DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Use your mouse to move around the software. You can either click anywhere on the screen to get the next animation or click on a button if you see one on the screen. Always move the mouse before you click it . DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Throughout the history of psychology, psychologists separated ‘nature’ and ‘nurture’. Introduction to the developmental approach to psychology In other words, they tended to believe that heredity, genetics and biological factors could explain development. OR the child's environment and the society that surrounds the child would influence him or her. It is now generally accepted that development occurs through both biological factors and social factors and continues to develop throughout life. Discussion still continues as to which has the greatest influence.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY The developmental approach accepts that human development occurs in different areas: Introduction to the developmental approach to psychology Cognitive development (mental abilities and the way in which thoughts are organised and translated into behaviour) Social development Personal development How we process the information to respond to the world around us interests the psychologist who has a cognitive approach.

Introduction to the developmental approach to psychology cognitive social personal Developmental psychologists focus on the way thoughts and behaviours are organised throughout life as you get older. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Developmental psychologists study the changes in our mental processes as we age.

Introduction to the developmental approach to psychology cognitive social personal The cognitive approach explains how our behaviour changes due to our cognition, our thinking processes. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Understanding moral issues, as we grow older, is an example of how our thinking influences our behaviour.

Introduction to the developmental approach to psychology cognitive social personal Developmental psychologists consider that humans are social beings and interaction with others is an important part of our existence. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY The development of children’s social interaction with others is an important aspect of developmental psychology.

Introduction to the developmental approach to psychology cognitive social personal The social aspects of a person’s development also includes gender development - whether you are male or female. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Making friends and being accepted by others, as well as learning about pro-social and anti-social behaviour is another part of social development.

Introduction to the developmental approach to psychology cognitive social personal Your personal aspects are also considered, such as the development of your emotional being, as well as your own self-image. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Issues such as your own self-esteem and your ability to adapt to group norms feature here.

Introduction to the developmental approach to psychology cognitive social personal Until recently, psychologists offered the the theory that changes took place in childhood and did not focus on adult changes. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Psychologists are now increasingly accepting the fact that these three areas continue to change after the age of eighteen.

Introduction to the developmental approach to psychology cognitive social personal Due to the areas that developmental psychology covers, it has been used in many fields, such as improving ways of raising children and their provision for day care, as well as many areas of education. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Naturalistic observation Controlled observation Longitudinal studies Cross-sectional studies Twin and family studies Which methods are used in the developmental approach? Introduction to the developmental approach to psychology DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY The methods used

Introduction to the developmental approach to psychology This is a study which focuses on behaviour occurring under natural circumstances in a natural setting. Naturalistic observation DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY This would rule out laboratory experiments, for example. Variables will occur. Methods in the developmental approach

A variable is an aspect that is changed or happens to change within a study or experiment so that the researcher can see the result of that change occurring. What’s ‘ a variable’ ? Glossary DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Introduction to the developmental approach to psychology The participants involved in the observation may alter their behaviour if they know that they are being observed. Naturalistic observation DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY The observer may have a bias when recording results. Methods in the developmental approach

Bias reflects the expectations that the observer might have expected to see in a study. The observer may add his own views into the results of an observation or experiment. What’s ‘bias’? Glossary DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Introduction to the developmental approach to psychology This method may give the observer a good chance of seeing natural and spontaneous behaviour though. Naturalistic observation DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Methods in the developmental approach

Introduction to the developmental approach to psychology This involves an observational study where there are very clear guidelines for observation. Controlled observation DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Methods in the developmental approach The observation takes place in natural conditions but because there is control, the observer reliability may be increased.

Introduction to the developmental approach to psychology There could even be more than one observer so that comparisons can be made between observers’ observations. Controlled observation DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Methods in the developmental approach

Introduction to the developmental approach to psychology Longitudinal studies follow and examine individual people for some time, often over a number of years. Longitudinal studies DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Methods in the developmental approach The importance of these studies is that people can be monitored over a period of time and for substantial periods of time.

Introduction to the developmental approach to psychology The disadvantages of these studies is that psychologists need all the participants to complete the study. Longitudinal studies DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Methods in the developmental approach Not all will. Sometimes they are left with the more conscientious participants whilst the less conscientious have dropped out.

