ecosystem
Grass land & desert ecosystemGrass land & desert ecosystem
Grass land & desert ecosystemRajendran Jhansi
 
Pollution
PollutionPollution
PollutionMissST
 
Grassland Ecosystem
Grassland EcosystemGrassland Ecosystem
Grassland EcosystemKyrmen Marsh
 
Types of ecosystem
Types of ecosystemTypes of ecosystem
Types of ecosystembhanu_
 
Environmental pollution
Environmental pollutionEnvironmental pollution
Environmental pollutionFelipe Torres
 

Viewers also liked (20)

Forest Appraisal
Forest AppraisalForest Appraisal
Forest Appraisal
 
Analysis of the rate of change of mangrove forest ecosystem in calabar south,...
Analysis of the rate of change of mangrove forest ecosystem in calabar south,...Analysis of the rate of change of mangrove forest ecosystem in calabar south,...
Analysis of the rate of change of mangrove forest ecosystem in calabar south,...
 
Valuation of forest ecosystem services (FOREST EUROPE Valuation of Forest Eco...
Valuation of forest ecosystem services (FOREST EUROPE Valuation of Forest Eco...Valuation of forest ecosystem services (FOREST EUROPE Valuation of Forest Eco...
Valuation of forest ecosystem services (FOREST EUROPE Valuation of Forest Eco...
 
Grasslands
GrasslandsGrasslands
Grasslands
 
Grassland
GrasslandGrassland
Grassland
 
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEMS EVS PPT
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEMS EVS PPTGRASSLAND ECOSYSTEMS EVS PPT
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEMS EVS PPT
 
Forest Ecosystem
Forest  EcosystemForest  Ecosystem
Forest Ecosystem
 
Grass land & desert ecosystem
Grass land & desert ecosystemGrass land & desert ecosystem
Grass land & desert ecosystem
 
Grassland
GrasslandGrassland
Grassland
 
Grasslands (teach)
Grasslands (teach)Grasslands (teach)
Grasslands (teach)
 
Pollution
PollutionPollution
Pollution
 
Biodiversity
BiodiversityBiodiversity
Biodiversity
 
Forest resource
Forest resourceForest resource
Forest resource
 
Biodiversity
BiodiversityBiodiversity
Biodiversity
 
Grassland Ecosystem
Grassland EcosystemGrassland Ecosystem
Grassland Ecosystem
 
Ecosystems
EcosystemsEcosystems
Ecosystems
 
Important of forests
Important of forestsImportant of forests
Important of forests
 
Ecosystem
 Ecosystem Ecosystem
Ecosystem
 
Types of ecosystem
Types of ecosystemTypes of ecosystem
Types of ecosystem
 
Environmental pollution
Environmental pollutionEnvironmental pollution
Environmental pollution
 

Similar to Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova

Local diagnosis
Local diagnosisLocal diagnosis
Local diagnosismandika
 
Forest dependence based on surveys conducted in three villages of Moldova
Forest dependence based on surveys conducted in three villages of MoldovaForest dependence based on surveys conducted in three villages of Moldova
Forest dependence based on surveys conducted in three villages of MoldovaENPI FLEG
 
undp2014-sustainable-energy-cis
undp2014-sustainable-energy-cisundp2014-sustainable-energy-cis
undp2014-sustainable-energy-cisGiovanna Christo
 
NaturNet Plus Book (part 1)
NaturNet Plus Book (part 1)NaturNet Plus Book (part 1)
NaturNet Plus Book (part 1)NaturNetPlus
 
Lasbela - Integrated Development Vision
Lasbela - Integrated Development VisionLasbela - Integrated Development Vision
Lasbela - Integrated Development Visionzubeditufail
 
Pishin - Integrated Development Vision
Pishin - Integrated Development VisionPishin - Integrated Development Vision
Pishin - Integrated Development Visionzubeditufail
 
Ziarat - Integrated Development Vision
Ziarat - Integrated Development VisionZiarat - Integrated Development Vision
Ziarat - Integrated Development Visionzubeditufail
 
Agriculture and food security
Agriculture and food securityAgriculture and food security
Agriculture and food securityMondoloka
 
Perspective of Agricultural Extension
Perspective of Agricultural ExtensionPerspective of Agricultural Extension
Perspective of Agricultural ExtensionPiLNAfrica
 
Seagrass mapping and monitoring along the coast of Crete, Greece
Seagrass mapping and monitoring along the coast of Crete, GreeceSeagrass mapping and monitoring along the coast of Crete, Greece
Seagrass mapping and monitoring along the coast of Crete, GreeceUniversität Salzburg
 
Quetta - Integrated Development Vision
Quetta - Integrated Development VisionQuetta - Integrated Development Vision
Quetta - Integrated Development Visionzubeditufail
 
Chinese Renewable Energy Status Report
Chinese Renewable Energy Status ReportChinese Renewable Energy Status Report
Chinese Renewable Energy Status ReportREN21
 
Africaadapatationgapreport
AfricaadapatationgapreportAfricaadapatationgapreport
AfricaadapatationgapreportDr Lendy Spires
 
Sokoine University 0f Agriculture prospectus
Sokoine University 0f Agriculture  prospectusSokoine University 0f Agriculture  prospectus
Sokoine University 0f Agriculture prospectusmusadoto
 
Report on the International Status of Open Source Software 2010
Report on the International Status of Open Source Software 2010Report on the International Status of Open Source Software 2010
Report on the International Status of Open Source Software 2010CENATIC
 
Europe’s Digital Competitiveness Report
Europe’s Digital Competitiveness ReportEurope’s Digital Competitiveness Report
Europe’s Digital Competitiveness ReportVictor Gridnev
 
Global-Photovoltaic-Power-Potential-by-Country.pdf
Global-Photovoltaic-Power-Potential-by-Country.pdfGlobal-Photovoltaic-Power-Potential-by-Country.pdf
Global-Photovoltaic-Power-Potential-by-Country.pdfSimonBAmadisT
 

Similar to Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova (20)

Local diagnosis
Local diagnosisLocal diagnosis
Local diagnosis
 
CASE Network Reports 109 - Scenarios for the Agricultural Sector in South and...
CASE Network Reports 109 - Scenarios for the Agricultural Sector in South and...CASE Network Reports 109 - Scenarios for the Agricultural Sector in South and...
CASE Network Reports 109 - Scenarios for the Agricultural Sector in South and...
 
Forest dependence based on surveys conducted in three villages of Moldova
Forest dependence based on surveys conducted in three villages of MoldovaForest dependence based on surveys conducted in three villages of Moldova
Forest dependence based on surveys conducted in three villages of Moldova
 
undp2014-sustainable-energy-cis
undp2014-sustainable-energy-cisundp2014-sustainable-energy-cis
undp2014-sustainable-energy-cis
 
NaturNet Plus Book (part 1)
NaturNet Plus Book (part 1)NaturNet Plus Book (part 1)
NaturNet Plus Book (part 1)
 
Lasbela - Integrated Development Vision
Lasbela - Integrated Development VisionLasbela - Integrated Development Vision
Lasbela - Integrated Development Vision
 
Pishin - Integrated Development Vision
Pishin - Integrated Development VisionPishin - Integrated Development Vision
Pishin - Integrated Development Vision
 
Ziarat - Integrated Development Vision
Ziarat - Integrated Development VisionZiarat - Integrated Development Vision
Ziarat - Integrated Development Vision
 
Agriculture and food security
Agriculture and food securityAgriculture and food security
Agriculture and food security
 
Spiral b of master thesis new1
Spiral b  of master thesis   new1Spiral b  of master thesis   new1
Spiral b of master thesis new1
 
Perspective of Agricultural Extension
Perspective of Agricultural ExtensionPerspective of Agricultural Extension
Perspective of Agricultural Extension
 
Seagrass mapping and monitoring along the coast of Crete, Greece
Seagrass mapping and monitoring along the coast of Crete, GreeceSeagrass mapping and monitoring along the coast of Crete, Greece
Seagrass mapping and monitoring along the coast of Crete, Greece
 
Quetta - Integrated Development Vision
Quetta - Integrated Development VisionQuetta - Integrated Development Vision
Quetta - Integrated Development Vision
 
Chinese Renewable Energy Status Report
Chinese Renewable Energy Status ReportChinese Renewable Energy Status Report
Chinese Renewable Energy Status Report
 
Africaadapatationgapreport
AfricaadapatationgapreportAfricaadapatationgapreport
Africaadapatationgapreport
 
Sokoine University 0f Agriculture prospectus
Sokoine University 0f Agriculture  prospectusSokoine University 0f Agriculture  prospectus
Sokoine University 0f Agriculture prospectus
 
Report on the International Status of Open Source Software 2010
Report on the International Status of Open Source Software 2010Report on the International Status of Open Source Software 2010
Report on the International Status of Open Source Software 2010
 
Poverty paper
Poverty paperPoverty paper
Poverty paper
 
Europe’s Digital Competitiveness Report
Europe’s Digital Competitiveness ReportEurope’s Digital Competitiveness Report
Europe’s Digital Competitiveness Report
 
Global-Photovoltaic-Power-Potential-by-Country.pdf
Global-Photovoltaic-Power-Potential-by-Country.pdfGlobal-Photovoltaic-Power-Potential-by-Country.pdf
Global-Photovoltaic-Power-Potential-by-Country.pdf
 

More from ENPI FLEG

4th Steering Committee Meeting. Agenda
4th Steering Committee Meeting. Agenda4th Steering Committee Meeting. Agenda
4th Steering Committee Meeting. AgendaENPI FLEG
 
Country presentation, Armenia
Country presentation, ArmeniaCountry presentation, Armenia
Country presentation, ArmeniaENPI FLEG
 
Country presentation, Azerbaijan
Country presentation, AzerbaijanCountry presentation, Azerbaijan
Country presentation, AzerbaijanENPI FLEG
 
Country presentation, Belarus
Country presentation, BelarusCountry presentation, Belarus
Country presentation, BelarusENPI FLEG
 
Country presentation, Georgia
Country presentation, GeorgiaCountry presentation, Georgia
Country presentation, GeorgiaENPI FLEG
 
Country presentation, Moldova
Country presentation, MoldovaCountry presentation, Moldova
Country presentation, MoldovaENPI FLEG
 
Country presentation, Russia
Country presentation, RussiaCountry presentation, Russia
Country presentation, RussiaENPI FLEG
 
Progress and activities since previous SC meeting (October 2015) and performa...
Progress and activities since previous SC meeting (October 2015) and performa...Progress and activities since previous SC meeting (October 2015) and performa...
Progress and activities since previous SC meeting (October 2015) and performa...ENPI FLEG
 
Study on Country Implementation of the St. Petersburg Declaration
Study on Country Implementation of the St. Petersburg DeclarationStudy on Country Implementation of the St. Petersburg Declaration
Study on Country Implementation of the St. Petersburg DeclarationENPI FLEG
 
Country presentation, Ukraine
Country presentation, UkraineCountry presentation, Ukraine
Country presentation, UkraineENPI FLEG
 
Удосконалення системи контролю за рухом деревини в Україні та пропозиції змін...
Удосконалення системи контролю за рухом деревини в Україні та пропозиції змін...Удосконалення системи контролю за рухом деревини в Україні та пропозиції змін...
Удосконалення системи контролю за рухом деревини в Україні та пропозиції змін...ENPI FLEG
 
Региональный бюллетень (Осень 2015)
Региональный бюллетень (Осень 2015)Региональный бюллетень (Осень 2015)
Региональный бюллетень (Осень 2015)ENPI FLEG
 
Проект моделі реформування і розвитку мисливського господарства України
Проект моделі реформування і розвитку мисливського господарства УкраїниПроект моделі реформування і розвитку мисливського господарства України
Проект моделі реформування і розвитку мисливського господарства УкраїниENPI FLEG
 
Regional newsletter (Autumn 2015)
Regional newsletter (Autumn 2015)Regional newsletter (Autumn 2015)
Regional newsletter (Autumn 2015)ENPI FLEG
 
Аналіз законодавчої бази і практики ведення мисливського господарства деяких ...
Аналіз законодавчої бази і практики ведення мисливського господарства деяких ...Аналіз законодавчої бази і практики ведення мисливського господарства деяких ...
Аналіз законодавчої бази і практики ведення мисливського господарства деяких ...ENPI FLEG
 
International experience in development of timber tracking systems
International experience in development of timber tracking systemsInternational experience in development of timber tracking systems
International experience in development of timber tracking systemsENPI FLEG
 
Analysis of legislation and practice of hunting in some EU countries
Analysis of legislation and practice of hunting in some EU countriesAnalysis of legislation and practice of hunting in some EU countries
Analysis of legislation and practice of hunting in some EU countriesENPI FLEG
 
