Archaeological Report - Greenhills 1, Co. Tipperary (Ireland)

Eachtra Journal

Issue 11 [ISSN 2009-2237]

Archaeological Excavation Report
E3638 - Greenhills 1, Co. Tipperary
Burnt Mound

EACHTRA
Archaeological Projects

Greenhills 1
Co Tipperary

Burnt Mound

Date: December 2011

Client: Laois County Council and National
Roads Authority
Project: N7 Castletown to Nenagh (Contract 1)
E No: E3638

Excavation Director: Jacinta Kiely
Written by: Jacinta Kiely

Greenhills 1
Co Tipperary

Excavation Director

Jacinta Kiely

Written By

Jacinta Kiely

EACHTRA
Archaeological Projects

CORK GALWAY
The Forge, Innishannon, Co. Cork Unit 10, Kilkerrin Park, Liosbain Industrial Estate, Galway
tel: 021 4701616 | web: www.eachtra.ie | email: info@eachtra.ie tel: 091 763673 | web: www.eachtra.ie | email: galway@eachtra.ie

© Eachtra Archaeological Projects 2011
The Forge, Innishannon, Co Cork

Set in 12pt Garamond
Printed in Ireland

Table of Contents
Summary��iii
Acknowledgements�� iv
1 Scope of the project �� 1
2 Route location�� 2
3 Receiving environment �� 4
4 Archaeological and historical background �� 4
5 Site Location and Topography �� 8
6 Excavation methodology �� 8
7 Excavation results �� 11
Layersofburntmoundmaterial�� 11
�
ThePits��13
Modernagriculturalactivity��17
8 Discussion �� 19
9 References ��23
Appendix 1 Stratigraphic Index ��25
Appendix 2 Site Matrix �� 26
Appendix 3 Groups and Subgroups �� 27
Appendix 4 Lithics Report ��34
Appendix 5 Plant Remains Report �� 37
Appendix 6 Animal Bone Report �� 39

i

List of Figures
Figure 1: Portion of map of Ireland showing the route of the N7 Castletown to Nenagh
(Derrinsallagh to Ballintotty) Road Scheme (Contract 1)� �� 3
Figure 2: Discovery series OS map showing the route of the N7 Castletown to Nenagh
(Derrinsallagh to Ballintotty) Road Scheme (Contract 1) and the location of all
excavation sites� �� 5
Figure 3: Portion of the Ist edition Ordnance Survey Map TN22 showing the location of
Greenhills 1� �� 9
Figure 4: Location and extent of Greenhills 1 E3638 on the N7 Castletown to Nenagh� ��10
Figure 5: Post-excavation plan of Greenhills 1 E3638� �� 12
Figure 6: Post-excavation plan of eight pits C�8, C�12, C�58, C�47, C�49, C�56, C�27 and C�46� �� 15
Figure 7: Section of pits C�8 and C�12 and channel C�32, section of pit C�27 and layers of
burnt mound material and profile of pit C�25� �� 16
Figure 8: Prehistoric sites on and in the environs of N7 Castletown to Nenagh� ��21

List of Plates
Plate 1: Aerial view of Greenhills 1� �� 8
Plate 2: View of mound of burnt material on edge of hollow from east� �� 11
Plate 3: View of group of six pits from south� �� 14
Plate 4: View of pits C�8 and C�12 from north� �� 14
Plate 5: View of pit C�27 from north� �� 17
Plate 6: Flint scraper E3638:7:1� �� 18
Plate 7: View of seasonal pond and pits in background from south� �� 19

List of Tables
Table 1 Layers of burnt mound material� �� 13
Table 2 Dimensions of group of six pits� �� 13
Table 3 Dimensions of pits C�25, 27 and 46� �� 13
Table 4: Radiocarbon date �� 18
�
Table 5: Radiocarbon dates from the burnt mound sites on the N7 Castletown to Nenagh
(Contract 1) ��20

ii

Greenhills 1-e3638 http://eachtra.ie/index.php/journal/e3638-greenhills1-co-tipperary/

Summary
The excavation of the site at Greenhills comprised a mound of burnt material. The mound
was located on the northern and eastern side of a hollow and overlay nine pits. An Early
Bronze Age date was returned from the fill of one of the pits. A flint scraper E3638:7:1
dating to the Late Neolithic / Early Bronze Age was recovered from one of the layers.

Road project name N7 Castletown to Nenagh
Site name Greenhills 1
E no. E3638
Site director Jacinta Kiely
Townland Greenhills
Parish Cullenwaine
County Tipperary
Barony Ikerrin
OS Map Sheet No. TN22
National Grid Reference 203215 181566
Elevation 115 m O.D.

iii

issUe 11: eachtra JoUrnal - issn 2009-2237 archaeoloGical excavation report

Acknowledgements
The project was commissioned by Laois County Council and was funded by the Na-
tional Roads Authority under the National Development Plan (2000-2006). The project
archaeologist was Niall Roycroft. Kildare County Council supervised the archaeological
contract with RE staff of Pat Dowling and Colum Fagan. Kildare County Council Sen-
ior Executive Engineer was Joseph Kelly and Kildare County Council Senior Engineer
was John Coppinger. The senior archaeologist was John Tierney and the post-excavation
manager was Jacinta Kiely. Illustrations are by Maurizio Toscano, photographs by John
Sunderland and Eagle Photography and aerial photography by StudioLab. Specialist anal-
ysis was carried out by Mary Dillon, Penny Johnston, Margaret McCarthy and the 14
Chrono Centre at Queen’s University Belfast.