Introduction to the developmental approach to psychology Cross-sectional studies compare different age groups at the same point in time. Cross-sectional studies DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Methods in the developmental approach The advantages are that these studies are quicker than longitudinal studies and can be easily repeated.

Introduction to the developmental approach to psychology The disadvantages are that behaviour is only observed at one point in time. Cross-sectional studies DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Methods in the developmental approach Nothing therefore is seen about the development of the individual.

Introduction to the developmental approach to psychology The participants in the study may have widely differing social and cultural backgrounds. Cross-sectional studies DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Methods in the developmental approach Observations may be influenced by these differences in social and cultural backgrounds rather than differences because of age.

Introduction to the developmental approach to psychology The COHORT EFFECT may influence the findings too. Cross-sectional studies DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Methods in the developmental approach This refers to children who were brought up in particular cohorts at particular times and were influenced by certain social changes - such as children of the hippie period in the 1960s.

Introduction to the developmental approach to psychology Much of the information that we have gathered about heredity comes from the study of twins. Twin and family studies DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Methods in the developmental approach Identical twins (from one fertilised egg or zygote) , known as ‘monozygotic’ (MZ) share the same genes so they are the same in terms of nature. Any differences are due to environment.

Introduction to the developmental approach to psychology Fraternal twins (from two fertilised eggs or zygotes), known as dizygotic (DZ) are just like any ordinary brother and sister siblings. Twin and family studies DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Methods in the developmental approach The term ‘concordance rate’ explains the extent to which a certain trait in both twins is in agreement.

Cognitive development These psychologists see development as a series of structures and rules which are used to organise our thoughts and behaviour as we age. The cognitive development view in psychology is very much attributed to the influence of the Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget (1896-1980). Cognitive development psychologists concentrate on the way that thoughts and behaviours are organised. They study how mental activities develop as we age. Cognitive development assumes that MATURATION plays an important part in developmental change.

Maturation is growth due to ageing. In other words, how we change as we grow older. What’s ‘maturation’? Glossary DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Cognitive development Piaget’s findings led him to propose theories of how children move through various stages in their thinking as they mature. Piaget made detailed studies of children and used clinical interviews and naturalistic observations. He set children various tasks or asked them questions and then observed their reactions. Piaget tried to describe the various stages that children move through up to adolescence. Piaget’s theory was based more on thinking rather than processes such as memory and perception. Piaget attempted to find, not the differences between children but instead the similarities between them.

Cognitive development Piaget believed that cognitive development was a direct result of the child adapting to his or her environment. Cognitive development is mainly a consequence of maturation and is due to biological changes. A child can only develop when he or she is ready to. Piaget’s theory As the child’s world expands, the child adopts new rules to reason and solve difficulties. The child will undergo appropriate experiences for cognitive development to occur.

Cognitive development Piaget believed that the child grows cognitively from the experiences that he or she has with the environment. Language is the result of the child’s cognitive ability. Piaget’s theory The child grows cognitively to understand the new elements that he or she encounters.

Cognitive development Adaptation to one’s environment was paramount to Piaget’s theory. Piaget’s theory This loss of balance between child and environment impels the child to grow cognitively and makes him or her attempt to understand the new feature in life. If a child meets a new object or experience, the balance between the child and the environment is disrupted.

Cognitive development Adaptation involves three processes: Piaget’s theory What is the difference between : Assimilation and Accommodation and Equilibrium Assimilation and Accommodation?

Cognitive development Piaget’s theory assimilation Assimilation takes place when new information is joined to existing knowledge. Assimilation So, for example, you suck your mother’s nipple for milk ; you understand that a baby’s bottle teat is for the same purpose. You were born with certain innate responses, such as sucking, which are called schemas or schemata. These schemas integrate with new ones (the bottle) and new schemas are formed in response to your environment.

A schema is a summary of the knowledge that we have about a particular concept. It indicates the pattern by which knowledge can be organised. What’s a ‘schema’? Glossary DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Cognitive development Piaget’s theory accommodation Accommodation takes place when new information triggers a reorganisation of existing knowledge and the acquisition of new responses. Accommodation So, schema are adapted to fit new situations. The baby who has been breast-fed or bottle-fed up until now, realises when given a cup of milk that milk can be delivered in a container. He/she has to alter his/her behaviour to accommodate drinking from a container. An action other than sucking is required.

