Forms of Migrants’ Political Transnationalism: Towards an Operational Typology Simona Kuti, Institute for Migration and Ethnic Studies, Zagreb Divided Societies XII: Building up the Polities; The Balkans IUC, Dubrovnik, 20 -2 5 April , 200 9

Contents Introduction – transnational ism d efinitions criticism s Types of transnationalism e conomic socio-cultural p olitical etc. Political transnationalism r esearch ( American vs. European perspective ) determinants Elements for an operational typology n arrow / broad and core/expanded dichotomies form/substance degree of institutionalisation, focus of activities, etc.

Introduction – transnational ism

d efinitions

criticism s

Types of transnationalism

e conomic

socio-cultural

p olitical etc.

Political transnationalism

r esearch ( American vs. European perspective )

determinants

Elements for an operational typology

n arrow / broad and core/expanded dichotomies

form/substance

degree of institutionalisation, focus of activities, etc.

Definitions (1) Glick Schiller et al. - transnationalism as " A New Analytic Framework for Understanding Migration " (1992) " the processes by which immigrants build social fields that link together their country of origin and their country of settlement. Immigrants who build such fields are designated “ transmigrants ”. Transmigrants develop and maintain multiple relations - familial, economic, social, organizational, religious, and political that span borders. Transmigrants take actions, make decisions, and feel concerns, and develop identities within social networks that connect them to two or more societies simultaneously. "

Glick Schiller et al. - transnationalism as " A New Analytic Framework for Understanding Migration " (1992)

" the processes by which immigrants build social fields that link together their country of origin and their country of settlement. Immigrants who build such fields are designated “ transmigrants ”. Transmigrants develop and maintain multiple relations - familial, economic, social, organizational, religious, and political that span borders. Transmigrants take actions, make decisions, and feel concerns, and develop identities within social networks that connect them to two or more societies simultaneously. "

Definitions (2) "'transnationalism' broadly refers to multiple ties and interactions linking people or institutions across the borders of nation-states." ( Vertovec , 1999 )

"'transnationalism' broadly refers to multiple ties and interactions linking people or institutions across the borders of nation-states." ( Vertovec , 1999 )

Definitions (3) "it is preferable to delimit the concept of transnationalism to occupations and activities that require regular and sustained social contacts over time across national borders for their implementation." (Portes et al. , 1999)

"it is preferable to delimit the concept of transnationalism to occupations and activities that require regular and sustained social contacts over time across national borders for their implementation." (Portes et al. , 1999)

Meanings of Transnationalism Vertovec (1999) - transnationalism as: 1) social morphology (transnational networks, transnational communities) 2) type of consciousness (dual or multiple identifications) 3) mode of cultural reproduction (cultural interpenetration and blending) 4) avenue of capital (transnational transactions, TNCs) 5) site of political engagement (INGOs, TSMOs) 6) ( r e)construction of 'place' or locality (translocalities, virtual neighbourhoods)

Vertovec (1999) - transnationalism as:

1) social morphology (transnational networks, transnational communities)

2) type of consciousness (dual or multiple identifications)

3) mode of cultural reproduction (cultural interpenetration and blending)

4) avenue of capital (transnational transactions, TNCs)

5) site of political engagement (INGOs, TSMOs)

6) ( r e)construction of 'place' or locality (translocalities, virtual neighbourhoods)

New vs. Old Transnationalism "contemporary transnationalism involves more rapid and denser linkages between immigrants and the sending countries" (Itzigsohn, 2000) "For all their significance, early transnational economic and political enterprises were not normative or even common among the vast majority of immigrants, nor were they undergirded by the thick web of regular instantaneous communication and easy personal travel that we encounter today." ( Portes et al. , 1999 )

"contemporary transnationalism involves more rapid and denser linkages between immigrants and the sending countries" (Itzigsohn, 2000)

"For all their significance, early transnational economic and political enterprises were not normative or even common among the vast majority of immigrants, nor were they undergirded by the thick web of regular instantaneous communication and easy personal travel that we encounter today." ( Portes et al. , 1999 )

Transnational Actors Guarnizo and Smith (1998) "transnationalism from above" governments and corporations "transnationalism from below" immigrants, grassroots entrepreneurs , activists

Guarnizo and Smith (1998)

"transnationalism from above"

governments and corporations

"transnationalism from below"

immigrants, grassroots entrepreneurs , activists

Cross-border activities by different types of actors (Portes 2001; 2003) Activities Areas Political Economic Socio-cultural International Establishment of embassies and organization of diplomatic missions abroad by national governments. Export drives by farming, ranch, and fishing organizations from a particular country. Travel and exchange programmes organized by universities based on a specific country. Multinational United Nations and other international agencies charged with monitoring and improving specialized areas of global life. Production and marketing activities of global corporations with profits dependent on multiple national markets. Schools and missions sponsored by the Catholic Church and other global religions in multiple countries. Transnational a) Non-governmental associations established to monitor human rights globally. b) Hometown civic associations established by immigrants to improve their sending communities. a) Boycotts organized by grassroots activists in First World countries to compel multinationals to improve their Third World labour practices. b) Enterprises established by immigrants to export/import goods to and from their home countries. a) Grassroots charities promoting the protection and care of children in poorer nations. b) Election of beauty queens and selection of performing groups in immigrant communities to take part in annual hometown festivals.