iv


1 Scope of the project
Eachtra Archaeological Projects were commissioned by Laois County Council and the
National Roads Authority to undertake archaeological works along 17.1 km (Contact
1) of the 35km N7 Castletown to Nenagh (Derrinsallagh to Ballintotty) national road
scheme (EIS approved in November 2005). The scheme runs from the eastern junction
of the present N7 Nenagh Bypass, North Tipperary a tie in to the M7/M8 Portlaoise-
Castletown scheme to the south of Borris-in-Ossory in County Laois. The scheme is ap-
proximately 191 hectares. Contract 1 comprises the western half of the scheme and runs
from Clashnevin to Castleroan passing along the Tipperary North and Offaly county
border regions. The Ministers Direction Number is A38.
It was funded by the Irish Government under the National Development Plan 2000-
2006. The total archaeological cost was administered by the National Roads Authority
through Laois County Council as part of the Authority’s commitment to protecting our
cultural heritage. The purpose of the archaeological services project was to conduct ar-
chaeological site investigations within the lands made available for the scheme and to
assess the nature and extent of any new potential archaeological sites uncovered.
Phase 1 of the project (archaeological testing of the route) was carried out in 2007
under licence E3371, E3372 and E3375-8 issued by Department of the Environment Her-
itage and Local Government (DoEHLG) in consultation with the National Museum
of Ireland. The principal aim of this phase of the project was to test for any previously
unknown sites by a programme of centreline and offset testing and to test sites of archaeo-
logical potential identified in the EIS.
Phase 2 of the project (resolution) involved the resolution of all archaeological sites
identified within the proposed road corridor prior to commencement of the construction
of the road. This phase of the project was carried out from June 2007 to February 2008
and excavations were conducted under the management of a Senior Archaeologist. A total
of 27 sites were excavated during this phase of works under separate licences issued by
DoEHLG.
A post-excavation assessment and strategy document was prepared in Phase 3 of the
project to present a management strategy for dealing with post-excavation work aris-
ing from archaeological works along the route of the new N7 Castletown to Nenagh. It
included a proposal for post-excavation and archiving work and a budget for the works.

1


2 Route location
The route of the N7 Castletown to Nenagh road is located in Counties North Tipperary
and Offaly (OF) (Figure 1). The project (Contract 1) involves the construction of c. 17.5
km of the N7 from Clashnevin east of Nenagh to Castleroan south-east of Dunkerrin. It
passes through the townlands of Clashnevin, Derrybane, Newtown, Lissanisky, Killeisk,
Garavally, Derrycarney, Garrynafanna, Gortnadrumman, Kilgorteen, Falleen, Knock-
ane, Clash, Park, Rosdremid (OF), Clynoe (OF), Cullenwaine, Moneygall, Greenhills,
Drumbaun, Busherstown (OF), Drumroe (OF), Moatquarter, Loughan (OF) and Cas-
tleroan (OF). The townlands are located in the parishes of Ballymackey, Cullenwaine,
Castletownely, Rathnaveoge, Finglas and Dunkerrin and the baronies of Upper Ormond,
Ikerrin and Clonisk,
The route begins at the eastern end of the Nenagh bypass at Clashnevin c. 5 km east
of Nenagh and continues eastward on the northern side of the existing N7 in Co. Tip-
perary. It crosses a number of third class roads to the north of Toomyvara and 0.7 km
east of Clash crossroads crosses the Ollatrim River. It extends into County Offaly directly
east of Park. From here it crosses the R490 0.6 km north of Moneygall. It extends back
in County Tipperary and through the demesne of Greenhills before crossing the existing
N7 at the junction of Greenhills and Drumbaun townlands. It crosses back into County
Offaly and climbs east into Busherstown and Drumroe. It crosses the Keeloge Stream
into Moatquarter in County Tipperary and extends northeast back into County Offaly
through the townlands of Loughan and Castleroan 1.4 km southwest of Dunkerrin.

2

182550 198900 215250
Greenhills 1-e3638

193300
193300

!
(
Nenagh

Derg (Lough)

182950
182950

172600
172600

0 5 10

182550 198900
Kilometres
215250
±
Figure 1: Portion of map of Ireland showing the route of the N7 Castletown to Nenagh (Derrinsallagh to Ballintotty) Road Scheme (Contract 1)�
http://eachtra.ie/index.php/journal/e3638-greenhills1-co-tipperary/

3


3 Receiving environment
North Tipperary is bounded on the west by the River Shannon and Lough Derg with
the Silvermines, to the south, and small hills extending towards Devilsbit and Borrisnoe
Mountains to the east. The mountains are composed largely of Silurian strata and Old
Red Sandstone. Copper, silver and lead deposits have been mined in the Silvermines. The
geology of the lowlands consists of Carboniferous limestone covered by glacial drift in
addition to tracts of raised bog.
The western portion of the study area is drained by the Ollatrim River which flows
westwards into the River Ballintotty which in turns drains into the River Nenagh. The
eastern portion is drained by the Keeloge Stream and other small water sources. These rise
in the foothills of the Silvermine Mountains and flow north. The Keeloge drains into the
Little Brosna River c. 1 km south of Shinrone, Co Offaly. The Brosna turns north and
drains into the Shannon south of Banagher.
The largest population centre in the area is Nenagh. The smaller population centres,
are Toomyvara, Moneygall and Dunkerrin.
The soils on the route are characterised by 80% grey brown podzolics, 10% gleys, 5%
brown earths and 5% basin peat. They are derived from glacial till of predominantly Car-
boniferous limestone composition. These soils occur in Tipperary and Offaly and have a
wide use range being suitable for both tillage and pasture (Gardiner and Radford 1980,
97-99). Land use along the route was a mix of grassland devoted to intensive dairying and
cattle-rearing and tillage.

4 Archaeological and historical background
Archaeological sites of numerous periods were discovered along the route of the new road
(Figure 2). The periods are referred to as follows: Mesolithic (c. 8000 to 4000 BC), Neo-
lithic (c. 4000 to 2000 BC), Bronze Age (c. 2000 to 600 BC), and Iron Age (c. 500 BC
to AD 500), early medieval period (c. AD 500 to 1100), medieval period (c. AD 1100 to
1650), post-medieval period (c. AD 1650 to the present).

Mesolithic (c. 8000 to 4000 BC)
The earliest known human settlement in Ireland dates from the Mesolithic period (c.
8000 BC - 4000 BC). The majority of the evidence (flint scatters) for Mesolithic occupa-
tion has come from the river valleys. No evidence for the Mesolithic was recorded on the
route.