Cognitive development Piaget’s theory accommodation Assimilation and accommodation are both necessary for cognitive development. Assimilation and Accommodation Children have to integrate new information into their existing knowledge and expand their knowledge to incorporate new elements. assimilation

Cognitive development Piaget’s theory accommodation Adaptation is the balance between the child and the environment. Equilibrium If that balance is disrupted due to a new idea or object, the balance or EQUILIBRIUM between the child and the environment is disrupted. assimilation eqilibrium The loss of the equilibrium forces the child to accommodate the schema and to understand the new element in his/her life.

Equilibrium is a state of balance between the human being and the environment that surrounds it. What’s ‘equilibrium’? Glossary DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Piaget’s stages of cognitive development sensorimotor preoperational concrete operations formal operations Piaget put forward the theory that intelligence develops as children pass through these four cognitive stages. Whenever the child is uncertain about what they are experiencing, a state of disequilibrium occurs. Stages in cognitive development

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Piaget’s stages of cognitive development sensorimotor preoperational concrete operations formal operations To restore equilibrium children attempt to adapt their understanding to accommodate the new experience. Stages in cognitive development Progress through the four stages is not only in intellectual growth and maturity but also in language, social and emotional development.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and the ages that they occur: sensorimotor preoperational concrete operations formal operations 0-2 years 2-5 years 6-12 years 12+ years

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and the ages that they occur: This stage displays reflex actions, such as sucking. Sensorimotor stage sensorimotor stage 0-2 years Behavioural schemata occur. More complex routines take place built up through CIRCULAR reactions.

Circular reactions are a series of behaviours that appear to us repetitive and somewhat meaningless but through them children are exploring their environment. What are ‘circular reactions’? Glossary DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and the ages that they occur: As the body and brain matures, children become more adept at controlling their movements. Sensorimotor stage sensorimotor stage 0-2 years Repetition allows the use of sensory inputs, such as touch and sight to modify motor outputs, such as learning to move and walk.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and the ages that they occur: Innate schema, like sucking or grasping, become more elaborate. Sensorimotor stage sensorimotor stage 0-2 years New schema are formed as children cope with their surroundings. Through interaction with objects, children learn how to learn.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and the ages that they occur: At this stage children are EGOCENTRIC. Sensorimotor stage sensorimotor stage 0-2 years Sensorimotor children do not appreciate that objects are permanent. If the object is not physically present, children will move onto something else. As they mature at this stage, OBJECT PERMANENCE begins to feature.

Egocentric means that children are unable to see an object other than from their point of view. Their own view is the only one that can be used to make sense of their world. What is ‘egocentric’? Glossary DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Object permanence is the recognition children begin to acquire that things still exist even if they cannot see them. Children tend to acquire this at about the age of eight months. What is ‘object permanence’? Glossary DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and the ages that they occur: When children have developed object permanence, and when memory and language have begun to emerge, the sensorimotor stage has ended. Sensorimotor stage sensorimotor stage 0-2 years Children can now think about the future and the past.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and the ages that they occur: Children become capable of organising information mentally by considering the physical attributes of an object. Preoperational stage preoperational stage 2-7 years So, for example, if a cat has fur and has four legs, then all animals with fur and four legs must be a cat. This is known as TRANSDUCTIVE REASONING.

