RESEARCH METHODS http://crisbertcualteros.page.tl

KINDS OF RESEARCH A. Basic Research subjects are either healthy humans or experimental animals aims to develop understanding of normal events in the human body

A. Basic Research

subjects are either healthy humans or experimental animals

aims to develop understanding of normal events in the human body

KINDS OF RESEARCH B. Epidemiological Research uses populations or groups of healthy and or diseased subjects primarily used for the identification of risk factors and causes of disease basis for development of preventive measures

B. Epidemiological Research

uses populations or groups of healthy and or diseased subjects

primarily used for the identification of risk factors and causes of disease

basis for development of preventive measures

KINDS OF RESEARCH C. Clinical Research done on patients understanding of disease process identification of determinants of outcome of disease for development of technology for diagnosis and treatment

C. Clinical Research

done on patients

understanding of disease process

identification of determinants of outcome of disease

for development of technology for diagnosis and treatment

BASIC STEPS OF RESEARCH A. Technical 1. Identification and definition of the problem analysis of needs review of literature determination of significance of the problem formulation of hypothesis and categorization of variables

A. Technical

1. Identification and definition of the

problem

analysis of needs

review of literature

determination of significance of the problem

formulation of hypothesis and categorization of variables

BASIC STEPS OF RESEARCH A. Technical 2. Planning the Research statement of objectives selection of study population and subjects choosing research design method of data collection plan of data processing and analysis

A. Technical

2. Planning the Research

statement of objectives

selection of study population and subjects

choosing research design

method of data collection

plan of data processing and analysis

BASIC STEPS OF RESEARCH A. Technical 3. Implementation of Plan data collection data processing data analysis 4. Interpretation and conclusion 5. Reporting of the study results

A. Technical

3. Implementation of Plan

data collection

data processing

data analysis

4. Interpretation and conclusion

5. Reporting of the study results

BASIC STEPS OF RESEARCH B. Administrative 1. General preparations secure resources for implementation hiring and training of personnel scheduling of activities preparation of study area sampling of study group

B. Administrative

1. General preparations

secure resources for implementation

hiring and training of personnel

scheduling of activities

preparation of study area

sampling of study group

BASIC STEPS OF RESEARCH B. Administrative 2. Feasibility study pre-testing of questionnaires 3. Termination of study

B. Administrative

2. Feasibility study

pre-testing of questionnaires

3. Termination of study

PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION A. Research problem - question to be answered or resolved B. Sources of Research Problems intellectual curiosity serendipity analysis of needs and practice organized and systematic determination of research needs

A. Research problem - question to be answered or resolved

B. Sources of Research Problems

intellectual curiosity

serendipity

analysis of needs and practice

organized and systematic determination of research needs

PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION C. Criteria for a Good Research Problem 1. researchability can be resolved through research does not require value judgment 2. significance problem: affects a large population has serious morbidity consequences is related to on-going projects

C. Criteria for a Good Research Problem

1. researchability

can be resolved through research

does not require value judgment

2. significance

problem:

affects a large population

has serious morbidity consequences

is related to on-going projects

PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION C. Criteria for a Good Research Problem 2. significance answer: fills a gap in knowledge has practical application will improve the practice of profession

C. Criteria for a Good Research Problem

2. significance

answer:

fills a gap in knowledge

has practical application

will improve the practice of profession

PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION C. Criteria for a Good Research Problem 3. feasibility Adequate number of subjects can be gathered. Procedures are technically possible. Information needed can be collected. Resources are available. Study can be completed within a reasonable period.

C. Criteria for a Good Research Problem

3. feasibility

Adequate number of subjects can be gathered.

Procedures are technically possible.

Information needed can be collected.

Resources are available.

Study can be completed within a reasonable period.

PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION C. Criteria for a Good Research Problem 4. critical mass broad in scope 5. interest within national or institutional mission

C. Criteria for a Good Research Problem

4. critical mass

broad in scope

5. interest

within national or institutional mission

PROBLEM CLARIFICATION dissection of broad problems into its facets or sub-problems aided by literature review Each sub-problem should be researchable. Answers to sub-problems should adequately answer the main problem.

dissection of broad problems into its facets or sub-problems

aided by literature review

Each sub-problem should be researchable.