Neolithic (c. 4000 to 2000 BC)
The Neolithic Period is characterised by the introduction of agriculture and the begin-
nings of the clearance of the woodlands. The population increased and became more

4

190400 196200 202000 207800
Greenhills 1-e3638

186400
186400

Castleroan 1
E 3909
Greenhills 1
Busherstown 1
E 3661
Loughan 1
Greenhills 3 E 4000
E 3658

Moneygall 2
Culleenwaine 1 E 3635
E 3741 Moatquarter 1
Clynoe 2 E 3910
E 3774

181800
181800

Park 1 Drumroe 1
Garravally Kilgorteen 1 E 3659 E 3773
E 3589 E 3739
Drumbaun 2
Derrybane 2 E 3912
E 3591 Greenhills 1 Greenhills 2
E 3638 E 3637
Clashnevin 2
E 3590 Clash 1 Park 2
E 3660 E 3772

Derrycarney 1
E 3740

Clashnevin 1 Derrybane 1 Killeisk 1
E 3586 E 3585 E 3587

177200
177200

0 3 6

Kilometres ±
190400 196200 202000 207800

Figure 2: Discovery series OS map showing the route of the N7 Castletown to Nenagh (Derrinsallagh to Ballintotty) Road Scheme (Contract 1) and the location of all excavation sites�

5


sedentary in nature. The most important Neolithic site in the vicinity was at Tullahedy
recorded on the route of the Nenagh by-pass. It was a specialist chert arrow manufactur-
ing site.
No evidence for a Neolithic site was recorded on the route but stone tools dating to
the Neolithic were recorded at Busherstown E3661, Clash E3660, Cullenwaine E3741
and Greenhills 2 and 3 E3637 and E3658. Stone tools dating to the late Neolithic/Early
Bronze Age were recorded at Busherstown E3661, Castleroan E3909, Cullenwaine E3741,
Derrybane 1 E3585, Drumroe E3773, Greenhills 1 E3638 and Moatquarter E3910

Bronze Age (c. 2000 to 600BC)
The Bronze Age is characterised by the introduction of metallurgy and an increase in
settlement and burial sites. Copper ores were mined and copper, bronze and gold items
manufactured. The range of burial site types includes cist graves, pit and urn burials,
cremation cemeteries, barrows, ring-ditches and wedge tombs. Stone circles and stand-
ing stones also date to the Bronze Age. Both enclosed and unenclosed settlement sites
are known. The most prolific Bronze Age site type is the fulacht fiadh. These monuments
survive as low mounds of charcoal rich black silt, packed with heat-shattered stones, and
generally situated close to a water source. Fulachta fiadh are generally classified as ‘cook-
ing places’, whereby stones were heated in a hearth and subsequently placed in a trough
of water, the water continued to boil with the addition of hot stones and wrapped food
was cooked within the hot water. The trough eventually filled with small stones, ash and
charcoal that were removed, forming the basis of the familiar mound.
Two new fulachta fiadh / burnt mounds were recorded at Clashnevin 1 E3586, Cullen-
waine E3741 and six at three separate locations in Greenhills, E3638, E3637 and E3658.
Evidence of nine roundhouses or partial round structures were recorded; two at Cas-
tleroan E3909, Derrybane 2 E3591 and Drumbaun 2 E3912 and one at Clash E3660,
Drumroe E3773 and Moatquarter E3910.

Iron Age (c. 500 BC to AD 500)
Upto recently there was little evidence of a significant Iron Age presence in Munster.
Settlement sites are few and far between as well as being difficult to identify (Woodman,
2000) while the material culture of this period is limited. Linear earthworks, believed
to have marked tribal boundaries, and hillforts are two of the most visible monuments
of the period. Ten percent of sites excavated on NRA road schemes in recent years have
produced Iron Age dates. The dates have led to the identification of 30 new Iron Age sites
in Munster from road schemes in counties Cork, Limerick and Tipperary (McLaughlin
2008, 51). These include a ditched enclosure in Ballywilliam and a wooden trackway in
Annaholty Bog excavated on the route of the N7 Nenagh-Limerick (Taylor 2008, 54).
Evidence of domestic activity dating to the Late Bronze Age / Early Iron Age was re-
corded at Clashnevin 2.

6


Early medieval period (c. AD 400 to 1100)
The early medieval period is characterised by the arrival of Christianity to Ireland. The
characteristic monument type of the period is the ringfort. Ringforts are the most nu-
merous archaeological monument found in Ireland, with estimates of between 30,000
and 50,000 illustrated on the first edition of the Ordnance Survey 6” maps of the 1840’s
(Barry 1987). As a result of continued research, the construction of these monuments has
a narrow date range during the early medieval period between the 7th and 9th centuries
AD. Although there are some very elaborate examples of ringforts, they often take the
form of a simple earth or stone enclosure functioning as settlements for all classes of secu-
lar society (Stout 1997).
North Tipperary is rich in early ecclesiastical sites and the remains of these religious
centres are at the core of some of the towns and villages. Roscrea, for example, was chosen
by St Cronan as a location for his monastery in the seventh century as it was located at
the crossroads on the Slighe Dála, an important roadway in early medieval times (NIAH
2006, 4-8).
A possible early medieval enclosure and associated road way was recorded at Killeisk
E3587. A denuded ringfort (OF046-013) was excavated at Clynoe 2 E3774.

High and later medieval periods (c. AD 1100 to 1650)
This period is characterized by the arrival of the Anglo-Normans and the building of tow-
er houses. The Anglo-Normans obtained charters in the thirteenth century for the towns
of Nenagh, Roscrea, Thurles and Templemore and established markets. Nenagh grew
rapidly in the aftermath of the granting of the lands of Munster to Theobald fitzWalter in
1185 (ibid. 8). Moated sites represent the remains of isolated, semi-defended homesteads
in rural areas. They were build mainly in the late thirteenth and early fourteenth cen-
turies in counties, such as Wexford, Kilkenny, Tipperary, mid-Cork and Limerick, that
were colonised by English settlers (O’Conor 1998, 58). The Archaeological Inventory for
North Tipperary lists 39 moated sites (2002, 298).
A newly recorded moated site was excavated at Busherstown E3661.

Post-medieval period (c. 1650 to the present)
The post-medieval period is characterised by mills, limekilns, workhouses, country hous-
es and associated demesnes, vernacular buildings and field systems (Figure 3). A small
demesne associated with a county house was recorded in the townland of Greenhills.

7


Plate 1: Aerial view of Greenhills 1�
Greenhills 1 (E3638)
0 20 40
Meters ±
5 Site Location and Topography
The site at Greenhills 1 is located on undulating lowland on the northern side of a dry
sandy ridge on the edge of a hollow where peat had formed over a clay subsoil. When
ground water levels were high the hollow formed a seasonal pond. The site is located
within the former grounds of the Greenhills Demesne, with a walled orchard/garden and
outbuildings locate nearby (Plate 1).

6 Excavation methodology
The site was mechanically stripped of topsoil under strict archaeological supervision.
Stripping was done with a tracked machine with a flat toothless bucket. Topsoil stripping
commenced in the areas of identified archaeology and continued radially outward until
the limit of the road take was reached or until the limit of the archaeological remains was
fully defined. A grid was set up in the excavation area(s) and all archaeological features
were sufficiently cleaned, recorded and excavated so as to enable an accurate and mean-
ingful record of the site to be preserved. The excavation, environmental sampling, site
photographs, site drawings, find care and retrieval, on-site recording and site archive was
as per the Procedures for Archaeological works as attached to the licence method state-
ments for excavation licences.
The site was excavated from 13 November 2007 to the 8 December 2007. Only areas
within the LMA (lands made available) were resolved. The full extent of the area of exca-
vation measured 2580 m sq (Figure 4).