Transductive reasoning is logic which considers only one aspect and cannot transfer that aspect to other situations e.g. the furry animal with four legs is a cat, even when it might be a dog. What is ‘ transductive reasoning’? Glossary DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and the ages that they occur: Preconceptual children are beginning to produce concepts but as in the last example of the cat, these concepts are not yet fully formed. Preoperational stage preoperational stage 2-7 years Language, however, begins to appear but their egocentrism means that their own world and experiences still impinge on their ability to organise information.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and the ages that they occur: Preconceptual children passing through this stage of Piaget’s theory become more logical as they mature. Preoperational stage preoperational stage 2-7 years They begin to classify objects and they can solve problems; their egocentrism becomes less as they mature through this stage.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and the ages that they occur: Piaget believed that children in the preoperational stage, were still governed by their own perceptions rather than a conceptual understanding of a situation. Preoperational stage preoperational stage 2-7 years Piaget undertook many studies to show that this was the case.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and the ages that they occur: Preoperational stage preoperational stage 2-7 years They can only focus on one aspect of a situation. This is called ‘centration’. Piaget gave children many tasks, such as considering the volume of liquid in different shaped containers and asked them if the amount of water in the containers were the same.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and the ages that they occur: Preoperational stage preoperational stage 2-7 years The fact that the level in a tall beaker looked higher to the children than the amount in a shorter but fatter beaker confused the children who usually claimed that the volume of water had to be different.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and the ages that they occur: Preoperational stage preoperational stage 2-7 years This understanding which preoperational children do not usually have is known as CONSERVATION. Children do not grasp that a fundamental characteristic, such as number or area can remain the same, even though they may see changes in the arrangement of numbers or the shape of an object.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and the ages that they occur: Preoperational stage preoperational stage 2-7 years Piaget undertook similar experiments with weight, area and length, with similar results. These experiments also showed IRREVERSIBILITY.

Irreversibility is an inability to be able to work backwards mentally. What is ‘ irreversibility’? Glossary DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and the ages that they occur: Concrete operational stage concrete operational stage 7-11 years In this stage children begin to use logic and their ability to use logic matures. They are also able at this stage to follow a sequence of actions and can consider more than one item of information about a situation.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and the ages that they occur: Concrete operational stage concrete operational stage 7-11 years They begin to realise that volume, for example, can be changed and will vary but the volume will be the same. They will understand,for example, that a drink of milk is the same amount whether it is poured into a short, fat cup or a tall thin beaker.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and the ages that they occur: Concrete operational stage concrete operational stage 7-11 years Children can begin to apply OPERATIONS or logical rules, such as addition and subtraction. The children at this stage are becoming less egocentric and are able to consider events and see objects from someone else’s point of view.

Operation was Piaget’s term for a more advanced mental process that allows you to apply a logic in reverse. This was his word for the structures that allow you to organise your thoughts and behaviours. What are ‘ operations’? Glossary DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and the ages that they occur: Concrete operational stage concrete operational stage 7-11 years Thinking at this stage is still rooted in the present and is applied mainly to physical objects. Although their problem solving is hit and miss at times, it does improve greatly during this stage.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and the ages that they occur: Concrete operational stage concrete operational stage 7-11 years The children at this stage are also beginning to group together objects logically when they realise that they have common characteristics. The can also rank items in order of size, for example. To do all this ,children need to experiment with objects to apply logic to their solutions.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and the ages that they occur: Formal operational stage formal operational stage 12 years onwards This stage realises the ability to think in the abstract and not just when confronted by physical objects or immediate events. Children’s thinking is beginning to become like that of adults. Adolescents are able to think HYPOTHETICALLY.

Hypothetically comes from the word ‘hypothesis’ and means a prediction of what is likely to happen. What is ‘hypothetically’? Glossary DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and the ages that they occur: Formal operational stage formal operational stage 12 years onwards Adolescents can use past experiences, as well as present situations and events, to decide on possible outcomes to a situation. They can also reason and deduce and become more interested in ideas and beliefs.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY To conclude Piaget’s stages: Let’s just recap the main characteristics of the four stages: Piaget's stages of cognitive development

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY To conclude Piaget’s stages: Sensorimotor 0-2 years Characteristics Experiences the environment through motor activities and sensory activities

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY To conclude Piaget’s stages: Preoperational 2-7 years Characteristics Begins to use language Thinking is egocentric Inability to consider more than one feature Cannot work backwards in a mental process - irreversibility

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY To conclude Piaget’s stages: Concrete operational 7-11 years Characteristics Able to think logically Can reverse thought processes No longer egocentric Can begin to conserve number, mass, weight and volume concepts

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY To conclude Piaget’s stages: Formal operational 11 years onwards Characteristics Can reason in an abstract way Can test out different propositions Becomes more concerned with ideas and beliefs

