3. The Technological Revolution
History:
Where did our first computers come from?
In 1822 Charles Babbage
Herman Hollerith developed the mechanical tabulator
In 1944 IBM created the Harvard Mark 1
In 1946 ENIAC was announced
4. Progression of technology means progression of
machines by that they are smaller, faster and more
accurate than humans can be.
5. What is „function allocation‟?
A classic human factor method for deciding whether a particular
function will be accomplished by a person, technology (hardware
or software) or some mix of person and technology
The concept of human-machine function allocation was proposed
by Fitts (1951)
Used to determine if a person or a machine could better perform
the function required be the system. Optimising performance
makes the work done more efficient, which increases safety,
quality, and ultimately profit-margins.
Allocating function, then, is the theoretical basis for delegating
work to make it optimal.
Gagne (1962), Meister and Rabideau (1965), and Jordan (1963)...
7. Fitt‟s List
Fitt‟s list is a series of statements regarding the abilities of
humans and machines, which is used to determined the
allocation of function/task assignment.
It is otherwise known as HABA-MABA.
Humans Machines
Are Are
Better Better
At At
8. Fitt‟s List
Humans Are Better At Machines Are Better At
Detection of nuance Operating in environments that are hostile
Perceiving a wide variety of stimuli, i.e., 5 senses Repetitive, precise operations
Pattern perception Fast response to signals
Relevant recall of information Processing information in short time periods
Creativity Performing with high accuracy
Reaction to low-probability events, i.e., Sensitivity to stimuli beyond human sensitivity, like
accidents/faults infrared, etc
Flexible problem solving Multi-tasking
Utilising experience in the present Exerting large amounts of force smoothly
Performing when overloaded Insensitive to extraneous factors, such as mood, etc
Inductive reasoning/Hypothesising Deductive reasoning/Logic
9. So...what does it mean?
The fact that “Machines are better at operating in hostile
environments” allowed the Mars Rover to provide us with
information about Mars that humans couldn‟t ever attain.
10. So... What does it mean?
The fact that “Humans are better at creativity” has
allowed the product patented US D504,889 S to exist.
12. Fitt‟s List
Utilising the theoretical framework of Fitt‟s List allows for
the designer to manufacture a product optimally:
In terms of finish;
In terms of durability;
In terms of minimum waste of resources;
In terms of time.
Ultimately, in terms of profit-margin.
14. Disadvantages
Function allocation guidelines are often simplistic and provide only limited heuristics for
allocating functions among people, hardware, and software.
Function allocation can have effects on human values. For example, automated
systems may lower user satisfaction due to less human intervention.
Automated system users, may depend greatly on automation and fail to monitor the
system effectively
What about dynamic allocation of functions between software and people (crash
prevention systems in cars)? However when does the software allow the person to
override the automation? Does the system know when someone is fatigued or when the
driver is an expert?
Fitt's List is outdated, because it doesn't take into account things like hardware upgrades
and that have improved exponentially since the 50's.
Difficult to apply allocation function, due to the approach requiring that some aspects
are done by human operators and some by automation.
15. Further disadvantages
The either/or-approach might be best settled by the and-approach: humans and machines
symbiotically, not humans or machines.
Over-automation, tendency of complex automation to be incomprehensible (system being too
complex for the operator to control leading to automation failure).
Certain situations operators can “under-rely” on the automation, while other situations operators can
“over-rely” on automation. (Parasuraman et al., 2000). This can be due to operator having insufficient
knowledge about automation or when confidence is misplaced.
In many cases automation replaces operator error with design error, due to lack of operational practice
being incorporated into their design.
A heavy reliance on machines could lead to further socio-economic problems, such as increased
unemployment, wages being lowered, work place safety diminishing, etc. (e.g. The Industrial Revolution,
machines were allocated the majority of tasks in factories due to a leap in efficiency of the means of
production. Jordan 1963: "to the extent that man becomes comparable to a machine we do not really
need him anymore since he can be replaced by a machine.”
The List could be seen to invalid, because it makes a distinction between what we can describe and
what we can‟t. machines can do a task through the form of a mathematical equation. If all tasks could
be described in terms of mathematics, then machines could do any tasks. The List, then, distinguishes
what can be described mathematically and what cannot
17. What is evaluation ?
Last step of the function allocation process
“Measure” of the overall efficiency of the function
allocation by identifying :
the task structure and its demands
the knowledge needed to perform the task
the environmental constraints
the functional and safety requirements
…
Function allocation is optimized when tasks associated with :
Technical limitations, ethics, safety…
=> allocated to humans
Human capability limits, hostile environment…
=> allocated to machines
18. What is evaluation ?
Sometimes, the evaluation enables to spot that the allocation
of functions was not optimal.
Re-allocation of functions.
19. Aspects that are evaluated
System performance
Evaluation and
re-allocation
Evaluation and
re-allocation