Draft model of reformation and development of hunting sector in Ukraine
Draft model of reformation and development of hunting sector in UkraineDraft model of reformation and development of hunting sector in Ukraine
Draft model of reformation and development of hunting sector in UkraineENPI FLEG
 
Закордонний досвід налагодження систем контролю руху і стеження деревини
Закордонний досвід налагодження систем контролю руху і стеження деревиниЗакордонний досвід налагодження систем контролю руху і стеження деревини
Закордонний досвід налагодження систем контролю руху і стеження деревиниENPI FLEG
 
Пропозиції ключових законодавчих актів щодо охорони біорізноманіття в лісах а...
Пропозиції ключових законодавчих актів щодо охорони біорізноманіття в лісах а...Пропозиції ключових законодавчих актів щодо охорони біорізноманіття в лісах а...
Пропозиції ключових законодавчих актів щодо охорони біорізноманіття в лісах а...ENPI FLEG
 

More from ENPI FLEG (20)

4th Steering Committee Meeting. Agenda
4th Steering Committee Meeting. Agenda4th Steering Committee Meeting. Agenda
4th Steering Committee Meeting. Agenda
 
Country presentation, Armenia
Country presentation, ArmeniaCountry presentation, Armenia
Country presentation, Armenia
 
Country presentation, Azerbaijan
Country presentation, AzerbaijanCountry presentation, Azerbaijan
Country presentation, Azerbaijan
 
Country presentation, Belarus
Country presentation, BelarusCountry presentation, Belarus
Country presentation, Belarus
 
Country presentation, Georgia
Country presentation, GeorgiaCountry presentation, Georgia
Country presentation, Georgia
 
Country presentation, Moldova
Country presentation, MoldovaCountry presentation, Moldova
Country presentation, Moldova
 
Country presentation, Russia
Country presentation, RussiaCountry presentation, Russia
Country presentation, Russia
 
Progress and activities since previous SC meeting (October 2015) and performa...
Progress and activities since previous SC meeting (October 2015) and performa...Progress and activities since previous SC meeting (October 2015) and performa...
Progress and activities since previous SC meeting (October 2015) and performa...
 
Study on Country Implementation of the St. Petersburg Declaration
Study on Country Implementation of the St. Petersburg DeclarationStudy on Country Implementation of the St. Petersburg Declaration
Study on Country Implementation of the St. Petersburg Declaration
 
Country presentation, Ukraine
Country presentation, UkraineCountry presentation, Ukraine
Country presentation, Ukraine
 
Удосконалення системи контролю за рухом деревини в Україні та пропозиції змін...
Удосконалення системи контролю за рухом деревини в Україні та пропозиції змін...Удосконалення системи контролю за рухом деревини в Україні та пропозиції змін...
Удосконалення системи контролю за рухом деревини в Україні та пропозиції змін...
 
Региональный бюллетень (Осень 2015)
Региональный бюллетень (Осень 2015)Региональный бюллетень (Осень 2015)
Региональный бюллетень (Осень 2015)
 
Проект моделі реформування і розвитку мисливського господарства України
Проект моделі реформування і розвитку мисливського господарства УкраїниПроект моделі реформування і розвитку мисливського господарства України
Проект моделі реформування і розвитку мисливського господарства України
 
Regional newsletter (Autumn 2015)
Regional newsletter (Autumn 2015)Regional newsletter (Autumn 2015)
Regional newsletter (Autumn 2015)
 
Аналіз законодавчої бази і практики ведення мисливського господарства деяких ...
Аналіз законодавчої бази і практики ведення мисливського господарства деяких ...Аналіз законодавчої бази і практики ведення мисливського господарства деяких ...
Аналіз законодавчої бази і практики ведення мисливського господарства деяких ...
 
International experience in development of timber tracking systems
International experience in development of timber tracking systemsInternational experience in development of timber tracking systems
International experience in development of timber tracking systems
 
Analysis of legislation and practice of hunting in some EU countries
Analysis of legislation and practice of hunting in some EU countriesAnalysis of legislation and practice of hunting in some EU countries
Analysis of legislation and practice of hunting in some EU countries
 
Draft model of reformation and development of hunting sector in Ukraine
Draft model of reformation and development of hunting sector in UkraineDraft model of reformation and development of hunting sector in Ukraine
Draft model of reformation and development of hunting sector in Ukraine
 
Закордонний досвід налагодження систем контролю руху і стеження деревини
Закордонний досвід налагодження систем контролю руху і стеження деревиниЗакордонний досвід налагодження систем контролю руху і стеження деревини
Закордонний досвід налагодження систем контролю руху і стеження деревини
 
Пропозиції ключових законодавчих актів щодо охорони біорізноманіття в лісах а...
Пропозиції ключових законодавчих актів щодо охорони біорізноманіття в лісах а...Пропозиції ключових законодавчих актів щодо охорони біорізноманіття в лісах а...
Пропозиції ключових законодавчих актів щодо охорони біорізноманіття в лісах а...
 

Recently uploaded

Pathways to sustainable trade and system dynamic simulation
Pathways to sustainable trade and system dynamic simulationPathways to sustainable trade and system dynamic simulation
Pathways to sustainable trade and system dynamic simulationCIFOR-ICRAF
 
"Solid waste Fill Site Analysis: Proximities & Parameters"
"Solid waste Fill Site Analysis: Proximities & Parameters""Solid waste Fill Site Analysis: Proximities & Parameters"
"Solid waste Fill Site Analysis: Proximities & Parameters"KeerthireddyNussi
 
I MSc II Semester - Characteristics of a population.ppt
I MSc II Semester - Characteristics of a population.pptI MSc II Semester - Characteristics of a population.ppt
I MSc II Semester - Characteristics of a population.pptaigil2
 
Incentive Scheme for Smallholders
Incentive Scheme for Smallholders Incentive Scheme for Smallholders
Incentive Scheme for Smallholders CIFOR-ICRAF
 
EC-funded Projects and CAPs Webinar slides
EC-funded Projects and CAPs Webinar slidesEC-funded Projects and CAPs Webinar slides
EC-funded Projects and CAPs Webinar slidesweADAPT
 
Narrative Report on 3rd NNational Simultaneous Earthquake Drill2023.docx
Narrative Report on 3rd NNational Simultaneous Earthquake Drill2023.docxNarrative Report on 3rd NNational Simultaneous Earthquake Drill2023.docx
Narrative Report on 3rd NNational Simultaneous Earthquake Drill2023.docxJeneroseBaldoza
 
Item 2.b The transformative effects of the Paris Agreement
Item 2.b The transformative effects of the Paris AgreementItem 2.b The transformative effects of the Paris Agreement
Item 2.b The transformative effects of the Paris AgreementOECD Environment
 
The Dark Cloud of Global Air Pollution - Epcon
The Dark Cloud of Global Air Pollution - EpconThe Dark Cloud of Global Air Pollution - Epcon
The Dark Cloud of Global Air Pollution - EpconEpconLP
 
Green Horizons: Ecotourism Conference 2024 in Amsterdam
Green Horizons: Ecotourism Conference 2024 in AmsterdamGreen Horizons: Ecotourism Conference 2024 in Amsterdam
Green Horizons: Ecotourism Conference 2024 in AmsterdamDIGITALCONFEX
 
Green Giraffe Advisory: Offshore wind market today.pdf
Green Giraffe Advisory: Offshore wind market today.pdfGreen Giraffe Advisory: Offshore wind market today.pdf
Green Giraffe Advisory: Offshore wind market today.pdfOECD Environment
 
How Long Does It Take Jackfruit To Bear Fruit?
How Long Does It Take Jackfruit To Bear Fruit?How Long Does It Take Jackfruit To Bear Fruit?
How Long Does It Take Jackfruit To Bear Fruit?EvergladesFarm
 
Exploring the snake evolution (wild's gravity).pdf
Exploring the snake evolution (wild's gravity).pdfExploring the snake evolution (wild's gravity).pdf
Exploring the snake evolution (wild's gravity).pdfdrsk203
 
How do TOPCon Solar Cells/Solar Panel Work?
How do TOPCon Solar Cells/Solar Panel Work?How do TOPCon Solar Cells/Solar Panel Work?
How do TOPCon Solar Cells/Solar Panel Work?Bluebird Solar Pvt. Ltd.
 
PPT TLE 7 and 8 Q3 AGRI CROP QUIZ 2.pptx
PPT TLE 7 and 8  Q3 AGRI CROP QUIZ 2.pptxPPT TLE 7 and 8  Q3 AGRI CROP QUIZ 2.pptx
PPT TLE 7 and 8 Q3 AGRI CROP QUIZ 2.pptxCrislynBaados
 
PBL Endangered and Vulnerable Species- Presentation.pptx
PBL Endangered and Vulnerable Species- Presentation.pptxPBL Endangered and Vulnerable Species- Presentation.pptx
PBL Endangered and Vulnerable Species- Presentation.pptxjabernethy
 
Item 3. Developing EPOC’s PWB related to mitigation for 2025-26
Item 3. Developing EPOC’s PWB related to mitigation for 2025-26Item 3. Developing EPOC’s PWB related to mitigation for 2025-26
Item 3. Developing EPOC’s PWB related to mitigation for 2025-26OECD Environment
 
Monitoring songbirds' online market
Monitoring songbirds' online market Monitoring songbirds' online market
Monitoring songbirds' online market CIFOR-ICRAF
 
Purva Tranquillity best living place in East Bangalore
Purva Tranquillity best living place in East BangalorePurva Tranquillity best living place in East Bangalore
Purva Tranquillity best living place in East BangaloreNikki Harris
 
Item 2. a Update from the Secretariat
Item 2. a Update from the SecretariatItem 2. a Update from the Secretariat
Item 2. a Update from the SecretariatOECD Environment
 
Personal Protective Equipment OSHA Regulations
Personal Protective Equipment OSHA RegulationsPersonal Protective Equipment OSHA Regulations
Personal Protective Equipment OSHA RegulationsATI Construction Products
 

Recently uploaded (20)

Pathways to sustainable trade and system dynamic simulation
Pathways to sustainable trade and system dynamic simulationPathways to sustainable trade and system dynamic simulation
Pathways to sustainable trade and system dynamic simulation
 
"Solid waste Fill Site Analysis: Proximities & Parameters"
"Solid waste Fill Site Analysis: Proximities & Parameters""Solid waste Fill Site Analysis: Proximities & Parameters"
"Solid waste Fill Site Analysis: Proximities & Parameters"
 
I MSc II Semester - Characteristics of a population.ppt
I MSc II Semester - Characteristics of a population.pptI MSc II Semester - Characteristics of a population.ppt
I MSc II Semester - Characteristics of a population.ppt
 
Incentive Scheme for Smallholders
Incentive Scheme for Smallholders Incentive Scheme for Smallholders
Incentive Scheme for Smallholders
 
EC-funded Projects and CAPs Webinar slides
EC-funded Projects and CAPs Webinar slidesEC-funded Projects and CAPs Webinar slides
EC-funded Projects and CAPs Webinar slides
 
Narrative Report on 3rd NNational Simultaneous Earthquake Drill2023.docx
Narrative Report on 3rd NNational Simultaneous Earthquake Drill2023.docxNarrative Report on 3rd NNational Simultaneous Earthquake Drill2023.docx
Narrative Report on 3rd NNational Simultaneous Earthquake Drill2023.docx
 
Item 2.b The transformative effects of the Paris Agreement
Item 2.b The transformative effects of the Paris AgreementItem 2.b The transformative effects of the Paris Agreement
Item 2.b The transformative effects of the Paris Agreement
 
The Dark Cloud of Global Air Pollution - Epcon
The Dark Cloud of Global Air Pollution - EpconThe Dark Cloud of Global Air Pollution - Epcon
The Dark Cloud of Global Air Pollution - Epcon
 
Green Horizons: Ecotourism Conference 2024 in Amsterdam
Green Horizons: Ecotourism Conference 2024 in AmsterdamGreen Horizons: Ecotourism Conference 2024 in Amsterdam
Green Horizons: Ecotourism Conference 2024 in Amsterdam
 
Green Giraffe Advisory: Offshore wind market today.pdf
Green Giraffe Advisory: Offshore wind market today.pdfGreen Giraffe Advisory: Offshore wind market today.pdf
Green Giraffe Advisory: Offshore wind market today.pdf
 
How Long Does It Take Jackfruit To Bear Fruit?
How Long Does It Take Jackfruit To Bear Fruit?How Long Does It Take Jackfruit To Bear Fruit?
How Long Does It Take Jackfruit To Bear Fruit?
 