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Some children have also been taught concepts at ages that Piaget believed the children to be too immature to consider. So, is everyone in agreement with Piaget’ theories? Piaget put forward his theories as being linked to age. Research has found that although the stages are generally reliable, the changes can overlap in different stages. Children may show features of different stages at a particular point in their development. Similarly, some adolescents and adults do not display all the formal operations.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Other psychologists have since shown that by rephrasing or rewording Piaget’s questions, children can give different responses than those that Piaget would have expected. So, is everyone in agreement with Piaget’ theories? Piaget’s reliance on the clinical interview method has also been criticised. There were no set questions and no one method of presentation so some theorists feel that Piaget may have ‘led’ children into giving responses that were influenced by him.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Some psychologists felt that Piaget lacked scientific rigour in his research. So, what do psychologists think of Piaget’ theories? Strengths of Piaget’s theories Children were no longer viewed as passive beings and Piaget influenced the thinking of child psychologists who followed in his footsteps. Piaget was the first psychologist to offer such a detailed account of cognitive development and has been so influential in approaches to cognitive psychology. Weaknesses of Piaget’s theories Some of his samples were small in number and therefore open to bias in the way that Piaget recorded his observations.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Piaget’s theories showed children constructing their own mental model of reality which was not very closely linked with other people and became increasingly complete as they grew older. Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development However, psychologists have investigated social influences that act on children’s cognitive development. This theory indicates that children adopt more complex ways of thinking due to parents and teachers who guide them into more demanding situations. The work of Vygotsky (1896-1934) is often compared with the work that Piaget undertook.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Like Piaget, Vgotsky saw children as active in their own development. Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development He differed from Piaget in that he saw other people as having a much greater influence on children than Piaget had considered. Whereas Piaget believed that children moved forward in their development when they were ready to do so, Vygotsky believed that people surrounding children influenced them to move forward in their thinking. Children are the ‘novices’ in this situation and they are surrounded by experts, such as parents and teachers who guide them.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Children’s skills and knowledge develop because of the interaction and co-operation between the ‘novice’ and the ‘expert’. Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development Experts provide a ‘scaffolding’ or framework with which children work. In the early stages, adults provide plenty of verbal prompts and explanation. As children begin to understand tasks, the prompts are fewer. Vygotsky placed a great deal more importance on language than Piaget.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Vygotsky saw cognitive ability in three parts: Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development Children respond to their world by actions. Understanding comes from co-operating with others in a social setting. This involves parents and teachers but also through their own culture, language and art, for example. Culture is vitally important. Action Language Social settings Children reflect upon their thought processes using language.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY A central idea of Vygotsky’s theory was the ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD). Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development This was his term to describe the area between children’s actual developmental level and their potential level that they could achieve with the help of guidance. So, for example, children may see older children reading or writing and want to copy this themselves. The older children act as a stimulus to achieve this. Unlike Piaget, Vygotsky did not believe that children had to be ready to move on to another stage or activity.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Vygotsky believed that parents and teachers should give children tasks that were beyond their developmental level so that they could be challenged to aspire to them. Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development Adults should provide children with experiences that fall between the ZPD so that children might achieve what they could not achieve if they were alone. Vygotsky’s theory was not a stage theory in the same way as Piaget’s. He did, however, identify phases of speech development.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Vygotsky saw speech stages in three parts: Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development Language has a social function Children can talk to themselves silently or use language to communicate with others. Pre-intellectual, social speech (0-3 years) Egocentric speech (3-7 years) Social settings (7 years onwards) Language controls children’s behaviour. It is often spoken aloud.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY There has been less interest and research in Vygotsky’s theories than in Piaget’s. So, how do Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories compare in education? Piaget’s theories Piaget’s model encouraged educationalists to develop a child-centred model of education. Educationalists have adopted the practical implications. There has also been the criticism that we know little about how much scaffolding should be given to children. Vygotsky’s theories Vygotsky’s model encouraged educationalists to offer opportunities for children to develop skills through interaction with others.

