Research Methods

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  • + 100383 100383 2 months ago
    tjank you so much having this sl;ide. It’s just a great help in my master's degree. thank you so much
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Research Methods - Presentation Transcript

  1. RESEARCH METHODS http://crisbertcualteros.page.tl
  2. KINDS OF RESEARCH
    • A. Basic Research
        • subjects are either healthy humans or experimental animals
        • aims to develop understanding of normal events in the human body
  3. KINDS OF RESEARCH
    • B. Epidemiological Research
      • uses populations or groups of healthy and or diseased subjects
      • primarily used for the identification of risk factors and causes of disease
      • basis for development of preventive measures
  4. KINDS OF RESEARCH
    • C. Clinical Research
      • done on patients
      • understanding of disease process
      • identification of determinants of outcome of disease
      • for development of technology for diagnosis and treatment
  5. BASIC STEPS OF RESEARCH
    • A. Technical
    • 1. Identification and definition of the
    • problem
        • analysis of needs
        • review of literature
        • determination of significance of the problem
        • formulation of hypothesis and categorization of variables
  6. BASIC STEPS OF RESEARCH
    • A. Technical
    • 2. Planning the Research
        • statement of objectives
        • selection of study population and subjects
        • choosing research design
        • method of data collection
        • plan of data processing and analysis
  7. BASIC STEPS OF RESEARCH
    • A. Technical
    • 3. Implementation of Plan
        • data collection
        • data processing
        • data analysis
    • 4. Interpretation and conclusion
    • 5. Reporting of the study results
  8. BASIC STEPS OF RESEARCH
    • B. Administrative
    • 1. General preparations
        • secure resources for implementation
        • hiring and training of personnel
        • scheduling of activities
        • preparation of study area
        • sampling of study group
  9. BASIC STEPS OF RESEARCH
    • B. Administrative
    • 2. Feasibility study
        • pre-testing of questionnaires
    • 3. Termination of study
  10. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
    • A. Research problem - question to be answered or resolved
    • B. Sources of Research Problems
      • intellectual curiosity
      • serendipity
      • analysis of needs and practice
      • organized and systematic determination of research needs
  11. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
    • C. Criteria for a Good Research Problem
      • 1. researchability
        • can be resolved through research
        • does not require value judgment
      • 2. significance
        • problem:
          • affects a large population
          • has serious morbidity consequences
          • is related to on-going projects
  12. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
    • C. Criteria for a Good Research Problem
    • 2. significance
        • answer:
          • fills a gap in knowledge
          • has practical application
          • will improve the practice of profession
  13. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
    • C. Criteria for a Good Research Problem
    • 3. feasibility
        • Adequate number of subjects can be gathered.
        • Procedures are technically possible.
        • Information needed can be collected.
        • Resources are available.
        • Study can be completed within a reasonable period.
  14. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
    • C. Criteria for a Good Research Problem
    • 4. critical mass
        • broad in scope
    • 5. interest
        • within national or institutional mission
  15. PROBLEM CLARIFICATION
    • dissection of broad problems into its facets or sub-problems
    • aided by literature review
    • Each sub-problem should be researchable.
    • Answers to sub-problems should adequately answer the main problem.
  16. FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS
    • A. Hypothesis
      • tentative answer to the research problem
    • B. Uses of a hypothesis
      • provides basis for testing statistical significance of findings
      • for sample size determination
  17. FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS
    • C. Types of Hypotheses
      • Null
      • Alternative
        • One-tailed
        • Two-tailed
  18. FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS
    • D. Uses of Null Hypothesis
      • to test safety of drugs and other interventions
      • for “proving” that a health belief is a myth or is erroneous
    • E. Uses of Alternative Hypothesis
      • for testing risk and prognostic factors
      • for testing intervention
  19. FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS
    • F. Methods of Formulating Hypothesis
    • 1. method of difference
        • If two different populations give rise to marked differences in frequency of disease and a particular factor can be identified in one population but not in the other, then the presence of this factor may be a cause of the disease.