Exploring the snake evolution (wild's gravity).pdf
Exploring the snake evolution (wild's gravity).pdfExploring the snake evolution (wild's gravity).pdf
Exploring the snake evolution (wild's gravity).pdf
 
How do TOPCon Solar Cells/Solar Panel Work?
How do TOPCon Solar Cells/Solar Panel Work?How do TOPCon Solar Cells/Solar Panel Work?
How do TOPCon Solar Cells/Solar Panel Work?
 
PPT TLE 7 and 8 Q3 AGRI CROP QUIZ 2.pptx
PPT TLE 7 and 8  Q3 AGRI CROP QUIZ 2.pptxPPT TLE 7 and 8  Q3 AGRI CROP QUIZ 2.pptx
PPT TLE 7 and 8 Q3 AGRI CROP QUIZ 2.pptx
 
PBL Endangered and Vulnerable Species- Presentation.pptx
PBL Endangered and Vulnerable Species- Presentation.pptxPBL Endangered and Vulnerable Species- Presentation.pptx
PBL Endangered and Vulnerable Species- Presentation.pptx
 
Item 3. Developing EPOC’s PWB related to mitigation for 2025-26
Item 3. Developing EPOC’s PWB related to mitigation for 2025-26Item 3. Developing EPOC’s PWB related to mitigation for 2025-26
Item 3. Developing EPOC’s PWB related to mitigation for 2025-26
 
Monitoring songbirds' online market
Monitoring songbirds' online market Monitoring songbirds' online market
Monitoring songbirds' online market
 
Purva Tranquillity best living place in East Bangalore
Purva Tranquillity best living place in East BangalorePurva Tranquillity best living place in East Bangalore
Purva Tranquillity best living place in East Bangalore
 
Item 2. a Update from the Secretariat
Item 2. a Update from the SecretariatItem 2. a Update from the Secretariat
Item 2. a Update from the Secretariat
 
Personal Protective Equipment OSHA Regulations
Personal Protective Equipment OSHA RegulationsPersonal Protective Equipment OSHA Regulations
Personal Protective Equipment OSHA Regulations
 

Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova

  • 1. Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova July 2015 This publication has been produced with the assistance of the European Union. The content, findings, interpretations, and con clusions of this publication are the sole responsibility of the FLEG II (ENPI East) Programme Team (www.enpi-fleg.org) and can in no way be taken to reflect the views of the European Union. The views expressed do not necessarily reflect those of the Implementin g Organizations.
  • 2. Technical Report: Evaluation of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova Prepared by: Transilvania University of Brașov (TUB) Faculty of Silviculture and Forest Engineering The material in this publication is copyrighted. Any copying or transmitting portions of information without permission may be a violation of applicable law. The author encourages dissemination of this work and will normally grant permission to reproduce portions of this report. The interest and willingness of Moldovan forestry and environment protection sectors as well as other key stakeholders to actively engage in collaboration with the Transilvania University of Brașov team on a diverse range of topics is gratefully acknowledged. We render thanks to all stakeholders from forestry, water management, agriculture, and tourism sectors as well as to local public administrations and academia who actively participated in consultations undertaken by the TUB Team in predicting the evolution of variables for the two alternative scenarios, collecting data and applying the valuation techniques. Photos: Transilvania University of Brașov, ENPI FLEG Design: Transilvania University of Brașov & Amedia July 2015
  • 3. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 3 Content Introduction........................................................................................................................... 7 1. Snapshot on the forestry sector of Moldova ................................................................... 7 1.1. Forestry sector........................................................................................................ 7 1.2. Economic Impact of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) ........................................ 12 2. Qualitative assessment of FES ....................................................................................... 13 2.1. Conceptual framework.............................................................................................. 13 2.2. Ecosystem services (ES) identification ..................................................................... 15 2.3. Brief description of ES that Moldovan forests provide............................................... 16 3. Benefits of FES to local communities .............................................................................. 22 3.1. Wood and NTFPs for rural communities ................................................................... 22 3.2. Carbon sequestration benefit as a FES ................................................................... 29 3.3. Landslides and floods prevention.............................................................................. 30 3.4. Cultural and recreational benefits for local communities from forest ......................... 31 4. Methodological aspects................................................................................................... 33 4.1. Sector Scenario Assessment (SSA) ......................................................................... 33 4.2. Targeted sectors and evidence of economic FES benefits ....................................... 37 4.3. Management scenarios design................................................................................. 39 5. BAU and SEM scenarios description............................................................................... 41 51. Business as Usual (BAU) .......................................................................................... 42 5.2. Sustainable Ecosystem Management (SEM)............................................................ 42 5.3. Sectoral description of BAU and SEM scenario ........................................................ 43 5.3.1. Tourism.............................................................................................................. 43 5.3.2. Forestry.............................................................................................................. 45 5.3.3. Agriculture.......................................................................................................... 47 5.3.4. Water management sector ................................................................................. 49 5.3.5. Disaster risk reduction........................................................................................ 50 6. Monetary valuation of FES.............................................................................................. 51 6.1. Tourism .................................................................................................................... 51 6.1.1. Baseline value.................................................................................................... 51 6.1.2. FES value for tourism sector in BAU and SEM scenarios................................... 53 6.2. Agriculture ................................................................................................................ 56 6.2.1. Baseline value.................................................................................................... 56 6.2.2. FES value for agriculture sector in BAU and SEM scenarios.............................. 59 6.3. Forestry .................................................................................................................... 62 6.3.1. Baseline value.................................................................................................... 62 6.3.2. FES value for forestry sector in BAU and SEM scenarios .................................. 63 6.4. Domestic water supply sector................................................................................... 66 6.4.1. Baseline value.................................................................................................... 66 6.4.2. FES value for domestic water supply sector in BAU and SEM scenarios ........... 68 6.5. Natural disaster risk and climate change mitigation .................................................. 70 6.5.1. Baseline value.................................................................................................... 70 6.5.2. FES value for domestic water supply sector in BAU and SEM scenarios ........... 71 7. Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) mechanisms................................................... 74 8. Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 77 9. Recommendations .......................................................................................................... 78 References ......................................................................................................................... 81
  • 4. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 4 List of figures Figure 1: National Forest (NF) of the Republic of Moldova.................................................... 8 Figure 2: Species distribution in the Moldovan NF ................................................................ 9 Figure 3: People usually collect walnuts from trees and use them mainly for food or cashing on local markets.................................................................................................................. 17 Figure 4: Logs and branches gathered at felling site are meant primarily as fuelwood (Forest Enterprise Straseni, Moldsilva)............................................................................................ 18 Figure 5: Lake Beleu, the core area of the Nature Reserve “Prutul de Jos” (Moldsilva), is home to a great biodiversity and provider of fish and water to local communities................ 18 Figure 6: Moldova is not a mushroom country, but many people collect them for personal use...................................................................................................................................... 19 Figure 7: Income shares by source for the three sample villages ........................................ 24 Figure 8: Frequency of forest product collection in the three sample villages ...................... 25 Figure 9: Value share of forest products collection in the three sample villages .................. 25 Figure 10: Value for cash/subsistence for main forest products .......................................... 26 Figure 11: RFI over income quintiles – centralized results for the three sample villages ..... 27 Figure 12: Chopped wood of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) sold as energy wood, placed on a road market along with other stuff for construction (Chisinau city, 2014) ......... 28 Figure 13: Oak plantation created within carbon sequestration projects by Moldsilva.......... 30 Figure 14: The National Park Orhei – Curchi church and forest landscapes are important objectives of the touristic trail (http://www.cuvintul.md/article/2093/) .................................. 33 Figure 15: Overview on the SSA approach (Flores, 2012) .................................................. 34 Figure 16: Forest cover (%) in the Republic of Moldova ...................................................... 50 Figure 17: Relationship between forest cover (%) and water treatment cost (Ernst, 2004).. 50 Figure 18: Tourism sector FES values in BAU scenario ($/years) ....................................... 54 Figure 19: Tourism sector FES values in SEM scenario ($/years)....................................... 54 Figure 20: Eco-tourism FES value under BAU and SEM over 25 years ($) ......................... 55 Figure 21: Cumulative FES value of SEM over BAU in tourism sector ($ million) ................ 56 Figure 22: C factor (Corine land cover) – vegetation coverage............................................ 57 Figure 23: Soil erosion estimation at country level using Terente (2008) formula................ 58 Figure 24: Agriculture sector FES values in BAU scenario ($/years)................................... 60 Figure 25: Agriculture sector FES values in SEM scenario ($/years)................................... 60 Figure 26: Agriculture FES value under BAU and SEM over 25 years ($) ........................... 61 Figure 27: Cumulative FES value of SEM over BAU in agriculture sector ($ millions) ......... 61 Figure 28: Forestry sector FES values in BAU scenario ($/years)....................................... 64 Figure 29: Forestry sector FES values in SEM scenario ($/years)....................................... 64 Figure 30: Forestry FES value under BAU and SEM over 25 years ($) ............................... 65 Figure 31: Forestry FES value under BAU and SEM over 30 years ($)............................... 65 Figure 32: Relationship between forest coverage (%) and water treatment and distribution cost ($/1000 cubic meters) at rayon level (based on Ernst, 2004) ....................................... 66 Figure 33: Domestic water supply FES value under BAU and SEM over 25 years ($)......... 68 Figure 34: Water supply sector FES values in BAU scenario ($/years) ............................... 69 Figure 35: Water supply sector FES values in SEM scenario ($/years)............................... 69 Figure 36: Cumulative FES value of SEM over BAU in water supply sector ($ million)........ 70 Figure 37: Disaster risk FES value under BAU and SEM over 25 years ($)......................... 72 Figure 38: Carbon sequestration FES value under BAU and SEM over 25 years ($) .......... 73 Figure 39: FES beneficiaries in Tourism sector (cumulated values for 2014-2038, mill $)... 75 Figure 40: FES beneficiaries in domestic water supply sector (cumulated values for 2014- 2038, mill $) ........................................................................................................................ 75
  • 5. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 5 List of tables Table 1: Potential Forest Ecosystems Services(FES) and links to productive sectors......... 14 Table 2: Results of the qualitative assessment of ES provided by forests ........................... 15 Table 3: Overview of how sectors benefit from FES and management challenges.............. 35 Table 4: Overview on how sectors benefit from ES ............................................................. 38 Table 5: Indicators and valuation techniques ...................................................................... 40 Table 6: Comparing BAU and SEM – potential indicators ................................................... 40 Table 7: Key features for BAU and SEM scenarios for tourism sector................................. 44 Table 8: Key features for BAU and SEM scenarios for forestry ........................................... 46 Table 9: Key features for BAU and SEM scenarios for agriculture....................................... 48 Table 10: Baseline for FES – Tourism ($, 2014).................................................................. 53 Table 11: Baseline for FES – Agriculture ($, 2014) ............................................................. 59 Table 12: Baseline for FES – Forestry ($, 2014) ................................................................. 63 Table 13: Baseline for FES – Domestic water supply ($, 2014)........................................... 67 Table 14: Baseline for FES – Natural disasters ($, 2014).................................................... 71 Table 15: Baseline for FES – CO2 sequestration ($, 2014)................................................. 71 Table 16: Summary of FES valuation in SEM and BAU scenarios ...................................... 74 Table 17: Summary description of possible PES mechanisms for tourism and water supply sectors ................................................................................................................................ 76 Abbreviations and acronyms AAC Annual Allowable Cut BAU Business as Usual CIFOR Centre for International Forest Research CBD Biodiversity Conservation Convention ENPI FLEG European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument Forest Law Enforcement and Governance ES Ecosystem Services ESA Ecosystem Services Approach EU European Union FE Forest Ecosystems FES Forest Ecosystem Services FMP Forest Management Plan GDP Gross Domestic Product GHG Green House Gases IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature LPA Local Public Administration LULUCF Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry MDL Moldavian currency MP Protected Area Management Plan NBSAP National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan NEF National Ecological Fund NF National Forest NGO Non-Governmental Organization NPV Net Present Value NTB Nature Based Tourism
  • 6. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 6 NTFP Non timber forest products PA Protected Area PEN Poverty Environment Network PES Payment for Ecosystem Services PV Present Value RFI Relative forest income SEM Sustainable Ecosystem Management SRF Short Rotation Forestry SSA Sector Scenario Analysis TUB Transilvania University of Brașov UNDP United Nations Development Programme VAT Value Added Tax WTP Willingness to Pay $ United States Dollar
  • 7. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 7 Introduction This report, prepared by the Transilvania University of Brasov, offers an analysis of the Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) in the Republic of Moldova. The study is based on existing information and data of Moldovan economy sectors relevant to forests, findings from meetings and discussion with Moldovan institutions responsible for forestry, results of background studies undertaken during the implementation of both phases of the ENPI FLEG Program, and materials from other projects and initiatives in the Republic of Moldova. This work includes also FES approach and experience of other countries. The report identifies and describes the main FES that are beneficial to Moldovan people. It offers facts and conclusions regarding the relationship between local communities and FES. The economic, social and environmental benefits are presented based on both data collected during the surveys done in the communities and data offered by different institutions and other sources (statistics, research etc.) in the country. Then, all gathered data and information were reviewed by the team of Transilvania University of Brașov (TUB). The focus of the study is put on rural communities (54% of Moldova’s population is concentrated in rural areas) having an intimate relationship with the forest ecosystems. The study focused on several important economic sectors in the country that have cross- sectional linkages with forests, such as agriculture, water management, tourism, fishing, natural disaster risk and climate change mitigation. The sector approach is an important methodological aspect of the research as it aimed at processing and presenting information that are quantifiable and relevant for specific decision makers in each studied sector. Some sectors, such as forestry, are benefiting from the provisioning services that forest ecosystems deliver. However, the majority of them – agriculture, water management, tourism – are benefiting from the regulatory and support services, far more difficult to quantify. Disaster prevention (including attenuation and mitigation of climate change) can be considered a special case: even if it is not exactly an economic sector, it is significantly benefiting from FESs. 1.Snapshot on the forestry sector of Moldova 1.1. Forestry sector Moldova has relatively low cover of forest vegetation (circa 450000 ha or 13,7% of country’s territory), while forest cover is only 11% or 379300 ha1 . This is significantly lower than the European average (45%), but comparable with other European Countries (UK - 12%, Denmark -13%). Forests tend to occur in hilly areas with the majority of forests located in the central part of Moldova, with slightly less forests in the north and even fewer in the south (see Figure 1). The forests are mainly broadleaved (oak, ash, hornbeam, black locust and poplar being the most significant species, see Figure 2). 1 According to some estimations, the true forest ecosystems cover circa 7-8%, the rest being plantations (circa 6-7%), mainly of acacias.
