The Porolissum Forum Project: archaeology on the fringes of the Roman Empire Eric C. De Sena

Rome and Dacia Rome dominated by Trajanic monuments commemorating victory over Dacians; despite this, Dacia is one of least understood provinces Overview of Dacia, new information from Porolissum

Dacia Danube River and Carpathian Mountains - protection - fertile valleys - very rich in minerals (Ar, Au, Cu, Fe, Pb, salt)

The Dacians human beings 500,000 years ago prehistoric “art”, 30,000-10,000 BC settlements and significant material culture by 3000 BC society influenced by Mediterranean and European cultures (n.b. Greek colonies on Black Sea) Cuciulat Cave, 20-15,000 BC Hinova treasure – 12th-9th BC; Baiceni bracelet – 4th BC Istros – 4th BC

The Dacians

human beings 500,000 years ago

prehistoric “art”, 30,000-10,000 BC

settlements and significant material culture by 3000 BC

society influenced by Mediterranean and European cultures (n.b. Greek colonies on Black Sea)

Late Iron Age Independent chiefdoms, political leagues – solid enough to repel Alexander the Great! Early contact with Rome: Burebista and Julius Caesar Blidaru citidel

The Dacian Wars (AD 86-106) King Decebalus - raids into Roman territory south of Danube; routed troops led by Cornelius Fuscus; held Roman army at bay for 15 years “ This man was shrewd in his understanding of warfare and shrewd also in the waging of war; he judged well when to attack and chose the right moment to retreat; he was an expert in ambushing and a master in pitched battles; and he knew not only how to follow up victory but how to manage defeat. Hence he showed himself a worthy antagonist of the Romans for a long time.” (Cassius Dio, Roman History , 67)

Trajan’s Dacian Wars (AD 101-102, 105-106) Military strategy: ca. 100,000 soldiers, fortify position, establish chain of supplies, warfare and diplomacy, construct new strongholds Post-war strategy: subdue/seduce local population, empower local elites, colonize, re-build

Building and maintaining Roman Dacia Cities: Colonia Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegethusa, Apulum, Tibiscum, Porolissum, Potaissa - land repartitioned amongst colonists and cooperative natives Infrastructure: roads, bridges, acqueducts, forts Technology: agriculture, construction, factory-like manufacture Culture: language, art (Roman style with provincial flair), customs (e.g., togas and baths) Strong military presense; strong symbiotic military-civilian ties; extra-Imperial relations

Historical summary of Dacia Relatively peaceful existence interrupted by Marcomannic-Sarmatian Wars (AD 166-180) Conflict followed by stability – reflected in new building activities and general prosperity Great enough stability to allow withdrawal of Roman administration AD 271 when troops were required elsewhere Immediate post-Roman period not well-known; clear links to Roman Empire; social continuity through 4th century Migration Period (5th-8th centuries)

The Porolissum Forum Project (De Sena and Matei 2004, 2006-2010) Objectives: Urban Topography: study the development and function of spaces in Forum Elucidate aspects of daily life in Porolissum during Roman and post-Roman times – farming, community relations, trade Relationship with Barbaricum Study Porolissum in context of environment and other nearby cities. Cultural/educational exchange between East and West

The Porolissum Forum Project

(De Sena and Matei 2004, 2006-2010)

Objectives:

Urban Topography: study the development and function of spaces in Forum

Elucidate aspects of daily life in Porolissum during Roman and post-Roman times – farming, community relations, trade

Relationship with Barbaricum

Study Porolissum in context of environment and other nearby cities.

Cultural/educational exchange between East and West

Porolissum Founded in AD 106 as primary military base along northern frontier Developed into Roman city by mid 2nd century with population of about 20,000 Disruption and Roman withdrawl AD 260-271; continuity of Daco-Roman life with some contact with Roman Empire until ca. AD 375. Migration period , 5th-8th centuries.

Porolissum

Founded in AD 106 as primary military base along northern frontier

Developed into Roman city by mid 2nd century with population of about 20,000

Disruption and Roman withdrawl

AD 260-271; continuity of Daco-Roman life with some contact with Roman Empire until ca. AD 375.

Migration period , 5th-8th centuries.

Porolissum possessed all features of a Roman city: roads, aqueduct, temples, amphitheater, baths and.....