Answers to sub-problems should adequately answer the main problem.

FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS A. Hypothesis tentative answer to the research problem B. Uses of a hypothesis provides basis for testing statistical significance of findings for sample size determination

A. Hypothesis

tentative answer to the research problem

B. Uses of a hypothesis

provides basis for testing statistical significance of findings

for sample size determination

FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS C. Types of Hypotheses Null Alternative One-tailed Two-tailed

C. Types of Hypotheses

Null

Alternative

One-tailed

Two-tailed

FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS D. Uses of Null Hypothesis to test safety of drugs and other interventions for “proving” that a health belief is a myth or is erroneous E. Uses of Alternative Hypothesis for testing risk and prognostic factors for testing intervention

D. Uses of Null Hypothesis

to test safety of drugs and other interventions

for “proving” that a health belief is a myth or is erroneous

E. Uses of Alternative Hypothesis

for testing risk and prognostic factors

for testing intervention

FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS F. Methods of Formulating Hypothesis 1. method of difference If two different populations give rise to marked differences in frequency of disease and a particular factor can be identified in one population but not in the other, then the presence of this factor may be a cause of the disease. ex.: socio-economic factor and disease frequency

F. Methods of Formulating Hypothesis

1. method of difference

If two different populations give rise to marked differences in frequency of disease and a particular factor can be identified in one population but not in the other, then the presence of this factor may be a cause of the disease.

ex.: socio-economic factor and disease frequency

FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS F. Methods of Formulating Hypothesis 2. method of agreement If a factor is similarly distributed among different events or circumstances associated with the disease, then the factor may be a cause of the disease. ex.: blood and other body fluids are common to the different modes of transmission associated with HIV

F. Methods of Formulating Hypothesis

2. method of agreement

If a factor is similarly distributed among different events or circumstances associated with the disease, then the factor may be a cause of the disease.

ex.: blood and other body fluids are common to the different modes of transmission associated with HIV

FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS F. Methods of Formulating Hypothesis 3. method of concomitant variation If the frequency or strength of a factor correspondingly varies with the frequency of disease, the factor may be causally related to the disease. ex.: amount of alcohol consumption and frequency of primary liver cancer

F. Methods of Formulating Hypothesis

3. method of concomitant variation

If the frequency or strength of a factor correspondingly varies with the frequency of disease, the factor may be causally related to the disease.

ex.: amount of alcohol consumption and frequency of primary liver cancer

FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS F. Methods of Formulating Hypothesis 4. method of analogy How a disease is distributed in the population may have a similar pattern to that of some other disease, whose causation has already been more or less established. This suggests that certain causes may be common to both diseases. ex.: malaria and Burkitt’s lymphoma insect vector

F. Methods of Formulating Hypothesis

4. method of analogy

How a disease is distributed in the population may have a similar pattern to that of some other disease, whose causation has already been more or less established. This suggests that certain causes may be common to both diseases.

ex.: malaria and Burkitt’s lymphoma insect vector

SETTING OF OBJECTIVES Research Objectives what the researcher expects to achieve; solution to the research problem B. Importance of Setting Objectives : give an indication of the variables to be studied guide in choice of research design indicate the data to be collected aid in planning analysis of results bases for interpretation of results

Research Objectives

what the researcher expects to achieve; solution to the research problem

B. Importance of Setting Objectives :

give an indication of the variables to be studied

guide in choice of research design

indicate the data to be collected

aid in planning analysis of results

bases for interpretation of results

SETTING OF OBJECTIVES C. Types of Objectives 1. General overall purpose of the research derived from the statement of the main problem and the hypothesis 2. Specific statements of the specific outcome expected based on statements of the sub-problems requirements – SMART: S pecific, M easurable, A ttainable, R ealistic, T ime-bound

C. Types of Objectives

1. General

overall purpose of the research

derived from the statement of the main problem and the hypothesis

2. Specific

statements of the specific outcome expected

based on statements of the sub-problems

requirements – SMART: S pecific, M easurable, A ttainable, R ealistic, T ime-bound