  • 8. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 8 Figure 1: National Forest (NF) of the Republic of Moldova The National Forest (NF) of Moldova is composed of forests, lands meant for afforestation and other land designated as forest by the existing legal and normative frame2 . The NF is the main strategic forest resource of the country; it includes most of existing forest vegetation (circa 800 forest bodies ranging from 5 to 1500 ha) and some insignificant forest vegetation outside the NF (mainly represented by shelterbelts or spontaneous forest vegetation). Generally, forests are distributed non-uniformly and are highly fragmented. Oak-type forests have historically been the most representative in the country and nowadays only 27% of oak stands are regenerated from seeds (generative origin), while the rest regenerated vegetatively as a result of former coppice management. According to the National General Cadastre Registry6 , 81.1% of the NF is owned by the state (through Agency Moldsilva and its forest units), 18.3% by Local Public Authorities (LPAs), circa 4% are properties of other state institutions (e.g. Botanical Garden, Central 2 Also, according to the Agency for Land Relations and Cadaster of the Republic of Moldova, subordinated directly to the Government.
  • 9. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 9 Authority for Waters), and private ownership is low and represents circa 0.6% now (but it is likely to grow after afforestation and forest expansion campaign). Figure 2: Species distribution in the Moldovan NF 3 According to the Forest Code (1996), the main function of forests is the protection of environment and, thus, all forests are considered primarily to have protective functions and, then, production functions. There are five protection subcategories: water protection (1.6%), soil and land protection (7.9%), climatic and industrial damaging factors protection (47.4%), recreational (26.4%) and scientific interest or genetic resources protection (16.7%)4 . Agency Moldsilva (www.moldsilva.gov.md) is the central public authority in the country with responsibilities for implementing state policy in forestry and hunting. Moldsilva also has both management as well as regulatory and administrative functions. Moldsilva manages most of the NF (circa 85%), being essentially a self-financing institution since 1998, it does almost not receive support from the state budget and it is not subject to state subventions. Moldsilva had revenues and expenditures in 2013 of $20.46 and $21.51 million respectively. The forest sector’s direct economic contribution is relatively small at just 0.27% to GDP in 2010. Additionally, the forests provide critical habitats for biodiversity5 and other essential environmental benefits such as soil protection, water regulation and carbon sequestration. Most sector analyses highlight the underused potential of the forestry sector. In particular this refers to (a) carbon sequestration valued at $460000 in 2011, (b) ecotourism, which is valued at $7.9 million6 per annum and employing circa 1400 persons7 , 3 Mitchell A., Capcelea A., Rinnerberger N., Phillips H., Popa B. & Lozan A. (2014): Republic of Moldova – Forest Policy Note. The World Bank. – Ch.: Ştiinţa, 2015 (Combinatul Poligrafic). – 68 p. 4 Botnari F., Galupa D., Platon I. et al. (2011): State of the Forestry of the Republic of Moldova 2006- 2010. Agency Moldsilva. Chisinau. – 60 pp. (Report prepared under the ENPI FLEG Program). 5 According to NBSAP, forests provide shelter and indispensable habitats for circa 80% of Moldova’s biodiversity. 6 Popa B. (2013): The Economic Value of Ecosystem Services in Republic of Moldova. GEF/UNDP- GEF project National Biodiversity Planning to Support the implementation of the CBD 2011-2020 Strategic Plan in Republic of Moldova, Chisinau. 7 WTTC (2013): Travel and Tourism Impact 2013: Moldova. World Travel & Tourism Council, London.
  • 10. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 10 (c) watershed management reducing soil erosion and water costs valued at an net present value of $27.8 million over 25 years, (d) flood disaster mitigation valued at $19.7 million, (e) wood energy, which could be worth circa $2.25 million annually (5000 ha, yields of 15m3 per ha annually and current fuelwood prices), and also its contribution to emission reductions targets. The challenges to increasing the economic contribution of the forestry sector include (a) institutional centralized system, (b) poor management (e.g. coppice management in the past) at all property level, namely of the LPA forests, (c) unsustainable levels of forest use8 , and (d) the scale of illegal forest activities9 . Forests managed by Moldsilva have up to date forest management plans (FMPs), while most of LPA forests do not have such. Moldsilva has capacity and staff to manage their forests, whereas LPAs are hampered by lack of trained staff and available resources. Consequently, a more disproportionate and unregulated harvesting occurs in LPA forests. In the absence of FMPs and arrangements for their active management and protection, LPA forests will continue to degrade and be over-exploited. The state forest policy is promoted through a legal frame that includes the Constitution of the Republic of Moldova, circa 20 laws, a number of regulatory acts approved by the Government, and other regulatory documents that are approved on sectoral level. The main policy document in the country is the “Strategy for the sustainable development of the forestry sector of the Republic of Moldova” (approved by Parliament Decision no. 350/2001). In 2003, the Government issued a law on the implementation of the Strategy for the sustainable development of the forestry sector of the Republic of Moldova (no. 739/2003), which was abrogated in 2012 by the Government along with other policy documents (through Governmental Decision no. 796/2012). Existing legal frame encourages the expansion of areas covered with forest vegetation through afforestation of degraded and affected by sliding lands, creation of protection shelterbelts for water, rivers and other water bodies. Specific requirements are implementing the state policy through a technical regulatory framework. The forest normative framework is more or less applied in Moldsilva’s forests, but less or almost not applied over forestlands outside Moldsilva (such as community or LPAs, private and other types of forest vegetation).According to recent analyses10 , Moldovan forests are likely to be significantly impacted by climate change. Researchers expect that even small changes in temperature and precipitation could greatly affect future forest growth and survival. Within the 2010-2039 period, the phytosanitary conditions will change significantly in the north of the country where it is expected that areas susceptible to die back (trees drying out) will expand by circa 15-25%. By 2040-2069, conditions will deteriorate further extending southwards. Building stable, diversified forests 8 ENPI FLEG (2011): Pădurile Moldovei – Recoltarea și consumul lemnului. Chișinău. 9 Galupa D., Ciobanu A., Scobioală M., Stângaci V., Lozan A. (2011): Tăierile ilicite ale vegetaţiei forestiere în Republica Moldova: Studiu analitic. Chișinău, Agenţia Moldsilva, – 38 p. (Anul Internaţional al Pădurilor – 2011). Raport pregătit în cadrul Programului ENPI FLEG. 10 Mitchell A., Capcelea A., Rinnerberger N., Phillips H., Popa B. & Lozan A. (2014): Republic of Moldova – Forest Policy Note. The World Bank. – Ch.: Ştiinţa, 2015 (Combinatul Poligrafic). – 68 p.
  • 11. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 11 adapted to climate change presents a significant challenge and will require ongoing measures including research on species selection, adaptive provenances and genotypes. Soil degradation in the wider landscape has increased due to unsustainable agricultural practices and/or poor management of waters and the degradation of forest belts. The agricultural sector is crucial for Moldova, both as an important part of the economy and as a source of rural employment. Moldova has unique agricultural land resources, characterized by productive soils, a high utilization rate (>75%) and rugged topography. Many of Moldova’s pastures are either degraded or in poor condition, with 47% of agricultural land classified as degraded. A new program for conservation and increasing the soil fertility for 2011 – 2020 has been approved. The National Plan on extending forest vegetation for 2014 – 2018 envisages the afforestation of 13000 ha of degraded lands and water protection forest belts with funding from the National Ecological Fund and other donors. The total growing stock is estimated at 46 million m3 representing an average of 124 m3 /stocked ha. The average age of the forest is 40 years, but the age class distribution is uneven11 being skewed towards the younger age classes as a result of previous management / exploitation practices and the fact that more than 2/3 of stands are of coppice origin. Total annual increment is estimated at 1252000 m3 (or 3.3 m3 /stocked ha). In addition, the annual increment of the forest outside the NF is estimated at 110000 m3 . The annual allowable cut (AAC) in the forests administrated by Moldsilva is approximately 45% of the annual increment compared with a European average of 64% for 201011 . The officially reported annually harvested volumes are in line with the AAC. Between 2006 and 2010 timber represented an average of only 10.3% of harvested wood volume, the balance being firewood12 . This timber was mainly processed by the state enterprises under the umbrella of Moldsilva. Between 2006 and 2010 Moldsilva processed 28000 m3 annually or 7% of the total harvested wood volume with the balance processed by private entities outside Moldsilva. As a parallel process to the implementation of Moldovan forestry policy, the ENPI FLEG Program (www.enpi-fleg.org) in Moldova focused on building capacities for forest institutions and strengthening sustainable forest management practices. Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are generally defined as any biological resources found in woodlands except timber. Harvesting of NTFPs (fruits, berries, herbs etc.) is an important activity undertaken by entities subordinated to Agency Moldsilva. Volumes of NTFPs harvested vary depending on environmental factors and market requirements. While harvesting and marketing of NTFPs have certain potential for expansion and an increased level of added value, it will require further market research and investments in technology as well as development of more efficient supply chains and improvement of the skills of personnel involved. An important and as yet untapped potential of the forests in Moldova is their recreation function. In the absence of attractive tourist places, the increasing tendency and 11 State of Europe's Forests (2011): Report jointly prepared by FOREST EUROPE Liaison Unit Oslo, the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 12 Botnari F., Galupa D., Platon I. et al. (2011): State of the Forestry of the Republic of Moldova 2006- 2010. Agency Moldsilva. Chisinau. – 60 pp. Report prepared under the ENPI FLEG Program
  • 12. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 12 demand of the population is to spend their leisure time in forest areas, usually during holiday people go to the forests for picnics. The potential of ecotourism market is estimated at $7.9 million per year (direct and indirect expenditures, including $2.4 million public investment, $1.4 million capital investment in excess as well as 1400 full time equivalent jobs13 ). The better the forest ecosystems are managed, the bigger the increase in number of visitors is and the bigger the contribution to local economy can be. This untapped value of the forest could be considered as a starting point for future payment mechanisms for ecosystem services. This will also help protect forests from visitors dumping their refuse, especially during holiday periods. 1.2. Economic Impact of Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) Recent studies, triggered by the process of National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) elaboration, made estimations of the monetary value of the forest ecosystems14 . The studies were based on comparing two scenarios: (a) Business as Usual (BAU) meaning the continuation of current practices – wood harvesting continuing to support wood consumption at present levels, with high incidence of illegal logging and under potential use of NTFPs, while forest ecosystems are likely to degrade and have a decreasing regulatory capacity in terms of water nutrient and soil erosion; (b) Sustainable Ecosystem Management (SEM) meaning a lower emphasis on wood production and more exploitation of the NTFPs at a higher sustainable level, while the illegal logging is significantly decreased due to a better institutional, legal and technical framework. However, this is not entirely feasible unless there are alternative energy supplies for the rural population, e.g. short rotation forestry (SRF) crops, energy plantations, or increased afforestation. Based on our research, the value of forest ecosystems services (wood, NTFP, etc.) is estimated at $28.3 million per year. Under BAU scenario, forestry activities may add some $0.6 million over the next 25 years to Moldova’s economy14 . However, this revenue will disappear after 27 years as the capacity of ecosystems to generate economically valuable wood and NTFP is eroded. This ignores the considerable losses in other forest ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, water and soil erosion regulation, landscape provision and tourism. SEM implies a decrease in wood/timber and NTFP values in the short term, but will display a significant change in terms of illegal logging reduction, as well as increase in scientific forests area. Nevertheless, in the long run, the value of FESs under the SEM scenario will recover and, thus, generate a higher net present value (NPV) beyond a 25 year horizon. In addition, other ES generated/maintained by sustainable forestry (e.g. carbon sequestration, water and soil erosion regulation, landscape) will be ensured. As the main users of the forest ecosystem services are local communities, the values described above represent net socio-economic benefits. 13 WTTC (2013): Travel and Tourism Impact 2013: Moldova. World Travel & Tourism Council, London 14 Popa B. (2013): The Economic Value of Ecosystem Services in Republic of Moldova. GEF/UNDP- GEF project National Biodiversity Planning to Support the implementation of the CBD 2011-2020 Strategic Plan in Republic of Moldova, Chisinau.
  • 13. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 13 2. Qualitative assessment of FES 2.1. Conceptual framework The conceptual framework is grounded in the Ecosystem Services Approach (ESA). An ecosystem (e.g. forest, wetland, marine area) is a natural unit of living component (animals, plants and microorganisms) and their physical environment, or non-living component (soil, rocks). Ecosystems services (ES) relate to a flow of resources or services from the natural environment that directly or indirectly benefit people. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA 2005) presents a framework to assist in the identification of ES, classifying them into the following four categories: Provisioning services relate to the tangible products, such as timber/wood, non- timber forest products (NTFPs), and fish and pharmaceuticals products provided by ecosystems; Regulating services refer to ecosystem natural processes, such as carbon sequestration and water regulation that contribute to social wellbeing; Cultural services relate to the non-material benefits obtained from ecosystems, for example, through tourism and educational use or aesthetic experiences; and, Supporting services are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services (e.g. soil formation, nutrient cycling, photosynthesis, primary production etc.). They differ from the other services as their impacts on people are either indirect (via provisioning, regulating or cultural services) or occur over a very long time. The Ecosystem Services Approach (ESA) explicitly recognizes that ecosystems (e.g. forests, wetlands) and the biological diversity contained within them contribute to individual and social wellbeing. Importantly, it recognizes that this contribution extends beyond the direct provision of goods, such as timber and fish, and the natural regulating functions, such as carbon sequestration. The ESA therefore provides a framework for considering whole ecosystems in decision making and for valuing the services they provide. It is important to note that in order to avoid double counting, economic valuation was focused on the ‘final benefits’ or ‘outcomes’ realized by society from the services an ecosystem provides, and not on the services and functions that contribute to those outcomes. The benefits generated by supporting services, while fundamental to the provision of final benefits, are not valued independently as they are intermediate benefits which contribute to the provision of a range of final benefits. Their value is captured in the valuation of the final outcomes associated with the services they support. Supporting services include soil formation and retention, primary production and habitat provision. Health is also not explicitly listed as an ecosystem service as health benefits are considered to be provided by a range of services, such as fish, flood protection benefits and a clean environment for recreation. The health cost associated with a decline in these services may be used to measure the benefits provided by an ecosystem. Biodiversity as a regulator of underpinning ecosystem processes is also considered to be cross cutting, the final benefits of which could be associated with a range of services. An exception is biodiversity non-use which is listed as a separate service.