So, how do Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories compare in education? Timing Learning DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Vygotsky Piaget Offer stimuli only when children are ready Offer stimuli according to the limits of the ZPD Children learn at different rates; their learning must be unique A framework must be offered to children from experts The teacher should not give knowledge to the children; children must be forced to make accommodations A framework must be given; even peers can provide this framework

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY This unit is all about the way that we need contact and the presence of another individual person in our lives. Attachments in development: the development and variety of attachments ATTACHMENT may be described as a bond of affection directed towards an individual. inherited factors (nature) which include the effects on us as we mature and lifetime experiences and conditions (nurture) which will include our social relationships with other people. The term is particularly used to describe the relationship between a baby and his/her caregiver(s) and

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Behaviours which are linked to attachment and can be observed from the age of about eight months onwards include: Attachments in development: the development and variety of attachments Moving towards and staying next to the parent (or main caregiver) when distressed or in fear Clinging to the parent or caregiver and using that person as a safe basis from which to explore the world around them Separation anxiety - in other words feeling anxious if the parent or caregiver is not present or moves away and feeling pleasure once they return

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY John Bowlby (1969) was a forerunner of attachment theory. Attachments in development: the development and variety of attachments He believed that the behaviour that has just been described is there as a form of survival technique. By being close to one adult (normally the mother), the child’s attention is directed mainly towards one person and this person becomes the main attachment. Bowlby called this MONOTROPY. This behaviour ensures that the child remains close to the adult and this is a form of survival tactic and protection, just as it is in animals. That is not to say that other attachments cannot be formed and this attachment could well be a model for later emotional relationships that could occur but Bowlby thought that there was always one attachment that was closest.

Monotropy is a theory proposed by Bowlby that an infant becomes attached to one caregiver, usually the mother. What is ‘Monotropy’? Glossary DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY So, some advantages of Bowlby’s theory are short-term and others long-term. Attachments in development: the development and variety of attachments

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Schaffer and Emerson (1964) also observed attachment behaviour in babies. Together with Bowlby’s findings, they identified phases of attachment: Attachments in development: the development and variety of attachments 2-6 months: Babies will smile in response to familiar faces but are beginning to respond in a particular way to the primary carer. 0-2 months: Babies will smile, often in response to stimuli from an adult; they will also smile at inanimate objects. 7 months-2years: Infants display attachment to one person and show SEPARATION ANXIETY when they are separated from that person. 8 months approximately: Infants will develop other attachments, including with fathers, siblings and grandparents. 2 years onwards: The infant develops an understanding of the maternal figure’s behaviour. The infant can then begin to influence the caregiver.

Separation anxiety is distress exhibited by a child when separated from the person with whom they have an attachment. What is ‘separation anxiety? Glossary DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Schaffer and Emerson particularly observed that the ‘mother’ and ‘maternal attachment’ can be male or female and that any person who provides stimulation for the infant can become an attachment figure. Attachments in development: the development and variety of attachments Learning theory suggests that the infant should become attached to the person that feeds them. Schaffer and Emerson (1964) found that less than 50% of the children in their study had an attachment to the person that fed them.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Children are different in the types of attachment that they formulate: Secure and insecure attachments: SECURE ATTACHMENT is associated with health development in terms of emotions, social and cognitive development. INSECURE ATTACHMENT is associated with less beneficial development that may include avoidance and even resistance. Attachments in development: the development and variety of attachments

This is the positive form of attachment DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY secure attachment Separation anxiety when caregiver leaves Moves towards caregiver on his or her return Attachments in development: the development and variety of attachments Easily comforted on caregiver’s return More likely to have STRANGER ANXIETY

Stranger anxiety is distress when the infant is faced with someone whom they are not familiar with and with whom they have no attachment. What is ‘Stranger Anxiety’? Glossary DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

This is a more negative form of attachment DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY insecure attachment There are two forms: avoidant, where the infant deliberately avoids contact when the caregiver returns Attachments in development: the development and variety of attachments resistant:where the infant positively resists any contact with the caregiver on their return

Attachments in development: the development and variety of attachments measuring security of attachment The Strange Situation Ainsworth and Bell (1970) developed a method of assessing the attachment behaviour that babies display towards their mother. This method is known as the Strange Situation. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Attachments in development: the development and variety of attachments measuring security of attachment The Strange Situation It is a method of analysing how far a baby would make use of the mother as the base for exploration of the surroundings. It also assess how the child reacts to the mother’s absence and her return when in a slightly stressful situation. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Attachments in development: the development and variety of attachments measuring security of attachment The Strange Situation The Strange Situation is a controlled observation. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY The baby is placed in a situation, first with the mother, then a stranger is introduced. The mother withdraws from the situation, returns, the stranger withdraws, then returns. The episodes last for three minutes.