8

Greenhills 1-e3638

GREENHILLS

Greenhills 1

DRUMBAUN

MONEYGALL

0 150 300

¥ Meters

Figure 3: Portion of the Ist edition Ordnance Survey Map TN22 showing the location of Greenhills 1�

9

202880 203250 203620

10
181799
181799

Ballyfinboy (River)
GREENHILLS
issUe 11: eachtra JoUrnal - issn 2009-2237

126 00

125 00

124 00

123 00

181569
181569

122 00

121 00

120 00

11 900

11 800

11 700

11 600

11 500
MONEYGALL

DRUMBAUN

181339
181339

Greenhills 1 (E3638)
0 100 200
Metres ±
202880 203250 203620

Figure 4: Location and extent of Greenhills 1 E3638 on the N7 Castletown to Nenagh�
archaeoloGical excavation report


Plate 2: View of mound of burnt material on edge of hollow from east�

The full record of excavated contexts is recorded in the context register (Appendix 1)
and the stratigraphic matrix (Appendix 2). Detailed stratigraphic descriptions are found
in the groups and sub-groups text (Appendix 3). The context register and site photographs
maybe viewed in the EAPOD (Eachtra Archaeological Projects office database) in the
accompanying CD.

7 Excavation results
The excavation of the site at Greenhills comprised a mound of burnt material. The mound
was located on the northern and eastern side of a hollow (Figure 5, Plate 2). It overlay
nine pits.

Layers of burnt mound material
Eight layers of burnt mound material were concentrated in four discrete small shallow
mounds on the northern and eastern slopes of a low ridge. The main concentration of the
mound measured 16 m by 10 and was up to 0.5 m in depth. All the layers contained vari-
ous amounts of burnt pebbles and stones. The terminology, Mounds 1-4, were used in the
context and stratigraphic registers, they refer to discrete areas of layers of burnt mound
material. The mounds do not represent four different episodes of use but are the result of

11

12
203240 203260

±

18

181584
181584

Field boundaries

Connected 8 32
troughs 12
47
58
49
25
56
27 O
) 36
115 m O.D.

46 Mound material
Mound material

Seasonal Pond

181571
181571

0 10 m
203240 203260
Figure 5: Post-excavation plan of Greenhills 1 E3638�


truncation of the original mound due to agricultural activities, including the excavation
of a field boundary.
The main focus of the original extent of the mound of layers of burnt material was
likely to have been in proximity to the groups of pits.

Mound Layers
1 C.51, C.52, C.53
2 C.37/C.40 and C.42
3 C.33
4 C.7, C.24 and C.30
Table 1 Layers of burnt mound material�

A flint scraper E3638:7:1 was recovered from one of the layers.

The Pits
A total of nine pits were recorded at Greenhills. Six of the pits (C.8, C.12, C.47, C.49,
C.56 and C.58) formed a sub-circular arrangement, two more (C.27 and C.46) were lo-
cated 2.5 m to the west and the ninth C.25 was located 12.5 m to the east. The fills of the
pits were all derived from layers of burnt mound material.

Context No No. of fills Dimensions Capacity
Pit C.8 3 1.8 x 1.4 x 0.4 1.008
Pit C.12 1 1.7 x 1.5 x 0.36 0.918
Pit C.47 1 1.63 x 1.3 x 0.36 0.762
Pit C.49 1 1.8 x 1.2 x 0.4 0.864
Pit C.56 1 1.8 x 1.8 x 0.4 1.296
Pit C.58 1 1.5 x 1.4 x 0.4 0.84
Table 2 Dimensions of group of six pits�

The group of six pits (C.8, C.12, C.47, C.49, C.56 and C.58) were located in an area
that measured 17 m sq (Figure 6, Plate 3). They were similar in size and shape. The fills
were derived from burnt mound material. The base of the all the pits was very uneven
due to the high gravel content of the underlying subsoil. Three (C.8, C.12 and C.58) were
arranged in a line measuring 5 m in length. Pit C.8 was connected to pit C.12 by a nar-
row channel C.32 that measured 0.5 m by 0.4 m by 0.2 m in depth (Figure 7, Plate 4).
The third pit C.58 was located to the immediate south of pit C.12 but was not connected
directly by a channel. The subsoil that the pits were cut into sloped to the south.
The other three pits (C.47, C.49 and C.56) were located to the immediate west in a
sub-circular arrangement. Each of the three was connected to the adjoining pit.

Pit C.25 1 1.2 x 1.2 x. 0.3 0.432
Pit C.27 1 1.7 x 1.7 x 0.35 1.011
Pit C.46 1 1.6 x 1.7 x 0.3 0.816
Table 3 Dimensions of pits C�25, 27 and 46�

13


Plate 3: View of group of six pits from south�

Plate 4: View of pits C�8 and C�12 from north�

14

203242 203255

±
Greenhills 1-e3638

181580
181580

Connected
troughs

Mound material

181573
181573

Seasonal Pond

0 5m
203242 203255
Figure 6: Post-excavation plan of eight pits C�8, C�12, C�58, C�47, C�49, C�56, C�27 and C�46�

15

16
Greenhills 1
E3638
Northwest facing section of C.12, C.8 and C.32

Topsoil C.9

C.31 C.10
C.13
C.32
C.11

C.12 C.8

Greenhills 1

E3638
East facing section of C.27 and layers of burnt mound material

C.26

C.37

C.27
C.38
C.40

C.39

C.2

Greenhills 1
E3638
Southeast facing profile of C.25

C.25

0 500 mm

Figure 7: Section of pits C�8 and C�12 and channel C�32, section of pit C�27 and layers of burnt mound material and profile of pit C�25�


Plate 5: View of pit C�27 from north�

Pits C.27 and C.46 were located adjacent to one another (Figure 8) 2.5 m to the west
of the group of six. They were on the same level on the slope as the group of six. Pit C.27
was sub-rectangular in plan (Plate 5) and the base was flat. A Middle Bronze Age date of
cal BC 2133-2081 2061-1950 (UB-12353) was returned from the fill of pit C.46.
Pit C.25 was located on the eastern periphery of the site. It was separated from the
remainder of the pits by a modern field boundary.