  • 14. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 14 The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA, 2005) emphasizes that ecosystems provide critical ES that support human prosperity and survival though clean water, flood and storm mitigation, fish stock replenishment, and carbon sequestration. Conceptually, healthy and bio-diverse ecosystems generate greater amounts, higher quality, and more stable flows of ES over time. It is therefore critical that countries establish protected area (PA) systems to protect viable populations of diverse species and representative ecosystem samples. The system level approach aims to broaden PAs from a set of scattered sites that protect few species to a system that provides viable support to biodiversity and ecosystems at the national or regional level (Flores in Bovarnick et al, 2010), thus further enhancing the provision of vital ES. Table 1 provides a typology of ecosystems services that may be associated with forest ecosystems. The table notes which sectors of the economy may benefit from the provision of forest ecosystem services. Table 1: Potential Forest Ecosystems Services (FES) and links to productive sectors 15 ES Type Service Benefit / outcome Sectors supported by ecosystem service ProvisioningServices Food Wild meats, fruits, freshwater fish and seafood harvested for commercial and subsistence purposes. Households Fishery, Tourism, Agriculture Wood Timber, fuel wood and fibre Households, Industry Water Public water supply, water for industrial and agricultural usage Agriculture, Industry, Tourism Natural medicines Natural medicines Household Biochemicals Biochemicals and genetics Agriculture, medicine/healthcare Ornamental resources Ornamental resources Industry Source of energy (fuel etc.) Energy provision (e.g., hydropower) Energy RegulatingServices Regulation of GHGs Carbon sequestration Potentially all Micro-climate stabilization Air quality Potentially all Water regulation (storage and retention) Flood and storm protection Tourism, Industry, Households, Agriculture Waste processing Detoxification of water and sediment / waste Tourism, Industry, Households, Agriculture Nutrient retention Improved water quality Fisheries, Agriculture CulturalServices Spiritual, religious, cultural heritage Use of environment in books, film, painting, folklore, national symbols, architecture, advertising Tourism, Households Educational A ‘natural field laboratory’ for understanding biological processes Households Recreation and ecotourism Bird watching, hiking, canoeing, Tourism Landscape and amenity Property price premiums due to views Tourism, Households Biodiversity non-use Enhanced wellbeing associated for example with bequest or altruistic motivations Potentially all 15 Popa B. (2013): The Economic Value of Ecosystem Services in Republic of Moldova. GEF/UNDP- GEF project National Biodiversity Planning to Support the implementation of the CBD 2011-2020 Strategic Plan in Republic of Moldova, Chisinau.
  • 15. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 15 2.2. Ecosystem services (ES) identification Based on the list of ES associated to forest ecosystems of Moldova, a qualitative assessment was made to see what are the FES, what are the benefits from FES, what are the economic sectors supported by the ecosystem services and what are the sectors influencing the provision of ecosystem services. Data were collected from various sources, including partially through interviews and discussions with stakeholders or their representatives - Ministry of Environment, Agency Moldsilva, Moldovan State University, Forest Research and Management Institute, Institute of Geography and Ecology, Institute of Botany, forest and forest-hunting enterprises, PA management units, NGOs (Biodiversity Office, Ecological Movement of Moldova, Ecological Society Biotica) and other experts. Data were also collected from various available studies. The results are summarized in the table below (Table 2). Table 2: Results of the qualitative assessment of ES provided by forests ES Type Service Benefit / outcome Significa nce Sectors supported by ecosystem service Sectors impacting / influencing the provision of ecosystem service ProvisioningServices Food Commercial and subsistence crops; breeding products * Households Fishery, Tourism, Agriculture Households, Fishery, Agriculture, Industry Wood Fuel wood, timber, traditional wood products, commercial processed wood products ** Households, Forestry, Wood processing industry Forest administration, households, wood processing industry, Forestry Water Public water supply, mineral waters for commercial use, water for industrial and agricultural usage * Industry, households, tourism Agriculture, Industry, Forestry NTFPs Natural medicines, forest fruits, forest fruits based products ** Forest administrators, households, industry Forest administration, Households, Industry, Forestry Source of energy (fuel etc.) Energy provision e.g., hydropower - Energy Forestry, Breeding RegulatingServices Regulation of GHGs Carbon sequestration ** Potentially all Potentially all Micro- climate stabilization Air quality ** Potentially all Industry, Forestry Water regulation (storage and retention) Flood and landslide prevention ** Tourism, Industry, Households/ Urban Settlement, agriculture Forestry, Agriculture, Breeding
  • 16. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 16 Soil erosion regulation Improved water quality , * Households, Urban settles Forestry, Agriculture, Breeding Nutrient retention Improved water quality * Fisheries, Agriculture, water supply Forestry, Agriculture, Breeding CulturalServices Spiritual, religious, cultural heritage Local traditions, Churches and monasteries, use of environment in books, painting, folklore, national symbols, architecture, advertising ** Tourism, Households Potentially all Educational A ‘natural field laboratory’ for understanding biological processes ? Households Potentially all Recreation and ecotourism Recreational fishing and hunting, birdwatching, hiking, Holiday destination (aesthetic views) ** Tourism Potentially all Landscape and amenity Property price premiums due to views ? Tourism Potentially all Biodiversity non-use Enhanced wellbeing associated for example with bequest or altruistic motivations ? Potentially all Potentially all Code: ** service important, * service provided, - service not relevant, ? uncertain of provision 2.3. Brief description of ES that Moldovan forests provide Provisioning Services Food – Though forests of Moldova are providing small amount of food subsistence products (due to the an overwhelming share of agriculture in rural activities), there is an old tradition to plant fruit trees that normally lead to establishing plantations of certain species, which can be used as food and/or market products. The walnut tree (Juglans regia) is a typical example16 . There are walnut plantations within the state forest enterprises under Moldsilva, but the trend in the country is in favour of the many privates (individuals or companies) that have recently created many walnut plantations based on local or introduced varieties. Usually, companies are purchasing walnut fruits that are mostly exported, also consumed domestically by local population or marketed. The main feature of Moldovan landscapes is easily recognizable by the walnut tree belts along the roads that are used by population for free (see Figure 3). Republic of Moldova, one of the largest European walnuts exporters, provides walnuts to more than 25 countries across the world. 16 Walnut plantations seem to be expanding and by 2020 will likely reach at least 14000 ha.
  • 17. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 17 Figure 3: People usually collect walnuts from trees and use them mainly for food or cashing on local markets Wood – There is wood consumed/used from domestic sources, imported wood/timber (e.g. Ukraine, Russia, and Belarus) used mainly for construction, and wood/timber in transition. Data collected from local stakeholders (Agency Moldsilva, State Ecological Inspectorate) and from independent reports (World Bank, ENPI FLEG program) show that the main source of wood for local population in Moldova is the Moldovan Forest (see Figure 4). Though there is a small amount of timber (industrial wood) reported by official sources, the largest portion of domestically harvested wood is used for primary energy (heating and cooking); however, the timber wood, especially that of hard essence (oak, ash, hornbeam etc.), is still an important forest product (for maintaining agricultural plantations, construction, manufacture, and other household needs). According to official statistics, timber is estimated at 7 to 10% of the total annually harvested wood. Recent studies on the real level of domestic wood harvesting in Moldova17 rise questions on the quality of wood estimations. In any case, timber is a scarce product in Moldova and, therefore, important from the perspective of the ecosystem services provision. 17 ENPI FLEG (2011): Moldovan Forests – Wood Harvesting and Consumption. Chisinau.
  • 18. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 18 Figure 4: Logs and branches gathered at felling site are meant primarily as fuelwood (Forest Enterprise Straseni, Moldsilva) Water – Forests of Moldova are not literally a large water provisioner, but are rather known as leisure areas for their curative springs. Water provisioning can be explain by the fact that due to geomorphological conditions, most of forest bodies contain water springs that are traditionally perceived as clean and pure. The forests are not, of course, a direct water provisioner, but its role in water regulation (see below) is ascertained and can also be modelled (see Figure 5). Many local communities are using natural phreatic water, which originates in forested hilly areas, as a source of drinking water, irrigation water within households as well as for sanitation. Water has now become a major issue in the country, especially in the dry seasons and during drought periods, which occur more frequently. Figure 5: Lake Beleu, the core area of the Nature Reserve “Prutul de Jos” (Moldsilva), is home to a great biodiversity and provider of fish and water to local communities.
  • 19. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 19 NTFPs – such forest goods as fruits/berries, mushrooms or plants/flowers as well as forest soil are largely used by population for various household needs (see Figure 6). The forest dependency of the rural population is rather low compared with other countries that have larger forest resources, but this dependency is more sensitive to external factors. Legal frame allows NTFPs to be harvested/collected by rural population for personal consumption, so often locals are collecting NTFPs (such as mushrooms, berries, spring flowers/plants) and sell them either on roads or street markets. State forest units of Moldsilva are organizing NTFPs collection against money, attracting local population in collecting fruits (e.g. dog rose), tree flowers (e.g. lime tree) and other medicinal plants. Fruits and flowers are collected in certain periods of the year by poorer families to be able to complete the cash needs for their families. Game/hunting activities and products are also included in this category. Provisioning services originated from hunting activities don’t have significant value but there is an increased interest for this kind of activities. According to Hunters and Fisherman’s Society of Moldova, there are 15000 authorized hunters in the country, this meaning that the interest and demand for hinting activities is significantly bigger than the actual game resource of the country. Figure 6: Moldova is not a mushroom country, but many people collect them for personal use Energy wood (fuelwood) – the most important energy/fuel source for heating and cooking in rural areas of Moldova is the firewood. The annual allowable cut (AAC) and the officially recorded actual harvest is around 400000 - 500000 m3 /per year. This equates to circa 45% of the annual increment (EU average is 64%). Moldsilva, the main supplier of energetic biomass, undertakes the majority of its own harvesting and operates a centrally approved price list. However, an ENPI FLEG analysis18 estimated in 2010 a consumption of domestic fuelwood around 1 million m3 /year19 . This consumption figure almost matches the total annual increment - which accounts for circa 1,2 million m3 /year20 . Another ENPI FLEG 18 ENPI FLEG (2011): Moldovan Forests – Wood Harvesting and Consumption. Chisinau. 19 The annual consumption of both fuelwood and timber (partially as fuel) was estimated at circa 1,4 million m 3 , nearly 2 times the official harvest in the country. 20 According to data form Agency Moldsilva (www.moldsilva.gov.md).
  • 20. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 20 study21 revealed a small amount of recorded illegal logging, but it uncovered a trend in illegal logging activities occurring mainly in forest vegetation outside Moldsilva. The gross value of this unofficial harvest is conservatively estimated as being $15-17 million per year. While there can be a number of contributory factors to the imbalance between estimated consumption and official wood supply, the scale of such imbalance indicates significant volumes of illegal harvesting. These levels of unofficial removals are unsustainable as these harvests will be concentrated in areas of easy access and where there is limited control and monitoring, resulting locally in significant forest/land degradation. Regulating Services Regulation of GHGs – carbon sequestration function of Moldovan forests is widely recognized; moreover, in the last decade it was sustained through the implementation of various carbon-based projects done by Moldsilva (including its forest units) in cooperation with local public authorities (LPAs) and the BioCarbon Fund of the World Bank. The total value of this ecosystem services (based on calculations and increment data and growth predictions done by Moldsilva) is estimated at $0.5 million /year, counting only the sequestration capacity. There are also costs of the biomass used by households that were not taken into account, and this issue requires further investigation22 . Anyway, if the planned extension of forest land will be enforced over the next decades, the area covered with forest vegetation is likely to increase up to 15% of the country’s territory23 . This will certainly bring important values in the future as well as to the image of the sector in providing FES. Micro-climate stabilization – scientifically proved function, especially for ensuring local biodiversity and indirectly other subsistence needs for the population. In our survey, all interviewers mentioned it as very important, but yet unclear service that the forests are providing. The forest can create an important micro-climate for agriculture, including conditions that influence agricultural production and enhance biodiversity. This service is very important and is being also supported by the rehabilitation campaign of circa 31000 ha of agriculture land protection forest belts24 . Such a micro-climate stabilization program has not only the purpose to rehabilitate forest belts or to create new ones, it is based on studies proving that agriculture effectiveness and efficiency may be increased if forest belts can perform their protection function. Water regulation (storage and retention) – this is a very important ecosystem service that forests of Moldova can provide. The climatic features of Moldova and predictions for changes in environment (e.g. climate change) describe a high frequency of drought phenomena during the last two decades, especially in the southern part of the country. If managed sustainably, forest ecosystems can contribute to the regulation of water reservoirs and thus can mitigate the effect of droughts. In drier areas of the country forests traditionally 21 Galupa D., Ciobanu A., Scobioală M., Stângaci V., Lozan A. (2011): Tăierile ilicite ale vegetaţiei forestiere în Republica Moldova: Studiu analitic. Chișinău, Agenţia Moldsilva, – 38 p. (Anul Internaţional al Pădurilor – 2011). Raport pregătit în cadrul Programului ENPI FLEG. 22 Popa B. (2013): The Economic Value of Ecosystem Services in Republic of Moldova. GEF/UNDP- GEF project National Biodiversity Planning to Support the implementation of the CBD 2011-2020 Strategic Plan in Republic of Moldova, Chisinau. 23 According to the Strategy of sustainable development of the forestry sector of Moldova (2001), at least 15% forest cover of Moldova would be sufficient for forest ecosystems to perform their eco- protective functions. 24 Ministry of Environment, 2014, Draft of NBSAP document.
  • 21. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 21 are regarded as water supplier (e.g. drinking water for humans and cattle in remote areas), and in wetlands the forests act as sponges by intercepting water. Soil erosion regulation – landslides and floods are among the most severe natural disasters causing huge economic losses. Moldovan forest vegetation helps keep soil intact and prevent it from eroding into other landscapes. Forest quality is directly linked to capacity of soil to regulate erosion. Soil erosion in an undisturbed forest is extremely low, but any disturbance can increase erosion processes. Our analysis shows how important is this ecosystem service. Soil erosion regulation does not impact only the frequency of natural disasters, but also our day-to-day life. Urban water treatments and other used water are undoubtedly influenced by the erosion regulation capacity of Moldovan forests. The better the natural filters are (e.g. forests in good conservation status), the lower the costs for treating and distributing the urban water are. Nutrient retention – another very important ecosystem service provided by Moldovan forests is their nutrient retention. The soil richness is considered one of the most important natural resource of Moldova and the forests can highly contribute to soil nutrient retention by stopping the erosion and flow of the superficial soil layer – the most fertile one, a true national heritage25 . Solid and sustainable forest ecosystems can provide this service not only in the forests per se, but also in the pasture and agriculture systems nearby or downhill the forest bodies. The agriculture sector of Moldova seems to be facing a very dangerous degradation process. Almost 40% of the agricultural land (i.e. 858000 ha, according the National Bureau of Statistics, 2013) are affected by degradation, where 12% of them cannot support any agricultural activities. Those degradation phenomena occur partially because of a reduced capacity of forest and pasture ecosystems to provide effectively the nutrient retention, which is crucial for the soil erosion regulation service. Cultural Services Spiritual, religious, cultural heritage – Moldova is recognized for its religious and spiritual heritage represented by a number of very nice monasteries of the Orthodox Church, most of which located within forested areas. Those monasteries are visited by thousands of people (tourists or locals) every year. Historically, Moldova’s forests served as a refuge for religious people and, thus, most of monasteries gained protection for centuries. Many historical (including archaeological) and cultural monuments are located within forests, some included in protected areas. One can see there is a direct link between forests and the cultural heritage within, which makes this relationship rather valuable for the population. Educational – Though it is very difficult to capture this ecosystem service, it is obvious that the presence and variety of forests are important raising awareness milestones. Recreation and (eco-) tourism – Tourism sector is considered the second, after the agriculture26 , largest beneficiary of the forest ecosystem services. Most of protected areas (PAs) in the country are located within forest ecosystems and many of them represent a conglomerate of natural, historical and cultural monuments (e.g. National Park Orhei). 25 Chernoziom type of soils from Moldova is included in the list of UNESCO heritage. 26 Popa B. (2013): The Economic Value of Ecosystem Services in Republic of Moldova. GEF/UNDP- GEF project National Biodiversity Planning to Support the implementation of the CBD 2011-2020 Strategic Plan in Republic of Moldova, Chisinau.