Areas of Transnational Activities Portes et al. , 1999 economic, political and socio-cultural transnationalism Itzigsohn et al. , 1999 civil-societal Levitt, 2003 religious Al-Ali et al. , 2001

Portes et al. , 1999

economic, political and socio-cultural transnationalism

Itzigsohn et al. , 1999

civil-societal

Levitt, 2003

religious

Al-Ali et al. , 2001

Categorisation of individual and community activities by type and geographical focus (Al-Ali et al. , 2001) Home country focus Host country focus Economic Financial remittances Other remittances (e.g. medicine, clothes) Investments Charitable donations Taxe s Charitable donations Donations to community organisations Political Participation in elections Membership of political parties Political rallies Political demonstrations Mobilisation of political contacts in host country Social Visits to friends and family Social contacts ‘ Social remittances’ Membership of social clubs Links with other organisations (e.g. religious and other refugee organisations) - Participation in discussion groups (e.g. Internet bulletin boards) Cultural - Cultural events including visiting performers from the home country - Events to promote culture (e.g. concerts, theatre, exhibitions) -Education

Financial remittances

Other remittances (e.g. medicine, clothes)

Investments

Charitable donations

Taxe s

Charitable donations

Donations to community organisations

Participation in elections

Membership of political parties

Political rallies

Political demonstrations

Mobilisation of political

contacts in host country

Visits to friends and family

Social contacts

‘ Social remittances’

Membership of social clubs

Links with other organisations (e.g. religious and other refugee

organisations)

- Participation in discussion

groups (e.g. Internet bulletin

boards)

Participation in hometown associations as indicator of: socio-cultural transnationalism Itzigsohn and Saucedo, 2002; Portes, 2003 civil-societal transnationalism Itzigsohn et al. , 1999 political transnationalism Landolt et al. , 1999; Portes, 2001; Itzigsohn, 2000 economic transnationalism Vertovec, 2004; Portes et al. , 2002

socio-cultural transnationalism

Itzigsohn and Saucedo, 2002; Portes, 2003

civil-societal transnationalism

Itzigsohn et al. , 1999

political transnationalism

Landolt et al. , 1999; Portes, 2001; Itzigsohn, 2000

economic transnationalism

Vertovec, 2004; Portes et al. , 2002

Political Transnationalism (1) "wide range of phenomena" (Bauböck, 2003 ) "very dispersed field of inquiry" - includes activities such as transnational election campaigns and cross-border voting, migrants' rallies and demonstrations, engagement in hometown associations' projects in the region of origin (Østergaard-Nielsen, 2003)

"wide range of phenomena" (Bauböck, 2003 )

"very dispersed field of inquiry" - includes activities such as transnational election campaigns and cross-border voting, migrants' rallies and demonstrations, engagement in hometown associations' projects in the region of origin (Østergaard-Nielsen, 2003)

Political Transnationalism (2) European vs. American perspective (Østergaard-Nielsen, 2001; 2003) amount focus receiving vs. sending country level of analysis top-down vs. bottom-up

European vs. American perspective (Østergaard-Nielsen, 2001; 2003)

amount

focus

receiving vs. sending country

level of analysis

top-down vs. bottom-up

Definition transnational political practices include "various forms of direct cross - border participation in the politics of their country of origin by both migrants and refugees, as well as their indirect participation via the political institutions of the host country " ( Østergaard – Nielsen , 200 1; 200 3) the question of mobility

transnational political practices include "various forms of direct cross - border participation in the politics of their country of origin by both migrants and refugees, as well as their indirect participation via the political institutions of the host country " ( Østergaard – Nielsen , 200 1; 200 3)

the question of mobility

Research "Comparative Immigrant Enterprise Project" - CIEP, 1996-1998 - Colombian, Dominican, and Salvadoran immigrants (USA) Guarnizo et al . , 2003 : t ransnational electoral participation - membership in a political party in the country of origin, monetary contributions to the parties, active involvement in political campaigns in the polity of origin t ransnational nonelectoral politics - membership in a hometown civic association, monetary contributions to civic projects in the community of origin, membership in charity organizations sponsoring projects in the home country