Modern agricultural activity
Two field boundaries were recorded within the area of excavation. They were both orien-
tated north-west / south-east. The ditch C.18 was 2 m wide by 0.4 m in depth. A terminus
of the ditch was recorded within the area of the excavation to the south and it extended
beyond the area of the excavation to the north. The foundation of a field boundary was
recorded 3 m inside or to the south-west of the ditch. It truncated the layers of burnt
mound material and extended beyond the area of the excavation to the south. It was upto
3 m wide by 0.2 m in depth.
The field boundary was marked on the first edition of the OS map sheet TN22.

Lithic finds
The lithic was examined by Farina Sternke (Appendix 4). A small flint convex end scraper
which dates to the Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age (Beaker) period was recovered from
the one of the layers of burnt mound material (Plate 6).

17


Plant remains
The plant remains were identified by Pen-
ny Johnston (Appendix 5). Charred seeds
were absent from all the samples. The ab-
sence of seeds from samples associated
with burnt mounds is a relatively common
phenomenon.

Animal bone report
The animal bone was identified by Marga-
ret McCarthy (Appendix 6). A very small
quantity of bone was recovered from two of
the layers C.33 and C.39, the only identified
specimen being an adult cow tooth from the
former and nine fragments of bone from a
large-sized animal such as cow and ten in-
determinate specimens from the latter.
Plate 6: Flint scraper E3638:7:1�

Charcoal
The charcoal was identified for radiocarbon dating by Mary Dillon. Prunus charcoal were
identified from the fill of a pit.

Radiocarbon dates
Radiocarbon analysis was carried out by the 14 Chrono Centre in Queen’s University
Belfast. Dates were calibrated using Calib Rev5.0.2 (©1986-2005 M.Stuiver P.J. Re-
imer) and in conjunction with Stuiver Reimer 1993 and Reimer et al. 2004.

Lab Context Material Un-calibrated δ 13 1 sigma calibration 2 sigma
code date C calibration
UB- 45 Prunus charcoal 3657 +/- 24 -24.2 BC 2123-2093 2042- BC 2133-2081
12353 from fill of pit C.46 2010 2000-1977 2061-1950
Table 4: Radiocarbon date

18


Plate 7: View of seasonal pond and pits in background from south�

8 Discussion
A fulacht fiadh / burnt mound were recorded on low ground in Greenhills. The layers of
burnt mound material overlay nine pits. Many theories speculate as to the actual use of
burnt mound/fulacht fiadh sites (e.g. O’Kelly 1954; Ó Drisceoil 1988). We recognise the
sites archaeologically by the remains of charcoal and heat shattered stones but as Ó Néill
(2004) points out, these are the remains of a technology (the use of hot stones known as
‘pyrolithic technology’), rather than specific indications of the aims of the process. The
large trough and smaller pits indicate that there was extensive use of hot stone technology
at this site and that it was probably used for heating water.
Burnt mounds are the most common Bronze Age sites found in Ireland. Estimates
suggest that at least 4,500 examples are known. The characteristic site-type is found in
low-lying and damp ground and consists of a mound of charcoal-rich black sediment that
is packed with heat shattered stones and forms a horse-shoe shape around a pit or trough
that filled with water. In many cases all that survives to the present day are black charcoal
rich deposits with fragments of shattered stones visible in ploughed fields.
These sites are associated with the process of roasting stones to heat water. The remains
of these ‘pyrolithic technologies’ (terminology follows Ó Néill 2004) produce the tell-tale
deposits rich in charcoal and heat-affected stone. Debate continues about their use, as hot
water is required for many processes including cooking, brewing, washing, dyeing and,
most recently it has been argued that some burnt mounds were primarily used to boil and
cure meat for long term storage (Roycroft 2006).

19


Traditionally these sites have been interpreted as ancient cooking places, where large
stones were heated in fires and then added to the water filled trough the extreme heat
of the stones eventually heating the water in the trough until it reached boiling point.
Experimental cooking at reconstructed sites such as Ballyvourney (O’Kelly 1954) has
demonstrated that meat wrapped in straw and placed into a boiling trough can be cooked
quite effectively. The perceived lack of any animal bones from these excavated sites has
been used as an argument against this theory. More recently however there is a growing
corpus of sites which have produced animal bone (Tourunen 2008) including, though the
amounts are small, all of the burnt mounds sites on the N7 (Contract 1).
The traditional perception of the burnt mound site is that they are isolated features
on the landscape situated on marginal ground away from settlement. Recent studies how-
ever are requiring a re-evaluation of this perception. It can be regarded as certain that
the settlement sites and associated burnt mounds are only one part of a wider prehistoric
landscape which also includes lithic production and metalworking sites as well as burial
sites (Sternke 2009). Each of the six sites excavated on the N7 was located with a 1km ra-
dius of a Bronze Age settlement site, Clashnevin within 1 km east of Derrybane 2 E3591,
the site at Park E3772 was one of complex of burnt mound sites in the vicinity of Park 1
E3659 and the three sites at Greenhills (E3638, E3637, and E3658) within 1 km east of
Drumbaun E3912.
The inventory for North Tipperary lists 77 burnt mounds (Farrelly 2002) and the in-
ventory for Offaly lists 14 (O’Brien 1997) (Figure 9). Many more sites have been recorded
since the inventories were published. A total of six burnt mounds including Greenhills
were excavated on the N7 Castletown to Nenagh (Contract 1). At least 15 burnt mound
sites were excavated on the N7 Castletown to Nenagh (Contract 2) with a concentration
of 11 sites in the townland of Camlin. Burnt mounds were also excavated on the route
of the Nenagh by-pass and the Limerick Ring Road. A further five sites were recorded in
Park and Rosdrehid townlands during the testing of the service area site (Frazer 2009).