Attachments in development: the development and variety of attachments measuring security of attachment The Strange Situation Certain patterns of behaviour emerged from the results. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Three main attachment types were identified amongst the infants.

Insecure and displayed insecure avoidant attachment Type A Type B Type C Type A infants were : DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Attachments in development: the development and variety of attachments They are not distressed and at the reunion of the mother they avoid close contact.

Secure and displayed secure attachment Type A Type B Type C Type B infants were : DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Attachments in development: the development and variety of attachments They explore actively when their mother is present and show distress when she withdraws. On her return they seek contact.

Insecure Type A Type B Type C Type C infants were : DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Attachments in development: the development and variety of attachments They are anxious before and during separation. They were not easily comforted when the mother returned. They appeared to want to be comforted and yet reject the contact at the same time.

Attachments in development: the development and variety of attachments measuring security of attachment The Strange Situation Secure attachment was considered the most positive form of attachment. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Distinct patterns of behaviour emerge from the observations.

Attachments in development: the development and variety of attachments measuring security of attachment The Strange Situation Many psychologists believe in the VALIDITY of the measurement and have tracked children in different types to later life. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Validity in a test is said to be present if the test measures what it aims to measure. What is ‘validity’? Glossary DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Attachments in development: the development and variety of attachments measuring security of attachment The Strange Situation DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY The results show that Type B (secure) children were more successful in social and emotional development, were less likely to become aggressive and were likely to have good self-esteem.

Attachments in development: the development and variety of attachments measuring security of attachment The Strange Situation DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY The criticism that has been made of the Strange Situation is that it may in fact be testing the child's relationships rather than a characteristic that has developed in the child as a result of attachment.

How can culture affect the way that we behave? Cross-cultural variation This involves the differences that exist between us because of the CULTURE to which we belong. Cross-cultural variation in attachment DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Is there a difference between children depending on their cultural background?

Culture is the customs, rules, morals, beliefs, attitudes and behaviour that adhere certain people together to form a group or a society. What is ‘culture’? Glossary DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

How can culture affect the way that we behave? Cross-cultural variation The rules of a particular culture affect our patterns of behaviour. Different methods of bringing up children may lead to differences in attachment. Is there a difference between children depending on their cultural background? Cross-cultural variation in attachment DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

How can culture affect the way that we behave? Cross-cultural variation The rules of a particular culture affect our patterns of behaviour. Different traditions and moral patterns may lead to differences in attachment. Is there a difference between children depending on their cultural background? Cross-cultural variation in attachment DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

How can culture affect the way that we behave? Cross-cultural variation The studies that have been carried out show that there is often consistency across different cultures. Is there a difference between children depending on their cultural background? Cross-cultural variation in attachment DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

How can culture affect the way that we behave? Cross-cultural variation One difference was noted in Japan where the infant rarely leaves the mother so the Strange Situation is very stressful for the child. Is there a difference between children depending on their cultural background? Cross-cultural variation in attachment DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

How can culture affect the way that we behave? Cross-cultural variation Another difference is that whereas the Type B attachment was considered preferable, this is not the case in all societies. Is there a difference between children depending on their cultural background? Cross-cultural variation in attachment DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

How can culture affect the way that we behave? Cross-cultural variation We can conclude that care has to be taken when making a study in Africa, for example, when the study was designed in the UK or the US. Is there a difference between children depending on their cultural background? Cross-cultural variation in attachment DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