  • 22. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 22 According to our analysis, PAs (namely those associated with forests) that include churches and monasteries within are one of the major tourism attraction. The forests are seen traditionally as places where people can rest and spend some leisure time. The total ecosystem services value (not only forest ecosystems) is estimated15 at $7.9 million in 2011. It is obvious that forests ecosystems are the most important for tourism, but the value of this service is still to be determined. Moldova is primarily an agricultural country, where fewer forest ecosystems are the best preserved ecosystems out of other remnants of natural habitats (e.g. wetlands, steppes). The landscape architecture of vineyards and orchards, combined with a range of other land features and human settlements, creates true amenities that one cannot miss. The process of ES identification for the landscape amenity and biodiversity non-use as valuable ecosystem services as well as their magnitude and economic value need further analysis. 3. Benefits of FES to local communities Relevant stakeholders in the Republic of Moldova – Agency Moldsilva, Forest Research and Management Institute, Institute of Geography and Ecology, Institute of Botany, other stakeholders involved in Protected Areas (PA) management – consider that the most important FES are those inducing essential benefits for the communities, as follow:  Wood – having as benefits the fuelwood, timber, traditional wood products, processed wood products;  Non timber forest products (NTFPs) – meaning the use of natural medicines, forest fruits, other products from forests and game;  Regulation of GHGs – mainly carbon sequestration;  Microclimate stabilization – with its main benefit of air quality;  Water regulation (storage and retention) – with significant benefits in terms of flood and landslide prevention;  Spiritual, religious, cultural heritage – local traditions, churches and monasteries, use of environment in books, painting, folklore, national symbols, architecture, advertising;  Recreation and (eco-) tourism – with benefits in terms of traditional holiday leisure in warm seasons, recreational fishing and hunting, hiking, relaxing in nature, aesthetic views. In our survey, many stakeholders mentioned also that other FES can be present in Moldova too, but their importance is lower, such as: food (with benefits in terms of commercial and subsistence crops), water (with benefits in public water supply, water for industrial and agricultural use), soil erosion regulation (with benefits in maintaining the soil quality and improved water quality) and nutrient retention (with benefits in maintaining soil quality). 3.1. Wood and NTFPs for rural communities Benefits of forest/environmental products in the rural Moldova and the danger of unsustainable use of forest products were assessed under the guidance of IUCN staff in
  • 23. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 23 201427 . The study was done in selected communities based on their representativeness criteria through conducting 50 interviews in every village using a Poverty Environment Network (PEN) of the Centre for International Forest Research (CIFOR) derived questionnaire28 (the PEN questionnaire was adapted to local conditions mainly in terms of local specific forest products). The results of the study underlined the fact that forest products are very important economic benefits for the local rural communities, despite the fact that forest vegetation coverage in Moldova is rather low and highly fragmented. The conclusions below relate to three selected communities29 , considering also some space of data generalization (representativeness criteria for village selection and randomized appliance of questionnaires). Forest dependence analysis showed that the forest is the third, after agriculture and remittances, income source for local communities. It is rather impressive considering big difference in the share of area covered with forest vegetation in selected regions – from circa 30% in Cioresti (central Moldova) to circa 9% in Alexandru cel Bun (in northern Moldova) and 6% in Borceag (in southern Moldova). It is interesting that the forest share in the income is directly proportional with the share of forest and it is an opposite case for the agriculture income. In both forestry and agricultural related activities, all family members are involved. 27 Popa B., Zubarev V., Moșnoi E. & Lozan A. (2014): Forest dependence based on surveys conducted in three villages of Moldova. National report produced by ENPI FLEG II regional program. 28 CIFOR (2007). PEN Technical Guidelines, Version 4. Bogor, Indonesia: Center for International Forestry Research. 29 These villages are Cioresti (in central Moldova, Nisporeni Rayon), Borceag (in southern Moldova, Cahul Rayon) and Alexandru cel Bun (in northern Moldova, Soroca Rayon),
  • 24. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 24 Figure 7: Income shares by source for the three sample villages 30 Besides their own consumption, people in Moldova are used to collect nuts due to their cash potential. Walnuts represent the most valuable forest product (53% share in terms of value) and also being very often collected (17% in terms of frequency). 30 Popa B., Zubarev V., Moșnoi E. & Lozan A. (2014): Forest dependence based on surveys conducted in three villages of Moldova. National report produced by ENPI FLEG II regional program.
  • 25. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 25 Figure 8: Frequency of forest product collection in the three sample villages Figure 9: Value share of forest products collection in the three sample villages There are also other NTFPs that are collected and used by local communities. Rosehip and other forest fruits, together with mushrooms, are collected rather frequent, but they are perceived to have a low value mainly (due to the fact that such products are not collected for selling, but only occasionally). Analysis revealed that the market for those products does not really exist, except for the state forest administrators who buy rosehip from time to time for exports. However, the price paid by the state forest administrators is
  • 26. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 26 low and people are collecting them for being granted access to the forest to get tree branches of firewood. Though men are sometimes participating in collecting rosehips or other forest fruits, this is basically an activity done by women and children. As seen in Figure 8 and Figure 9, wood based forest products (pole/logs/sawn wood, fuelwood and tree branches) represent the biggest share in terms of frequency and the second share in terms of value (34% as frequency and 42% as value). The fuelwood represents the biggest share in the wood products showing a high forest dependence of rural households in terms of primary energy (heating). The fuelwood from the forest is the main source of energy (heating, cooking) for the most of rural areas in the country. According the National Bureau of Statistics31 , only 33.4% of the households in the rural areas are connected to the gas grid. This is why the wood products are so important for rural communities in Moldova. Wood products (fuelwood, wood for rural construction, tree branches) are normally bought by local population from the state forest units of Agency Moldsilva It seems that members of sample communities perceive this as an income and not as an expenditure (without cashing it), which greatly supports the fact that larger volumes are consumed domestically even if through illegal ways (e.g. without paper/invoice confirming its legality). Our data cohere with another FLEG analysis that revealed an increased level of illegalities associated with wood purchase, driven by the lack of financial means and low living standards of local population32 . Figure 10: Value for cash/subsistence for main forest products 31 Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Moldova. - Chisinau: Statisticã, 2013 (Î.S. F.E.-P. “Tipografia Centralã”). – 30 cm. (Statistica Moldovei). 32 Kobernic-Gurkovskaya M. (2011): Forestry sector problems from the perspective of local population based on psychosociological Analysis. Analytical Report on the results of survey in the Republic of Moldova, done within ENPI FLEG.
  • 27. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 27 Analysis of the value for cash income for subsistence needs draws back to walnut- fruit trees (see Figure 10). Usually, household members are collecting nuts for own consumption and for cashing them. The share of cashing for other products was very low, and community members were rarely collecting them for selling. According to our results, in poor rural communities the lower household income is the higher dependence on the forest is. Nonetheless, it shows an RFI between 1% and 35% per selected communities. There is also a diversified source of income from other activities, namely agriculture. A high RFI shows a relative closeness to the forest and also less diversified sources of income. A dependency of inhabitants from the forest is less reliant on the total income because everyone in the communities is using forest resources under the condition of insignificant agricultural resources. Figure 11: RFI over income quintiles – centralized results for the three sample villages The results reveal a high dependency of rural population on the forest in the Republic of Moldova. As expected, the main income source is agriculture, but the low elasticity of the RIF variation over income quintile shows that the forest dependency is common to almost all surveyed households, which is a natural corollary of the resource availability rather than socio-economic characteristics of surveyed households. The fact that wood products, especially meant for heating (energy) and notably the walnuts were the most frequently encountered during our survey, indicate on the use of forests manly as a basic resource and then as a gap filter or a pathway out of poverty. Interestingly, wood from the forests is a net revenue, and this happens under the conditions of clear official regulations with regard to access and supply of fuelwood. Most of wood is harvested by Moldsilva or their subcontractors (companies who leased standing timber), then the wood products are sold on the market as industrial assortments (but less than 10% of the total wood) or as fuelwood (see Figure 12). Any other wood getting out of the forest is considered as illegally logged. Officially, illegal logging is a contravention and it is sanctioned by Moldsilva units’ personnel. However, it seems that the term ‘illegal logging’ has to be properly defined in the existing legal frame and, most importantly, to be properly enforced.
  • 28. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 28 Figure 12: Chopped wood of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) sold as energy wood, placed on a road market along with other stuff for construction (Chisinau city, 2014)
  • 29. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 29 Our data matched the main conclusions of two previous analytical studies done within ENPI FLEG I in 2010/2011 - the wood consumption study33 and the trends from the illegal logging study34 . All this casts serious questions on the use of Moldovan forests, unsustainable practices present in the forests and the need of new approaches to ensure supply of energetic wood (e.g. SRF) and maintain productive native forest ecosystems. It becomes more obvious that fuelwood is not fully legal and the way it is harvested has become already a tradition. Information provided by this study should trigger some question marks and probably speed up incentives of energetic sustainability in the rural areas35 . 3.2. Carbon sequestration benefit as a FES Recent studies36 revealed a certain potential for carbon sequestration in the forest ecosystems. Moldova gained valuable experience in the design, implementation and monitoring of LULUCF carbon projects under the Non-polluting Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol, notably (a) the “Soil Conservation in Moldova” Project, and (b) the “Development of the Community Forestry Sector in Moldova” Project. This experience will help position Moldova to source additional carbon projects that could support the strategy for reducing emissions. This is also in line with the forest cover target of 15%37 by 2020, stipulated by the Strategy for sustainable development of the forestry sector of Moldova (2001), as well as with recent governmental incentives of forest protection shelterbelts extension38 and rehabilitation39 . According to our data, carbon sequestration functions of forests could generate an additional $2.1 million (cumulative value over 25 years), if only started incentives and projects are continued. There is a significant difference between the annual allowable cut (AAC) and the increment of state forests estimated through the present management plans – officially the AAC make only between 40 to 50% of the increment40 . Nevertheless, the differences between estimations of wood consumption and the AAC41 raise a promising 33 ENPI FLEG (2011): Moldovan Forests - Wood Harvesting and Consumption. Chisinau 34 Galupa D., Ciobanu A., Scobioală M., Stângaci V., Lozan A. (2011): Tăierile ilicite ale vegetaţiei forestiere în Republica Moldova: Studiu analitic. Chișinău, Agenţia Moldsilva, – 38 p. (Anul Internaţional al Pădurilor – 2011). Raport pregătit în cadrul Programului ENPI FLEG. 35 Mitchell A., Capcelea A., Rinnerberger N., Phillips H., Popa B. & Lozan A. (2014): “Republic of Moldova – Forest Policy Note”. The World Bank. – Ch.: Ştiinţa, 2015 (Combinatul Poligrafi c). – 68 p. 36 Popa B. (2013): The Economic Value of Ecosystem Services in Republic of Moldova, GEF/UNDP- GEF project National Biodiversity Planning to Support the implementation of the CBD 2011-2020 Strategic Plan in Republic of Moldova, Chisinau. 37 Actual forest vegetation cover is nearly 13,7% (almost half of it are plantations). 38 According to a Governmental National Plan for forest vegetation extension 2014-2018 (GD 101/2014), circa 13000 ha of degraded lands and protection belts will be afforested or reforested. 39 A World Bank „Agricultural Competitiveness Project” is now reversing circa 2500 ha of degraded shelterbelts in the southern region of the country. 40 Moldsilva, 2013. Informative materials regarding Moldsilva Agency activity. Qualitative and Quantitative indicators of the forest fund, Moldsilva Agency and National Agency for Cadastre – 1 st of January 2014 (GD. 432/2014). 41 Botnari F., Galupa D., Platon I. et al. (2011): State of the Forestry of the Republic of Moldova 2006- 2010. Agency Moldsilva. Chisinau. – 60 pp. Report prepared under the ENPI FLEG Program
  • 30. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 30 potential for carbon sequestration and, as a result of this, a sustainable management of forest. Figure 13: Oak plantation created within carbon sequestration projects by Moldsilva Carbon sequestration economic benefits can be easily evaluated and available. Though there is a significant potential for such activities, it is likely that local communities will not be a direct beneficiary. It seems that local communities will benefit only indirectly and from the perspective of climate change mitigation services provided by forests. 3.3. Landslides and floods prevention Floods and landslides rank among the major natural hazards facing Republic of Moldova. Annual average incidence of major flood related events in Moldova is 1.2 events/year42 . The costs of damages produced by floods are estimated at $4.6 million annually. A total of 84000 ha are affected by landslides annually, with a total cost of damages estimated at $1.3 million. Eroded areas across the country are estimated at 1.074 42 Zubarev, V. (2012) Identificarea si evaluarea serviciilor ecosistemice cheie din Moldova, UNDP – GEF Project National Biodiversity Planning to Support the Implementation of the CBD 2011-2020 Strategic Plan in Republic of Moldova, United Nations Development Programme.
  • 31. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 31 million ha (data of 201143 ) with a total damage costs of $127.8 million10 . Flooding is particularly intense in hilly areas and low-lying floodplains. It is likely that the frequency and severity of these events will increase in the future, both due to on-going ecosystem degradation and because of climate change44 . With the increase in environmental changes (induced by humans or naturally occurring), economic losses through natural disasters may increase too and would require a clear understanding of the condition of forest ecosystems. The quality and quantity of forest ecosystems could significantly impact the occurrence of natural disasters. Multiple forest services ensured though a proper ecosystem protection under SEM scenario could play a significant role in hazard regulation and loss risk reduction. If the upstream protection functions of the forest ecosystems serve to minimize the impact of floods by just 10% below what it would have been in the absence of the protective functions, then the value of flood control in terms of damage costs avoided (projected on a pro rata basis) equates to an average of $13.4 million a year45 . All those economic values can be accounted as direct benefits of the local communities, even though the costs are also referring to some infrastructure damages avoided. Forest ecosystems alone are not the only factor influencing the magnitude and frequency of the natural disasters. The mixture of forest and agricultural lands (pastures, orchards, vineyards) is typical and traditional for Moldova, therefore it is difficult to assess the share of the impact these two main sectors may have of reducing disasters. An integrated management of the agriculture and forested landscape must be envisaged. Though rather complex, decision making process (including appropriate institutions and coordination among them) to mitigate the effects of various hazards is extremely important46 . 3.4. Cultural and recreational benefits for local communities from forest In Moldova rural communities are very linked to orthodox traditions and establishments. There are many monasteries and churches located within forests or near forests. Such places, where religious infrastructure interferes with forest landscape, are more attractive to people and enjoy wide popularity among communities. Evaluation of the benefits, especially in monetary terms, associated with cultural/religious activities in forests is an insurmountable problem; however, social benefits of such important linkage are undisputable. As the recreation/tourism, it was easier to evaluate the indirect values that can be captured by local communities in terms of (eco-) tourism benefits. According to data provided by the Tourism Agency of Moldova (central authority responsible for the monitoring of touristic activities), there is a large potential for visitors and the main touristic product offered would be the amalgam of natural and man-made features. The PAs administrators 43 http://date.gov.md/ro/system/files/resources/2013-08/Cadastrul-funciar_2011.xls 44 World Bank (2008): South Eastern Europe – Disaster Risk Mitigation and Adaptation Programme, The World Bank, Sustainable Development Department Europe and Central Asia Region and UN/ISDR secretariat Europe, March 2008. 45 Popa B. (2013): The Economic Value of Ecosystem Services in Republic of Moldova. GEF/UNDP- GEF project National Biodiversity Planning to Support the implementation of the CBD 2011-2020 Strategic Plan in Republic of Moldova, Chisinau. 46 There is a special Department of Civil Protection and Exceptional Situations in the country, subordinated to the Ministry of Defense of Moldova.