Site Name E No. Radiocarbon date 2 sigma calibration Period
Clashnevin 1 E3586 BC 1262-1110 1103-1072 1068-1056 Middle Bronze Age
Clashnevin 1 E3586 AD 982-1040 Medieval
Cullenwaine E3741 BC 2462 - 2294 Early Bronze Age
Greenhills 1 E3638 BC 2133 - 1950 Early Bronze Age
Greenhills 2 E3637 BC 1889-1748 Early Bronze Age
Greenhills 2 E3637 BC 2561-2536 2492-2299 Early Bronze Age
Greenhills 3 E3658 BC 1125-975 954-943 Middle Bronze Age
Greenhills 3 E3658 BC 2465-2286 2246-2243 Early Bronze Age
Greenhills 3 E3658 BC 1876-1841 1823-1797 1781-1683 Early Bronze Age
Park 2 E3772 BC 1508-1422 Middle Bronze Age
Park 2 E3772 BC 1527-1433 Middle Bronze Age
Table 5: Radiocarbon dates from the burnt mound sites on the N7 Castletown to Nenagh (Contract 1)

Most dated burnt mound sites have a focus of activity in the Middle to Late Bronze
Age (Brindley and Lanting 1990; and see graph of dates in Ó Néill 2003/2004). In all

20

191232 208232

¢
Greenhills 1-e3638

184059
184059

178059
178059

191232 208232
Barrow (11) Cairn (1) Fulacht Fiadh (15) Megalithic tomb (3) Pit group (3) Standing stone (9) 0 2.5 5
Burnt spread (2) Cremation (2) Linkardstown burial (2) Mound (6) Settlement site (9) Km

Figure 8: Prehistoric sites on and in the environs of N7 Castletown to Nenagh�

21


ten radiocarbon dates were obtained from the burnt mound sites on the route of the N7
Castletown to Nenagh. The majority of the sites are Early Bronze Age in date.
There are six main types of archaeological features encountered at burnt mound sites;
wells/springs, layers/deposits, hearths, trough/boiling pits, smaller pits, and stakeholes/
postholes. Three of the six feature types were recorded at Greenhills 1. The mound over-
lay nine pits. There is no water course in proximity to the site but the site is located on
the edge of a wet boggy area. During the course of the excavation, when the weather was
dry, ground water rose in the excavated area of the hollow to a depth of 0.3 m (Plate 7).
The water level remained at this depth for number of days before gradually decreasing.
The mound at Greenhills survived to a height of 0.5 m. Several burnt layers were iden-
tified within the mound. No formal hearth was identified in association with the mound.
A group of six pits or troughs were located adjacent to one another. Five of the six pits
were interlinked. They would have functioned in unison in food processing. They may
have held containers made from organic material such as baskets or wooden buckets. The
pits themselves could not have held water as they were cut into a sandy gravel subsoil. One
of the two pits located to the west of the group of six may have functioned as a trough. It
may have been lined though no trace of lining in the form of stake-holes was recorded.
There were six burnt mound sites recorded on the route of the N7 (Contract 1). All of
the sites conformed to a general common design but there were a number of differences
that distinguished one site from another. The water source that was used at each site was
different. All of the sites at Greenhills and Park were located on the edge of a wet boggy
hollow. A substantial well was recorded at Clashnevin, a less substantial well was recorded
at Park. There was no obvious water source at Cullenwaine. There were no stone tools re-
covered from the burnt mound at Clashnevin. In contrast they were recovered from four
of the other five sites, including a flint scraper from Greenhills. The presence of the flint
and chert scrapers suggests that hide-processing and wood- and/or bone-working were
some of the activities that could have been carried out at these sites.

22


9 References
Brindley, A.L. and Lanting, J.N. (1990) ‘The dating of fulachta fiadh’, in Buckley, V.
(ed.) Burnt Offerings. International contributions to burnt mound archaeology,
55-56. Dublin, Wordwell.

Farrelly, J., and O’Brien, C. (2002) Archaeological Inventory of County Tipperary Vol. 1 -
North Tipperary, The Stationery Office Dublin.

Frazer, W. (2009) Archaeological Assessment Report Nenagh NRA Service Area Park
townland, North Co. Tipperary and Roshedrid and Clynoe townlands, Co.
Offaly 09E122. Margaret Gowan Co. Ltd. Unpublished report.

Gardiner, M.J. and Radford,T. (1980) Soil Associations of Ireland and Their Land Use
Potential. Dublin, An Foras Talúntais.

McLaughlin, M. and Conran, S. (2008) ‘The emerging Iron Age of South Munster’ in
Seanda, Issue 3, 51-53. Dublin.

National Inventory of Architectural Heritage (2006) An Introduction to the Architectural
Heritage of North Tipperary. Government of Ireland.

O’Brien, C. (1997) Archaeological Inventory of County Offaly, The Stationery Office,
Dublin.

O’Conor, K.D. (1998) The Archaeology of Medieval Rural Settlement in Ireland,
Discovery Programme Monographs No 3, Discovery Programme/Royal Irish
Academy Dublin.

O’Kelly, M.J. (1954) Excavations and experiments in Irish cooking places. Journal of the
Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, Vol 84.

Ó Néill, J. (2003/2004) Lapidibus in igne calefactis coquebatur: The historical burnt
mound “tradition”, Journal of Irish Archaeology Vol. XII XIII.

Reimer, P.J., Baillie, M.G.L., Bard, E., Bayliss, A., Beck, J.W., Bertrand, C., Blackwell,
P.G., Buck, C.E., Burr, G., Cutler, K.B., Damon, P.E., Edwards, R.L., Fairbanks,
R.G., Friedrich, M., Guilderson, T.P., Hughen, K.A., Kromer, B., McCormac,
F.G., Manning, S., Bronk Ramsey, C., Reimer, R.W., Remmele, S., Southon, J.R.,
Stuiver, M., Talamo, S., Taylor, F.W., van der Plicht, J. and Weyhenmeyer, C.E.
(2004) ‘IntCal04 Terrestrial Radiocarbon Age Calibration, 0–26 Cal Kyr BP’,
Radiocarbon 46, 1029-1058.

23


Roycroft, N. (2006) A theory on Boiled Bull and Burnt Mounds, Seanda Issue 1, 38-39,
National Road Authority, Dublin.

Roycroft, N. (2008) Before, during and after the Kingdom of Ely, Seanda, Issue 3. 34-35,
National Road Authority, Dublin.

Sternke, F. (2009) More than meets the eye; an appraisal of the lithic assemblages
from the route of the N7 Castletown to Nenagh (Contract 1). Seanda. Issue 4,
30-31,National Road Authority, Dublin.

Stuiver, M., and Reimer, P.J. (1993) ‘Extended (super 14) C data base and revised
CALIB 3.0 (super 14) C age calibration program’, Radiocarbon 35, 215-230.

Stout, M. (1997) The Irish Ringfort. Dublin, Four Courts Press.

Taylor, K. (2008) ‘At home and on the road: two Iron Age sites in County Tipperary’ in
Seanda, Issue 3, 54-55. Dublin.