"Comparative Immigrant Enterprise Project" - CIEP, 1996-1998 - Colombian, Dominican, and Salvadoran immigrants (USA)

Guarnizo et al . , 2003 :

t ransnational electoral participation - membership in a political party in the country of origin, monetary contributions to the parties, active involvement in political campaigns in the polity of origin

t ransnational nonelectoral politics - membership in a hometown civic association, monetary contributions to civic projects in the community of origin, membership in charity organizations sponsoring projects in the home country

Determinants of Immigrants' Political Transnationalism gender marital status age human capital social capital lenght of U.S. residence (Guarnizo et al. , 2003)

gender

marital status

age

human capital

social capital

lenght of U.S. residence

(Guarnizo et al. , 2003)

participation in transnational economic and political activities - exceptional and restricted to a minority of relevant populations regular engagement in electoral politics - 9.9 % (15 % - Dominicans) regular engagement in nonelectoral politics – 18 % hometown civic associations - 16.3 % - Salvadorans ( Portes, 2001; 2003; Guarnizo et al. 2003; Portes et al. 2002 )

participation in transnational economic and political activities - exceptional and restricted to a minority of relevant populations

regular engagement in electoral politics - 9.9 % (15 % - Dominicans)

regular engagement in nonelectoral politics – 18 %

hometown civic associations - 16.3 % - Salvadorans

( Portes, 2001; 2003; Guarnizo et al. 2003; Portes et al. 2002 )

Dichotomies "narrow" and "broad" transnational practices (Itzigsohn et al. , 1999) "core" and "expanded" transnationalism (Guarnizo, 2000; Levitt, 2001)

"narrow" and "broad" transnational practices (Itzigsohn et al. , 1999)

"core" and "expanded" transnationalism (Guarnizo, 2000; Levitt, 2001)

" Dimensions of narrow and broad transnationality " (Itzigsohn et al. , 1999) Transnational practices Narrow Broad High Institutionalization Low Constant Participation Occasional Regular Movement Sporadic

"Core" and "expanded" transnationalism activities of " core " transnationalism form an integral part of the individual’s habitual life undertaken on a regular basis patterned and predictable activities of "e xpanded " transnationalism engage ment in occasional transnational practices ( Guarnizo , 2000 ; Levitt, 2001 )

activities of " core " transnationalism

form an integral part of the individual’s habitual life

undertaken on a regular basis

patterned and predictable

activities of "e xpanded " transnationalism

engage ment in occasional transnational practices

( Guarnizo , 2000 ; Levitt, 2001 )

Transnational political activities electoral – non-electoral activities direct – indirect participation institutional – confrontational participation home – host country focus of activities etc.

electoral – non-electoral activities

direct – indirect participation

institutional – confrontational participation

home – host country focus of activities

etc.

" Dimensions of migrants' transnational political practices" ( Østergaard - Nielsen , 2003) immigrant politics homeland politics emigrant politics diaspora politics translocal politics

immigrant politics

homeland politics

emigrant politics

diaspora politics

translocal politics

E mergence of transnational practices linear transnationalism (Portes, 1999) reactive transnationalism + resource dependent transnationalism (Itzigsohn and Saucedo, 2002)

linear transnationalism (Portes, 1999)

reactive transnationalism

+ resource dependent transnationalism (Itzigsohn and Saucedo, 2002)

Concluding Remarks multilevel political institutional environment of migrants' transnationalism ( Østergaard – Nielsen , 2003) 3 instrumental reasons for the involvement of sending states ( Bauböck , 2003) : human capital upgrading r emittances political lobbying of receiving-country governments

multilevel political institutional environment of migrants' transnationalism ( Østergaard – Nielsen , 2003)

3 instrumental reasons for the involvement of sending states ( Bauböck , 2003) :

human capital upgrading

r emittances

political lobbying of receiving-country governments

Concluding Remarks 5 types of sending state policies (Levitt and de la Dehesa, 2003) : bureaucratic reforms investment policies political rights: dual citizenship and external voting extension of state services abroad symbolic policies effects of international activities on transnational initiatives and types of responses (Portes) migrants' transnational activism a s a constructive phenomenon (Guarnizo et al. , 2003)

5 types of sending state policies (Levitt and de la Dehesa, 2003) :

bureaucratic reforms

investment policies

political rights: dual citizenship and external voting

extension of state services abroad

symbolic policies

effects of international activities on transnational initiatives and types of responses (Portes)

migrants' transnational activism a s a constructive phenomenon (Guarnizo et al. , 2003)