....a Forum Magnetometry by J.K. Haalebos(†) and A.V. Matei, 1996-98 Conducted in an area of the city to the southeast of the Castrum – broad, relatively even tract of terrain Defined a large central area with structures on all four sides – consistent with a forum Presumably variety of civilian features in immediate environs – houses, workshops, shrines

....a Forum

Magnetometry by J.K. Haalebos(†) and A.V. Matei, 1996-98

Conducted in an area of the city to the southeast of the Castrum – broad, relatively even tract of terrain

Defined a large central area with structures on all four sides – consistent with a forum

Presumably variety of civilian features in immediate environs – houses, workshops, shrines

Topographical questions how/when was area first used? when was “mature” forum established? ad hoc development? coordinated construction? function of spaces? changes over time? post-Roman usage? Colonia Ulpia Traiana

Topographical questions

how/when was area first used?

when was “mature” forum established?

ad hoc development?

coordinated construction?

function of spaces?

changes over time?

post-Roman usage?

Excavation strategy – combination of long exploratory trenches and smaller control trenches to verify features suggested by geophysics both kinds of trenches excavated stratigraphically , but control trenches executed in a more careful manner (nuances of stratigraphy and dating) near complete recovery of archaeological materials – sorting and quantification of materials documentation: plans and sections, photography, Total Station

Excavation strategy – combination of long exploratory trenches and smaller control trenches to verify features suggested by geophysics

both kinds of trenches excavated stratigraphically , but control trenches executed in a more careful manner (nuances of stratigraphy and dating)

near complete recovery of archaeological materials – sorting and quantification of materials

documentation: plans and sections, photography, Total Station

Preliminary results in 4 summer field seasons, we have ascertained the basic parameters of the courtyard and have identified at least four broad phases of construction and usage: early Roman wooden fortress, ca. AD 106-150 early forum phase or post-fortress/pre-forum phase, ca. AD 150-200 mature forum phase, ca. AD 200-260/271 post-Roman usage – dwellings, fortification, AD 271-375

Preliminary results

in 4 summer field seasons, we have ascertained the basic parameters of the courtyard and have identified at least four broad phases of construction and usage:

early Roman wooden fortress, ca. AD 106-150

early forum phase or post-fortress/pre-forum phase, ca. AD 150-200

mature forum phase, ca. AD 200-260/271

post-Roman usage – dwellings, fortification, AD 271-375

Porolissum: the mature Forum There are still far more questions than answers… The courtyards measures ca. 45 x 35 m. with a large public building (basilica?) on the north side, a porticus on the south side and a large structure with an extensive heating system (baths?) on the east side; the west side requires further excavation. This phase can be dated to the Severan period, ca. AD 200 based upon an analysis of artifacts and knowledge that the city was renamed municipium Septimium Porolissense at this time. basilica heated building porticus and shops

Porolissum: the mature Forum The northernmost structure appears to be a basilica (law court); The innermost element is the edge of a porticus with a drain and column bases; to the north is a solid wall; Trenches 2, 5 and 10 indicate that it extends along the entire northern side of the forum; Constructed at the same time as collonades on south and west sides.

Porolissum: the mature Forum

The northernmost structure appears to be a basilica (law court);

The innermost element is the edge of a porticus with a drain and column bases; to the north is a solid wall;

Trenches 2, 5 and 10 indicate that it extends along the entire northern side of the forum;

Constructed at the same time as collonades on south and west sides.

Porolissum: the mature Forum The east side of the forum also requires further study. There is, however, a public building with an extensive hypocaust (heating) system consistent with a bath complex. The discovery of a large subterranean cistern to the south may lend further proof. Trench 1 revealed a solid stone wall facing onto the courtyard; inside the wall, to the east, an incompletely excavated area of 7 x 2 m. hosted the pillars of a hypocaust. Trench 3, 10 m. to the east, revealed more hypocaust pillars as well as evidence for the praefurnium ; in the same trench was an apsidal wall (incompletely excavated).

Porolissum: the mature Forum The south and west sides of the forum require the most substantial investigation. Both sides had collonades, but we need to explore the function of these spaces. For the time being, we can only surmise that there were shops in this area. Coins and pottery from the Severan period indicate the date of construction.

Porolissum: the mature Forum

The south and west sides of the forum require the most substantial investigation.

Both sides had collonades, but we need to explore the function of these spaces. For the time being, we can only surmise that there were shops in this area.

Coins and pottery from the Severan period indicate the date of construction.

Post-Roman Porolissum Aurelian withdrew Roman administration AD 271, but dramatic declines in numismatic record of the site from 10-15 years earlier. After a period of presumed decline, life appears to have paralleled Empire - no signs of immediate withdrawal or destruction - 4th century Roman coins at Porolissum (i.e. some communication/trade) “ Roman” structures used for primary or secondary purposes (e.g. paleo-Christian church over Temple of Liber Pater); industrial activity in Forum Gepids/Goths and other cultures - occupation of site until ca. AD 1000.