SETTING OF OBJECTIVES D. Variables Classification of Variables in an Association independent variable – variable which is assumed to be the factor or the cause dependent variable – variable that is assumed to be the effect or outcome confounding variable – variable other than the exposure variable under investigation that is a risk factor of the disease and is associated with but not a consequence of the exposure and is likewise associated with the dependent variable

D. Variables

Classification of Variables in an Association

independent variable – variable which is assumed to be the factor or the cause

dependent variable – variable that is assumed to be the effect or outcome

confounding variable – variable other than the exposure variable under investigation that is a risk factor of the disease and is associated with but not a consequence of the exposure and is likewise associated with the dependent variable

CHOOSING THE APPROPRIATE RESEARCH DESIGN Summary of Requirements of Each Type of Research Design Requirements Study Design Descriptive Cross- Case- Cohort Sectional Control Adequate Sample Size √ √ √ √ Sample representative of target population √ √ - - Controls - - √ √ Similarity of comparison groups - - √ √

Summary of Requirements of Each Type of Research Design

Requirements Study Design

Descriptive Cross- Case- Cohort Sectional Control

Adequate Sample Size √ √ √ √

Sample representative

of target population √ √ - -

Controls - - √ √

Similarity of

comparison groups - - √ √

CHOOSING THE APPROPRIATE RESEARCH DESIGN B. Sources of Error in Observational Study Designs Cross-sectional Case- control Cohort Probability of : selection bias medium high low recall bias high high low loss to ff-up NA low high confounding medium medium low

B. Sources of Error in Observational Study Designs

Cross-sectional Case- control Cohort

Probability of :

selection bias medium high low

recall bias high high low

loss to ff-up NA low high

confounding medium medium low

Data Collection (Note: see section on measurement of Health and Disease) Data Processing A. Data processing process of converting data into a form that will facilitate statistical analysis

Data Collection (Note: see section on measurement of Health and Disease)

Data Processing

A. Data processing

process of converting data into a form that will facilitate

statistical analysis

DATA PROCESSING B. Steps 1. editing – checking for completeness, consistency and accuracy of data 2. coding - conversion of data into numbers or symbols which can be more easily tabulated and counted 3. creation of data file - storing data for future processing 4. summarization – creation of master tables, frequency tables, etc.

B. Steps

1. editing – checking for completeness, consistency and accuracy of data

2. coding - conversion of data into numbers or symbols which can be more easily

tabulated and counted

3. creation of data file - storing data for future processing

4. summarization – creation of master tables, frequency tables, etc.

Data Analysis (Note: see section on Statistical Inference and Hypothesis Testing and relevant sections in Epidemiology)

Data Analysis (Note: see section on Statistical Inference and Hypothesis Testing and relevant sections in Epidemiology)

RESEARCH PROPOSAL WRITING A. Research Proposal/Protocol written plan of the research process guides investigator in executing project basis for evaluation of merit and feasibility of the project

A. Research Proposal/Protocol

written plan of the research process

guides investigator in executing project

basis for evaluation of merit and feasibility of the project

RESEARCH PROPOSAL WRITING B. Stages in Preparation 1. Step 1 Technical procedure Problem ID, Hypothesis formulation, Objectives, Research design, Data collection planning, Development of data processing, Choosing statistical analysis method

B. Stages in Preparation

1. Step 1

Technical procedure

Problem ID, Hypothesis formulation, Objectives, Research design, Data collection planning, Development of data processing, Choosing statistical analysis method

RESEARCH PROPOSAL WRITING B. Stages in Preparation 2. Step 2 Administrative procedures Scheduling of various phases, Determining personnel requirement, List needed facilities, Budget preparation 3. Step 3 Writing of proposal

B. Stages in Preparation

2. Step 2

Administrative procedures

Scheduling of various phases, Determining personnel requirement, List needed facilities, Budget preparation

3. Step 3

Writing of proposal

RESEARCH PROPOSAL WRITING C. Parts of Research Protocol Title Significance Background Research Question Objectives Statement of Hypothesis Methods Time table Personnel and Facilities Budget References Proponents’ Biodata Appendix

C. Parts of Research Protocol

Title

Significance

Background

Research Question

Objectives

Statement of Hypothesis

Methods

Time table

Personnel and Facilities

Budget

References

Proponents’ Biodata

Appendix