Tourunen, A. (2008) Fauna and fulachta fiadh: animal bones from burnt mounds
on the N9/N10 Carlow Bypass. In J. O’Sullivan and M. Stanley (eds.), Roads,
Rediscovery and Research. Archaeology and the National Roads Authority
Monograh Series No. 5. Wordwell.

Woodman, P.C. (2000) ‘Hammers and Shoeboxes: New Agendas for Prehistory’., pp. 1
-10 in Desmond, A., Johnson, G., McCarthy, M., Sheehan, J. and Shee Twohig,
E. New Agendas in Irish Prehistory. Papers in commemoration of Liz Anderson. Bray,
Wordwell.

24


Appendix 1 Stratigraphic Index

Please see attached CD.

25


Appendix 2 Site Matrix

26


Appendix 3 Groups and Subgroups
Group Number Description Subgroup Numbers Description Context numbers
Group 1 Natural deposits 1a Topsoil C.1, C.4
1b Subsoil C.2, C.3
Group 2 Layers of Burnt 2a Layers C.7, C.30, C.33,
mound material C37/C.40, C.42,
C.51, C.52, C.53
Group 3 Pits 3a Pits and channel C.8, C.12, C.47,
C.49, C.56, C.58,
C.32
3b Pit C.25,
3c Pits C.27, C.46
Group 4 Modern features 4a layers C.38, C.6
4b wall C.36
4c Ditch C.18
Non arch. C.28, C.43, C.44,
C.54 and C.55

Group 1 Natural Deposits
Topsoil C.1
Description
A firm, mid brown sandy, peaty clay, maximum depth 0.50m.
Interpretation
This represented the topsoil which had formed across the northern portion of the site.

Topsoil C.4 (same as C.5/C.23/C.28/C.29/C.39)
Description
A firm, dark reddish brown peat, maximum depth 0.30m
Interpretation
This represented the topsoil which had formed across the southern portion of the site. The
peat was deeper in the hollow to the south where the seasonal pond was located.

Subsoil C.2 (same as C.35)
Description
A loose, mid grey pebbly sand and gravel.
Interpretation
This subsoil occurs primarily on the ridge in the northern portion of the site but occurs
intermittently across the site.

Subsoil C.3 (same as C.19/C.20/C.22)
Description
A weakly cemented, light yellowish grey clayey sand with a medium density of stone
inclusions.

27


Interpretation
This is a natural horizon found primarily under the seasonal pond on the southern fringes
of the site.

General interpretation Group 1
The topsoil was a mix of peaty clay and peat. The peaty clay had accumulated for the most
part on the low ridge and overlay the sandy gravel while the peat had accumulated on the
edges of the ridge and in the hollow. It overlay a clayey sand. Large pieces of natural wood
had accumulated in the hollow.

During the course of the excavation, when the weather was dry, ground water rose in the
excavated area of the hollow to a depth of c. 0.3 m. The water level remained at this depth
for number of days before gradually decreasing.

Group 2 Layers of burnt mound material

Subgroup 2a
Layer C.7 (same as layer C.24)
Description
A firm, dark greyish brown sandy, stony silt. It measured 8.5m x 6m and had a maximum
depth of 0.2m.
Interpretation
This layer was the disturbed remains of part of a burnt mound.

Layer C.30
Description
Soft dark brown sandy peat. It measured 1.46m by 0.19m in depth.
Interpretation
This layer was the disturbed remains of part of a burnt mound. It overlay pit C.25.

Layer C.33
Description
Loose, dark greyish brown sandy, stony silt. It measured 2.8m x 0.20m and had a maxi-
mum depth of 0.20m. Very similar in morphology to the other layers, C.51, C.37 and
C.40 that formed the mound of burnt material.
Interpretation
This layer was the disturbed remains of part of a burnt mound.

Layer C.37/C.40
Description

28


A soft, dark greyish brown stony silt. It reached a maximum depth of 0.40m and meas-
ured c. 5.1m NS x 8.8m EW.
Interpretation
This layer was the disturbed remains of part of a mound of burnt material.

Layer C.42
Description
Dark grey black peat sand. It measured 2.6m by 1.3m.
Interpretation
This layer was the disturbed remains of part of a mound of burnt material.

Layer C.51
Description
A soft, dark greyish brown stony silt. It reached a maximum depth of 0.40m and meas-
ured c. 6.16m x 7m.
Interpretation
This deposit was the disturbed remains of part of a mound of burnt material.

Layer C.52
Description
Mid brown yellow sand. It measured 0.92m by 0.24m in depth.
Interpretation
This layer was the disturbed remains of part of a mound of burnt material. It underlay
layer C.51.

Layer C.53
Description
Dark yellow brown sandy silt. It measured 0.56m by 0.06m in depth.
Interpretation
This layer was the disturbed remains of part of a mound of burnt material. It underlay
layer C.51.

General interpretation Group 2
Eight layers of burnt mound material were recorded on the southern and eastern edges
of the shallow ridge, they were concentrated in four small shallow mounds. All the layers
contained various amounts of burnt pebbles and stones. The mounds do not represent
four different episodes of use but are the result of truncation of the original mound due to
agricultural activities and possibly to an element of soil creep on a slope. The main focus
of the original extent of the mound of layers of burnt material was likely to have been in
proximity to the groups of pits.

29


Note: The terms Mounds 1-4 were used as descriptive terms during excavation and are
used in the context and stratigraphic registers, they define discrete areas of layers of burnt
mound material.

Mound Layers
1 C.51, C.52, C.53
2 C.37/C.40 and C.42
3 C.33
4 C.7, C.24 and C.30

Group 3 Pits and troughs
Pit C.8 3 1.8 x 1.4 x 0.4 1.008
Pit C.12 1 1.7 x 1.5 x 0.36 0.918
Pit C.25 1 1.2 x 1.2 x. 0.3 0.432
Pit C.27 1 1.7 x 1.7 x 0.35 1.011
Pit C.46 1 1.6 x 1.7 x 0.3 0.816
Pit C.47 1 1.63 x 1.3 x 0.36 0.762
Pit C.49 1 1.8 x 1.2 x 0.4 0.864
Pit C.56 1 1.8 x 1.8 x 0.4 1.296
Pit C.58 1 1.5 x 1.4 x 0.4 0.84

Subgroup 3a Group of six pits and channel C.32
Pit C.8 (fills C.9, C.10 and C.11)
Description
The pit was oval in plan. Fills C.9 and C.10 contained a loose, dark brown silty, pebbly,
stony, peaty sand which had a maximum depth of 0.08m and 0.20m respectively. C.11,
the basal layer was a compact, mid grey clayey silty sand.
Interpretation
The pit was connected to pit C.12 by a narrow channel C.32. It was located in proximity
to the other five pits.