Post-Roman Porolissum

Aurelian withdrew Roman administration AD 271, but dramatic declines in numismatic record of the site from 10-15 years earlier.

After a period of presumed decline, life appears to have paralleled Empire

- no signs of immediate withdrawal or destruction

- 4th century Roman coins at Porolissum (i.e. some communication/trade)

“ Roman” structures used for primary or secondary purposes (e.g. paleo-Christian church over Temple of Liber Pater); industrial activity in Forum

Gepids/Goths and other cultures

- occupation of site until ca. AD 1000.

Post-Roman evidence from Forum excavations Crude walls within Forum structures and dark stains in earth presumably dwellings Area within area of forum defended by a ditch Burial within area of forum Extensive spoliation – no/few furnishings discovered (columns, floors, wall revetment, etc.)

Widespread post-Roman destruction – single phase or gradual deterioration? All structures encountered to date with reverse sequence: rubble layer immediately above “tile layer”; frequent amounts of charcoal within tile layer; both layers with mix of post-Roman and Roman material Probably gradual deterioration. Very little pavement preserved (only the mortar base); no columns, but several column bases; several post-Roman features within the “Roman” structures Useful materials stripped away  fire/collapse  some “quarrying” of building material (but much untouched)

Daily life in Porolissum Archaeological materials as indicators of lifeways – range of food, craft, building supplies local production vs. importation catchment area of imports changes in supply patterns over time

Daily life in Porolissum

Archaeological materials as indicators of lifeways – range of food, craft, building supplies

local production vs. importation

catchment area of imports

changes in supply patterns over time

To date, about 1 ton of pottery , glass, metals, animal bone, worked bone have been recovered and studied. Pottery: regional economy within Roman “global” system – less than 10% from other Roman provinces (Italy, Gaul, Spain, Greece, North Africa). continuity of Roman styles in immediate post-Roman period Domesticated animals: pigs, cattle, sheep/goats, horses, dogs, deer – no meaningful diachronic patterns. Much iron, some slag - smithing Worked bone implements , but few indications of production – a single sawn deer antler (also used in tanneries) Domestic glass and window glass , but no indication of production

To date, about 1 ton of pottery , glass, metals, animal bone, worked bone have been recovered and studied.

Pottery: regional economy within Roman “global” system – less than 10% from other Roman provinces (Italy, Gaul, Spain, Greece, North Africa).

continuity of Roman styles in immediate post-Roman period

Domesticated animals: pigs, cattle, sheep/goats, horses, dogs, deer – no meaningful diachronic patterns.

Much iron, some slag - smithing

Worked bone implements , but few indications of production – a single sawn deer antler (also used in tanneries)

Domestic glass and window glass , but no indication of production

The Project Directors wish to thank Drs. Dan and Sanda Bacueţ-Crişan (Archaeologists, Salaj County Museum of History and Art, Zalau), Drs. Ioan and Corina Bejinariu (Archaeologists, SCMHA), Peter Cooper and Corina Stirb (Journalists, Zalau), Patrick and Sandra De Sena (Somers, N.Y.) Prof. Patricia Fleming (Vice President and Dean of Faculty, Saint Mary’s College), Dr. Joseph Hagen (Chairman of Board of Trustees, John Cabot University), Dr. Michael MacKinnon (Dept. Anthropology, University of Winnipeg) Elisabeta Marianciuc (Chief Conservator, SCMHA), Prof. Archer Martin (Archaeology Supervisor, American Academy in Rome, 2002-2007), Prof. Mary Merva (Dean of Academic Affairs, JCU), Dott. Maurizio Miranda (Indo- Italian Institute for Trade and Technology), Prof. Carol Ann Mooney (President, SMC), Elena Musca (Former Director, 2005-08, SCMHA), Prof. Gene Ogle (Associate Dean of Academic Affairs, JCU), Prof. Franco Pavoncello (President, JCU), Dr. Horea Pop (Archaeologist, SCMHA), Prof. Portia Prebys (Director, SMC Rome Program), Daniel Sana (Salaj County Commission for Cultural and Natural Patrimony), Prof. Catherine Shoupe (Chair, Dept. Anthropology, SMC), Robert Wanner (University of Leicester) and Daniel Weiss (University of Virginia), t he Romanian Ministry of Culture, John Cabot University Saint Mary’s College, and especially...the 2004, 2006, 2007, 2008 and 2009 Field School Students! www.porolissum.org Please visit us on site June 22-July 24, 2009