        • ex.: socio-economic factor and disease frequency
  20. FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS
    • F. Methods of Formulating Hypothesis
    • 2. method of agreement
        • If a factor is similarly distributed among different events or circumstances associated with the disease, then the factor may be a cause of the disease.
        • ex.: blood and other body fluids are common to the different modes of transmission associated with HIV
  21. FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS
    • F. Methods of Formulating Hypothesis
    • 3. method of concomitant variation
        • If the frequency or strength of a factor correspondingly varies with the frequency of disease, the factor may be causally related to the disease.
        • ex.: amount of alcohol consumption and frequency of primary liver cancer
  22. FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS
    • F. Methods of Formulating Hypothesis
    • 4. method of analogy
      • How a disease is distributed in the population may have a similar pattern to that of some other disease, whose causation has already been more or less established. This suggests that certain causes may be common to both diseases.
      • ex.: malaria and Burkitt’s lymphoma insect vector
  23. SETTING OF OBJECTIVES
    • Research Objectives
      • what the researcher expects to achieve; solution to the research problem
    • B. Importance of Setting Objectives :
      • give an indication of the variables to be studied
      • guide in choice of research design
      • indicate the data to be collected
      • aid in planning analysis of results
      • bases for interpretation of results
  24. SETTING OF OBJECTIVES
    • C. Types of Objectives
    • 1. General
      • overall purpose of the research
      • derived from the statement of the main problem and the hypothesis
    • 2. Specific
      • statements of the specific outcome expected
      • based on statements of the sub-problems
      • requirements – SMART: S pecific, M easurable, A ttainable, R ealistic, T ime-bound
  25. SETTING OF OBJECTIVES
    • D. Variables
      • Classification of Variables in an Association
        • independent variable – variable which is assumed to be the factor or the cause
        • dependent variable – variable that is assumed to be the effect or outcome
        • confounding variable – variable other than the exposure variable under investigation that is a risk factor of the disease and is associated with but not a consequence of the exposure and is likewise associated with the dependent variable
  26. CHOOSING THE APPROPRIATE RESEARCH DESIGN
    • Summary of Requirements of Each Type of Research Design
    • Requirements Study Design
    • Descriptive Cross- Case- Cohort Sectional Control
    • Adequate Sample Size √ √ √ √
    • Sample representative
    • of target population √ √ - -
    • Controls - - √ √
    • Similarity of
    • comparison groups - - √ √
  27. CHOOSING THE APPROPRIATE RESEARCH DESIGN
    • B. Sources of Error in Observational Study Designs
    •   Cross-sectional Case- control Cohort
    • Probability of :
    • selection bias medium high low
    • recall bias high high low
    • loss to ff-up NA low high
    • confounding medium medium low
    • Data Collection (Note: see section on measurement of Health and Disease)
    • Data Processing
    • A. Data processing
        • process of converting data into a form that will facilitate
    • statistical analysis
  28. DATA PROCESSING
    • B. Steps
    • 1. editing – checking for completeness, consistency and accuracy of data
    • 2. coding - conversion of data into numbers or symbols which can be more easily
    • tabulated and counted
    • 3. creation of data file - storing data for future processing
    • 4. summarization – creation of master tables, frequency tables, etc.
    • Data Analysis (Note: see section on Statistical Inference and Hypothesis Testing and relevant sections in Epidemiology)
  29. RESEARCH PROPOSAL WRITING
    • A. Research Proposal/Protocol
      • written plan of the research process
      • guides investigator in executing project
      • basis for evaluation of merit and feasibility of the project
  30. RESEARCH PROPOSAL WRITING
    • B. Stages in Preparation
    • 1. Step 1
        • Technical procedure
          • Problem ID, Hypothesis formulation, Objectives, Research design, Data collection planning, Development of data processing, Choosing statistical analysis method
  31. RESEARCH PROPOSAL WRITING
    • B. Stages in Preparation
    • 2. Step 2
        • Administrative procedures
          • Scheduling of various phases, Determining personnel requirement, List needed facilities, Budget preparation
    • 3. Step 3
        • Writing of proposal
  32. RESEARCH PROPOSAL WRITING
    • C. Parts of Research Protocol
      • Title
      • Significance
      • Background
      • Research Question
      • Objectives
      • Statement of Hypothesis
      • Methods
      • Time table
      • Personnel and Facilities
      • Budget
      • References
      • Proponents’ Biodata
      • Appendix

+ crisscross .crisscross ., 7 months ago

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