Pit C.12 (fill C.13)
Description
This pit was sub-circular in plan. The fill C.13 was a loose, dark brownish black silty, peb-
bly, stony sand, similar to C.9 and C.10.
Interpretation
The function of the pit was related to the other five pits.

Description
The pit was circular in plan. The fill C.48 was a firm, dark brownish black stony silt with
a moderate density of stone inclusions.
Interpretation

30



Pit C. 49 (fill C.50)
Description
The pit was circular in plan. The fill C.50 was a firm, dark brownish black stony silt with
a moderate density of stone inclusions.
Interpretation

Pit C. 56
Description
This pit was oval in plan and contained the burnt mound layer C.51.
Interpretation

Description
This pit was oval in plan and contained the fill C.57 which was a loose, dark greyish black
silty sand with occasional flecks of charcoal.
Interpretation

Channel C.32 (fill C.31)
Description
Linear in plan, it measured 0.5m x 0.4m and had a maximum depth of 0.20m. It con-
tained the fill C.31 which was a soft, loose, mid grey clayey silt. The short channel con-
nected pit C.8 to pit C.12.
Interpretation
A channel between pits C.8 and C.12, which would suggest regulation of water/water
management.

Subgroup 3b
Description
This pit measured 1.2 m in length, 1.2 m in width and 0.3 m in depth, was sub-circular
in plan, was located under spread 4 and contained the fill C.51 which was a loose, dark
greyish black silty sand with occasional flecks of charcoal.
Interpretation
The pit was located at a distance from the group of six pits (subgroup 1).

31


Subgroup 3c
Description
The pit was irregular in plan.. It contained the fill C.51 which was loose, dark greyish
black silty sand with occasional flecks of charcoal.
Interpretation
The pit was located 0.2m east of pit C.46.

Description
The pit was circular in plan. It contained the fill C.45 which was a dark brownish black,
sandy stony silt, with occasional flecks of charcoal.
Interpretation
This pit could have functioned as a trough. No evidence of a lining was recorded.

General Interpretation Group 3
The group of six pits were located in close proximity to one another in a circular arrange-
ment. The pits were similar in size. Pit C.8 was connected to pit C.12 by a narrow channel
C.32. Pit C.47 was possibly connected to Pit C.49 by a narrow channel and pit C.49 to pit
C.56 by a narrow channel. The base of the six pits was very uneven due to the high stone
content of the underlying subsoil.

Pit C.25 was located c. 12.5m to the east and the two pits C.46 and C.27 were located c.
2.5m to the west of the group of six. Did pit C.46 function as a trough? Or did all the pits
serve the same function?

Group 4 Modern features

Subgroup 4a
Layers C.38 and C.6
Layer C.38
Description
A firm, peaty mid brown silt. Occasional fine sub-rounded and rounded; and moderate
medium sub-rounded pebbles. It measured 3m EW x 1.5m NS and a maximum depth
0.10m.
Interpretation
A modern layer that overlay C.37, a layer of burnt mound material. It was a mix of peat
and topsoil deposited possibly as a result of reclamation/drainage by farmer. The inclusion
of modern pottery, glass and roof-slate indicated a modern date for it.

Layer C.6

32


Description
A soft, mid greyish brown clay that measured 2.5m x 0.30m and had a maximum depth
of 0.08m
Interpretation
A mixed layer of gravel, fine pebbles, sand and clay. A modern deposit possibly associated
with drainage.

Subgroup 4b
Field boundary C.36 (fill 34)
Description
Linear in plan with rounded corners. It reached a maximum depth of 0.20m and extend-
ed in an east west direction. It contained the fill C.34, a loose sandy silt, mid yellowish
brown in colour.
Interpretation
Cut of a field boundary which was not recorded on any of the editions of the OS maps,
but the landowner was able to confirm its existence.

Subgroup 4c
Ditch C.18 (fills C.14, C.15, C.16, C.17 and C.41)
Description
Linear in plan with rounded corners on NE and SW. It had a maximum depth of 0.40m.
It contained the fills C.14, C.15, C.16, C.17 and C.41. The fills C.14 and C.15 were a
loose, mid yellowish brown silty sand similar in texture and composition. C.16 was a soft,
mid brownish grey sandy clay. The basal fill was C.17/C.41 a soft, mid yellowish grey
sandy clay.
Interpretation
Cut of a modern field ditch located to NE of pit C.25. This ditch is marked on the first
edition OS map sheet TN22. It was recorded for a length of c. 22 and extended beyond
the area of excavation to the north.

General interpretation of Group 4
The fulacht fiadh was located within the area of Greenhills Demesne, to the north of the
walled in garden. Boundaries associated with the demesne were recorded within the area
of the excavation.

Non-archaeological numbers
C.43, C.44, C.54 and C.55

33


Appendix 4 Lithics Report

Introduction
One lithic find from the archaeological excavation of a prehistoric site at Greenhills 1, Co.
Tipperary was presented for analysis (Table 1). The find is associated with a fulacht fiadh
and nine associated pits.
Find Number

Context

Material

Type

Cortex

Condition

Length (mm)
Width (mm)
Thickn. (mm)

Complete

Retouch
E3638:7:1 7 Flint Retouched Artefact No Patinated 26 10 9 Yes distal and right edge
direct semiabrupt
Table 1 Composition of the Lithic Assemblage from Greenhills 1 (E3638)

Methodology
All lithic artefacts are examined visually and catalogued using Microsoft Excel. The fol-
lowing details are recorded for each artefact which measures at least 2 cm in length or
width: context information, raw material type, artefact type, the presence of cortex, arte-
fact condition, length, with and thickness measurements, fragmentation and the type of
retouch (where applicable). The technological criteria recorded are based on the terminol-
ogy and technology presented in Inizan et al. 1999. The general typological and morpho-
logical classifications are based on Woodman et al. 2006. Struck lithics smaller than 2 cm
are classed as debitage and not analysed further, unless they represent pieces of techno-
logical or typological significance, e.g. cores etc. The same is done with natural chunks.

Quantification
The lithic (E3638:7:1) is a worked piece of flint.

Provenance
The artefact was recovered from the burnt material of mound 4.

Condition:
The lithic survives in patinated, complete condition.

34

Archaeological Report - Greenhills 1, Co. Tipperary (Ireland)

Archaeological Report - Greenhills 1, Co. Tipperary (Ireland)

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