  • 32. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 32 (mainly those located within Moldsilva) recorded a number of tourists visiting PAs of Moldova that increased from 6266 in 2008 to 9020 in 2010. However, according to Tourism Agency of Moldova, the total number of tourists (with main scope of vacations, recreation and resting) decreased from 243906 in 2008 to 210809 in 2011. It is therefore obvious that there is a certain orientation of the general tourism industry towards eco-tourism or rural-tourism. Tourists visiting Moldova are increasingly appreciating places where natural resources are protected, but this is not yet the central interest of tourists as it seems that winery47 sector represents a true attractiveness for the most of visitors. Accommodation facilities slowly started to grow near or in the immediate vicinity of areas where natural landscapes may attract potential tourists. Yet the main problem is how touristic activities are organized. Generally, the tourism is still unorganized across the country and most of involved companies do not have sufficient resources to optimize their activity in terms of finding a balance between promoting tourism in natural areas and avoid unwanted effects of anthropic pressure on biodiversity48 . An example is the natural-historic complex of Saharna (Rezina rayon), a well-known locality that was promoted by a number of NGOs and tourism companies, but due to an increased and highly unorganized tourism the valuable habitats for a number of species (e.g. rare plants, bats and reptiles) were severely affected in the last decades46 . There is clear evidence that spending on hotels in areas with attractive natural landscapes tend to be greater than in other places. Work carried out in Croatia by the Institute of Tourism has, for example, found that there is a premium of as much as 24-32% attached to the price that visitors are willing to pay for hotels located in forest areas, and that landscape is a decisive factor in visitors’ choice of hotels49 . 47 http://wine.md/ 48 Capatana L. (2012): Turism, Comert si Transport. Starea actuala, unpublished draft, UNDP – GEF Project UNDP – GEF Project National Biodiversity Planning to Support the Implementation of the CBD 2011-2020 Strategic Plan in Republic of Moldova, United Nations Development Prrogramme. 49 Pagiola S. (1996): Republic of Croatia Coastal Forest Reconstruction and Protection Project: Annex J. Economic Analysis. Staff Appraisal Report: Report: Republic of Croatia Coastal Forest Reconstruction and Protection Project, World Bank, Washington DC
  • 33. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 33 Figure 14: The National Park Orhei – Curchi church and forest landscapes are important objectives of the touristic trail (http://www.cuvintul.md/article/2093/) The potential for (eco-) tourism in connection with forest PAs or just with forest landscape can immediately be seen in term of economic opportunities for local communities. According to some experts and per our own observations, the real potential of the economic multiplication effect on the development of nature/forest associated tourism is very high50 . 4. Methodological aspects 4.1. Sector Scenario Assessment (SSA) The Sector Scenario Analysis (SSA) was applied in several UNDP studies – in the Latin American and the Caribbean in 201051 , in Romania for evaluating the monetary value of ecosystem services (ES) provided by 5 pilot PAs52 , and in Moldova to evaluate ES value 50 WTTC (2013): Travel and Tourism Impact 2013: Moldova. World Travel & Tourism Council, London. 51 Bovarnick, A., F. Alpizar, C. Schnell (Editors) (2010): The Importance of Biodiversity and Ecosystems in Economic Growth and Equity in Latin America and the Caribbean: An economic valuation of ecosystems, United Nations Development Programme. 52 Popa, B. & Bann C. (2012): An Assessment of the Contribution of Ecosystems in Protected Areas to Sector Growth and Human Well Being in Romania, UNDP, Bucharest Office.
  • 34. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 34 at the country level53 aiming to feed the resources mobilization strategy for the implementation of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP). A guidebook for SSA broader application was already published and it is publically available54 . The analysis is at the sector level, but it starts with an understanding and quantification of ES. A core part of the SSA approach is the comparison of two scenarios - Business as Usual (BAU) and Sustainable Ecosystem Management (SEM), to illustrate the contribution of ecosystem services under two broad management scenarios to key productive sectors of the economy. The analysis lends itself to the generation of politician-friendly data. An ecosystem- centric approach cuts across sectors and ministerial mandates, whereas a sectoral approach aligns with the organization of Ministries. It can therefore be used to facilitate the incorporation of ES values and their management into economic planning, policy and investment at the sectoral level. Key questions that the approach seeks to answer include:  To what extent do key sectors depend economically on the natural inputs of forest ecosystems?  What opportunities do these sectors have to benefit from maintaining FES? An overview of the approach is provided in Figure 15. Key features of the approach are discussed below in more detail. 33 • employment • income trends • fiscal impacts (tax revenues, subsidies and green taxes) • foreign exchange (foreign investments, exports) • access to green markets/income & innovation • opinion polls /surveys • avoided damage costs • returns on investment • production (volume, value) • net revenue • productivity (return to labor, land, capital) • changes in natural capital • equity impact on the poor / distribution of benefits SSA FLOW Figure 15: Overview on the SSA approach (Flores, 2012) 53 Popa B. (2013): The Economic Value of Ecosystem Services in Republic of Moldova. GEF/UNDP- GEF project National Biodiversity Planning to Support the implementation of the CBD 2011-2020 Strategic Plan in Republic of Moldova, Chisinau. 54 Alpizar F. & Bovarnick A. (2013): Targeted Scenario Analysis: A new approach to capturing and presenting ecosystem services values for decision making. UNDP, Washington.
  • 35. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 35 Sector Focus The approach considers the ES provided by forests as inputs into a country’s economic sectors and presents data on the economic value of ES to each sector. It also recognizes that humans are part of the ecosystem and we depend on it as well as that our activities affect the ecosystem. It is important to acknowledge that ecosystem functions result in ecosystem services, so for Moldova this is crucial to understand when considering forest ecosystem quality and the potential for providing products/services. Forest ecosystems of Moldova provide multiple ecosystems services (ES), such as water provision and regulation, soil fertility, pollination, pest control, growth and reproduction of food species, storm mitigation, climate regulation and waste assimilation, which directly and indirectly provide inputs into the production of key sectors in country’s economy. Key sectors benefiting from the ES provided by forests are - agriculture, fishery, forestry, nature- based tourism, human settlements, health, and energy. The logic to drawing out the contribution of FES under different management regimes to key sectors is that it can provide a comprehensive and tailored argument to present to sector Ministries. This can facilitate the integration of ecosystem management and protection into key sector plans and strategies, and aid negotiations with other Ministries were the management of an ES by one sector clearly impacts its provision to another (for example, the tourism sector may be adversely impacted by unsustainable agricultural or forestry practices). Table 3 highlights how FES can contribute to different sectors. Table 3: Overview of how sectors benefit from FES and management challenges 55 Sector Key ES Management challenges / Issues Agriculture A sustainable, high-quality water supply depends on well-maintained ecosystems that are often preserved within forests. Water is critical for irrigation, farming and other uses. Agroforest farming, when communities use both forest vegetation and pastures (or other agro- systems) for their cattle, also using them as forage (e.g. hay provision). Forest ecosystems provide natural habitats for genetically-important crop wild relatives. Many species pollinate both crops in agriculture and plants (trees, shrubs) in forests, and vice- versa. Forests provide shelter for a number of biodiversity that contribute to the biological control of pests and livestock diseases. These services are frequently under-valued and provided for free encouraging overuse. Further research is needed to assess the links between reduced water quality, lower flows, and forest ecosystem management. Forest ecosystems can be of use in developing solutions to degradation in freshwater ecosystems. Agroforestry (or silvopastoral) approach is still underestimated, but it is a real solution for a rational use. Using appropriate species or varieties in agriculture is directly linked with the pest/disease distribution, and pests are using both forest and agriculture species as hosts. 55 Popa, B. & Bann C. (2012): An Assessment of the Contribution of Ecosystems in Protected Areas to Sector Growth and Human Well Being in Romania, UNDP, Bucharest Office.
  • 36. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 36 Forestry Moldovan forests represent a very important remaining of natural hill oak forest type (with circa 80% of country’s biodiversity within) that is under a high anthropic pressure. Forests therefore provide an important carbon storage service. Payments for carbon storage could mean significant revenues (i.e., foreign exchange transfers and funding to pay for the transition to SEM). The argument for that is valid if forest ecosystems are under direct threat of deforestation. Under BAU, direct threats to forests include illegal logging and infrastructure development. Furthermore, current Income from taxes, timber, and forest products is low sending incorrect signals to the market and negatively impacting government expenditure for forest management. Taxes and fees on timber and other forest products need to be set at appropriate levels, so that the Government has a vested interest in sound forest management, sustainable commercial logging, and prevention of illegal activity, to ensure future revenue flows. This is relevant to forest management units that allow sustainable use of forest resources. NatureTourism Forest ecosystems contribute to nature-based tourism (NBT)/ecotourism. This depends on the natural attractions provided by forests, such as the habitats (with wild plants and animals), traditional food from forest products (berries, mushrooms), fresh water and air, views capes, and cultural services essential to NBT. Tourists find NBT experiences, trekking, wild life viewing (including bird-watching), hunting, more valuable when they take place in healthy ecosystems, such as those found in PAs (Flores, in Bovarnick et al 2010). Under BAU, PA-based NBT is undermined by insufficient investment in the conditions required to manage NBT and the supporting PA well resulting in negative external costs. It is assumed that if PAs shift to SEM practices, NBT will generate greater economic value. Moldovan authorities and forest management institutions/companies do not yet realize that investing into forest PA is likely to bring benefits under SEM scenario, so maintaining a forest under its natural conditions (with excluded intense management for wood/timber, often illegal) will be much more effective from economic perspectives (with more revenue) due to an increased demand from tourism 56 . HumanSettlements Human settlements benefit from forest ecosystems through the provision of a variety of critical services such as the provision of fresh water, regulation of natural hazards, and natural mitigation of climate change. Forests provide cheap, clean drinking water to countless rural and urban populations, including a third of the world’s most populated cities 57 . Well- managed natural forests almost always provide higher quality water, with less sediment and fewer pollutants than water from other catchments 58 . Research has shown that about a third (33 out of 105) of the world’s largest cities obtain a significant portion of their drinking water directly from PAs 59 (Dudley et al. 2010). Watershed conservation can greatly improve water quality and quantity, reducing water treatment costs. Authorities do not yet see the linkage between the quality of water and forest vegetation, and once this is realized things may change. Forest vegetation can greatly reduce risks from flooding, which is not properly understood by local administrations. 56 This is the case of many countries around the world (e.g. USA). 57 Dudley N., Stolton S., Belokurov A., Krueger L., Lopoukhine N., MacKinnon K., Sandwith T. & Sekhran N. (editors) (2010): Natural Solutions: Protected areas helping people cope with climate change. IUCN WCPA, TNC, UNDP, WCS, The World Bank and WWF, Gland, Switzerland, Washington DC and New York, USA. 58 Aylward B. (2000): Economic analysis of land-use change in a watershed context. Presented at a UNESCO Symposium/Workshop on Forest-Water-People in the Humid Tropics, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 31 July - 4 August, 2000 59 Dudley N., Stolton S., Belokurov A., Krueger L., Lopoukhine N., MacKinnon K., Sandwith T. & Sekhran N. (editors) (2010): Natural Solutions: Protected areas helping people cope with climate change. IUCN WCPA, TNC, UNDP, WCS, The World Bank and WWF, Gland, Switzerland, Washington DC and New York, USA.,
  • 37. TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY FROM BRASOV FACULTY OF SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ENGINEERING 1 Sirul Beethoven - BRAŞOV 500123 www.unitbv.ro/silvic 37 4.2. Targeted sectors and evidence of economic FES benefits For the valuation research we used five key sectors (or sub-sectors): tourism/recreation; forestry/hunting60 ; agriculture; water management and disaster risk reduction. We provide a detailed description of the full range of forest ecosystem-economic benefits and costs associated with each sector/sub-sector, and the monetary quantification of key costs and benefits accruing to them. Our fact-finding research about these six sectors has, after in situ visits and meetings held with forest institutions or other forest experts, concluded that:  Tourism/recreation sector valuation would be extensively based on additional value-added by sustainable forest ecosystem management. This includes primary production, value-added in the marketing chain and secondary economic impacts and multipliers associated with forest and nature-based recreation. It also considers traditional aspects when population is used to spend leisure time in forests during holidays as well as religious and cultural traditions that local population links to forest areas (e.g. so-called saint or curative springs in the forests near monasteries).  Forestry/hunting sector valuation tackled additional value-added by sustainable forest and agriculture management too, which included the primary production, value-added in the marketing chain and secondary economic impacts and multipliers associated with the active management of forests, and with hunting carried out in and around forests (i.e. sectoral direct values or provisioning services). Forest existence values (supporting, regulating and cultural services) are covered via their contribution to other sectors.  Agriculture sector valuation regarded this closely linked to forestry sector and focused mainly on the additional value-added by sustainable forest ecosystem management. This included the primary production, value-added in the marketing chain and secondary economic impacts and multipliers associated with the active management of forests and agricultural lands surrounding forests. In the past, many forested areas were converted into agriculture, and nowadays some degraded lands (unused for agriculture) are afforested. Also, agricultural sector is extensively using the practice of forest protection shelterbelts, which are believed to contribute to an increased productivity and to provide habitats/refugees for biodiversity.  Water management sector valuation will consider watershed protection services (associated with run-off/erosion control and soil stabilization) in terms of their impacts of water flow regulation and water quality maintenance for water supply facilities, fish farms, bottled water companies. It will mainly focus on the costs, losses and damages avoided by sustainable ecosystem management.  Disaster risk reduction valuation considered the climate change mitigation, flood attenuation and landslide protection services. It focused mainly on the costs, losses and damages avoided by sustainable forest management. Sectoral studies done under UNDP Project “National Biodiversity Planning to Support the Implementation of the CBD 2011-2020 Strategic Plan in Republic of Moldova”61 fully 60 We put forestry and hunting together because (a) most of biodiversity in the country is linked to forest habitats and (b) most of game species are closely associated with forest ecosystems, given the high pressure from humans (game species use forests as refugees from poachers or other predators, as wolfs or wild dogs). 61 Popa B. (2013): The Economic Value of Ecosystem Services in Republic of Moldova. GEF/UNDP- GEF project National Biodiversity Planning to Support the implementation of the CBD 2011-2020 Strategic Plan in Republic of Moldova, Chisinau.