Minority languages in the linguistic
landscape: Basque and Frisian
Durk Gorter
Jasone Cenoz
Ikerbasque / University of the
Basque Country
Barcelona 16 October 2008

DEFINITIONS

Linguistic landscape defined (1)
• “Landscape” =
• 1) expanse of scenery
• 2) picture representing such a view
LITERAL &
REPRESENTATIONAL
Hobbema - Avenue at Middelharnis, 1689

“Linguistic landscape” defined (2)
Existing literature
• Sciriha, L. and Vassallo, M. (2001) Malta : A Linguistic Landscape.
• = language situation
• Labov, W., Ash, S. and Boberg, C. (1997) A National Map of The Regional
Dialects of American English.
• = spread and boundaries of dialects
• Tafoya, S.M. (2002) The Linguistic Landscape of California Schools.
• = non-English speakers in primary schools
• Hicks, D. (2002) Scotland's linguistic landscape: the lack of policy and
planning with Scotland's place-names and signage.
• = signage and place-names

Linguistic landscape defined (3)
‘The language of public road signs, advertising
billboards, street names, place names, commercial
shop signs, and public signs on government buildings
combines to form the linguistic landscape of a given
territory, region, or urban agglomeration’
(Landry and Bourhis 1997: 25)

Linguistic landscape defined (4)
• Written language(s) in public space
• Language visible in a specified area
• Alternative term: “multilingual cityscape”

Motivation
• Study of linguistic diversity
• Reflect different strengths of languages
• Related to identity and language policy
• Additional source of information

PERSPECTIVES

Conceptual approaches
historical
urban geography language policy
sociolinguistics
semiotics Linguistic
Landscape
education economic
SLA

Historical
• LL as old as writing
• Origin of writing
- urbanisation
- public sphere
• Readership
Mene tekel : “writing on the wall”

Historical
Jerusalem street signs
Spolsky 2008

Model of language policy
Spolsky 2004
Language
Policy
Language Language Language
Practices Beliefs Management

Language policy
• Rules and regulations
• Status and corpus planning
• Bilingual signage
• Reflection of traditions and ‘uniqueness’
• Contestation of space

Top-down
• Written by authorities (traffic signs, street
names, public notices, etc.)
• = ‘top-down’

Bottom up
• Written by citizens (advertisements, shop
signs, graffiti, etc.)
• = ‘bottom-up’

Contested spaces
Brussels, Belgium
Slovenes, Austria

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Data collection

Technology

Sampling
Some examples:
• Tokyo: 28 stations (Backhaus 2006)
• Bangkok: 15 neighborhoods (Huebner 2006)
• Israel: 8 localities (Ben Rafael et al 2006)
• Basque Country/Friesland: 2 streets (Cenoz & Gorter
2006)
• Netherlands: 11 locations (Edelman 2008)
• Roma: 4 neighborhoods (Gorter 2008)

Unit of analysis
Posters/signs on trucks/buses
Sandwich board
Crawler
Wrappers in street
Text on t-shirts, bags, etc

Coding
Coding scheme:
 type of sign
 top-down vs. bottom-up signs
 number of languages
 languages displayed
 conspicuity
 repetition
 etc.

Data analysis
Special software:
Barni & Bagna 2008

STUDIES on BASQUE and FRISIAN

Basque Country & Friesland:
two streets
Boulevard, Donostia Nieuwestad, Ljouwert
Cenoz & Gorter 2006

Geography Ljouwert
Friesland
Donostia Iparralde
Basque Autonomous
Community
Navarre
Size
Basque C. 20.664 km2
BAC 7.234 km2
Friesland 3.339 km2
Population
Basque C 3.000.000
BAC 2.100.000
Friesland 643.000

Sociolinguistic context: speaking
Donostia Ljouwert
33%
44%
56%
67%
Basque Spanish
Frisian Dutch

Language policy
Basque Autonomous Fryslân
Community
Old: gradual 19th C.
Recent: since 1979
Normalization Formalization
1st Education: strong 1st Education: weak
2nd Media: strong 2nd Government: medium
3rd Government: medium 3rd Media: weak

Examples of monolingual signs
Frisian
Basque
Dutch
Spanish
English
English

Examples of bilingual signs
Donostia Ljouwert

Study of Donostia-Ljouwert
- Pictures all texts n = 975
- Coding-scheme: 16 variables
- Code units n=207,
Ljouwert 103, Donostia 104

Number of languages found
Donostia Ljouwert
Ljouwert
0% 0%
36%
64%

Which languages on signs
Donostia Ljouwert
Dutch
D&E
53%
31%
Fri&Du
2%
Other
5%
English
Frisian
6%
3%

Prominent language bilingual signs
Donostia Ljouwert
English,
20%
Frisian, 2
%
Dutch, 7
8%

Second study
Street interviews

1st tourists visiting the city

Donostia N = 314

Ljouwert N = 251

2nd local inhabitants

Donostia N = 56

Ljouwert N = 76

Cenoz & Gorter 2008; Aiestaran, Cenoz, Gorter & Hanenburg forthcoming

Stated preference:
nr of languages - tourists
Donostia Ljouwert
one two more than two
19%
36%
45%
“How many languages should be used in
the language signs?”

Willingness to pay
Allocation scenario:
• “In order to assess and rank your priorities, we
kindly ask you if you were given 100 euros, how
would you allocate this amount of money among
the following activities?”

Scenario: average amounts tourists
Donostia Ljouwert

FURTHER STUDIES

Education

Multicompetence

euskara
español english

euskara
español
english

Languages as a resource
- Languages not in compartments
- Allocation is planned: aesthetic
value, symbolic force, audience effect
- Use languages in different ways
- Interaction between different languages
- Mixing blurs lines separate languages

CONCLUSIONS &
MAIN TRENDS

Functions
• Information function:
- communicate official messages
- communicate with visitors or immigrants
• Symbolic function

Characteristics
• Visible for all citizens
• Combines public and private sectors
• Can be regulated by authorities
• Linked to economic value (e.g. advertising)
• World-wide phenomenon
• “multilingual cityscapes”

Main trends
• The spread of multilingualism
• The spread of English
• Top-down and bottom-up signs
• The effect of globalization

SOURCES can be found in :
Special issue International Journal of Multilingualism: link
http://www.multilingual-matters.net/ijm/003/1/default.htm
New book on linguistic landscape research: link
http://www.routledgelinguistics.com/books/Linguistic-Landscape-isbn9780415988735
CONTACT?:
Jasone.Cenoz@ehu.es
D.Gorter@ikerbasque.org