How can culture affect the way that we behave? Cross-cultural variation In some countries though the samples were very small so the results could show BIAS. Is there a difference between children depending on their cultural background? Cross-cultural variation in attachment DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Bias is a prejudice or an influence which would skew the results in a particular way. What is ‘bias’? Glossary DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Ethologists study the behaviour of animals in their natural environment to understand certain types of behaviour, in particular aggression and sexual behaviour. Ethology Ethology is the study of natural behaviour, often in the natural environment. What is ethology? Bowlby, whose work we have already looked at, was influenced by ethology. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Both did a great deal of work concerning IMPRINTING. Ethology Ethologists put forward a hypothesis and once this hypothesis seems to have some support from the observation of the animals’ behaviour, an experiment is then devised to test the hypothesis. What is ethology? Bowlby, was influenced by Tinbergen (1907-1988) and Lorenz (1903-89). DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Imprinting is a form of learning observed in some animals after birth. It results in attachment to a parent. What is ‘imprinting’? Glossary DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Lorenz showed that young animals, such as ducks, follow their mother from early in their life and become ‘imprinted’ or bonded to her. Ethology Through imprinting the young of a species become attached to a parent. What is ethology? We can often observe a young animal moving with its parent whenever the parent moves. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Ethology Lorenz showed that if animals become imprinted on a human or an inanimate object, their social and mating behaviour will be seriously affected in their later life. What is ethology? Lorenz demonstrated a ‘following response’ where goslings would follow a human once they had hatched and their first contact was a human being. This is a short-term response designed for the birds’ safety. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Ethology Lorenz also demonstrated that reproduction would be affected if a species had imprinted on another. This is known as a long-term response. What is ethology? It would not be willing to return to its original species to reproduce if it had been imprinted on another species from birth. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY The time scale in the imprinting of animals is crucial. Studies have shown that imprinting characteristics form quickly after birth. This is termed the ‘CRITICAL PERIOD’.

The critical period is the term used by Lorenz to describe the period after hatching when he stated that imprinting had to take place. This was usually 24 hours. What is ‘critical period’? Glossary DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Ethology Later researchers, however, were not as convinced as Lorenz of this critical period. What is ethology? Sluckin (1965) and Bateson (1964) termed it a ‘SENSITIVE PERIOD’. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY They both undertook studies to show that the timing was more flexible than Lorenz had stated.

Ethology Most of the imprinting studies involves animals but not humans so it is difficult to apply the imprinting theory to people. What is ethology? DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Let’s now move on to consider the main aspects of Bowlby’s theories in the light of the developmental theories that we have already looked at.

attachment Bowlby’s theories Bowlby concluded that attachment is: Adaptive - it ensures survival and makes reproduction likely Promoted by SOCIAL RELEASERS (e.g. smiling) and this brings about caregiving DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Formed during a critical period of time Formed with the individual who is most responsive to social releasers Formed with one special person and is different from all others - this is called monotropy

Social releasers are innate actions that babies are born with which encourage the caregiver to respond to the baby’s needs. Examples of social releasers are crying and smiling. What are ‘social releasers’? Glossary DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

attachment Bowlby’s theories Some psychologists are not as convinced of the need for one attachment. They feel that the child’s many attachments can meet their needs and will be equivalent to one attachment to one person. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Bowlby agreed that a child has many attachments but he remained steadfast to the principle that one special attachment was paramount.

attachment Bowlby’s theories Attachment has been found to be important for cognitive and emotional development. It has been found that secure attachment encourages independence. Children feel secure and able to move away form their caregiver to explore their environment. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Bowlby’s theory has had a deep impact on psychology, particularly on the theory on deprivation which is the next topic that we are going to consider.

Deprivation, separation and privation This, of course, raises many issues for parents who send their children to childminders or nursery schools and is an on-going dilemma for parents. Bowlby proposed in 1951 the idea that children were affected in later life if deprived of the opportunity to form attachments in the early years of childhood. He went so far as to say that this could produce developmental problems in language and social interaction. Bowlby first became concerned about children who had become institutionalised or hospitalised. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY He noticed that they exhibited signs of disturbed behaviour. Should one parent stay at home to bring up the child until they are of school age? This is a moral dilemma for parents but equally today it becomes a financial dilemma too.

Deprivation occurs when something is removed. Deprivation, separation and privation Robertson and Bowlby (1952) noted that in examples where children were hospitalised, the short-term effects of deprivation were protest-despair-detachment (PDD model). In terms of attachment, deprivation occurs when the attachment figure is removed from the child. deprivation DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

The PPD model Deprivation, separation and privation D espair : calmer, not now seeking out the caregiver, may resort to self-comfort, such as sucking P rotest : crying, angry, fearful but can be comforted deprivation DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY D etachment : if the situation is prolonged, the child appears to cope but the caregiver may be ignored on their return

Short-term effects of deprivation Deprivation, separation and privation The conclusions were that even short-term separation caused damaging effects on the children studied. Robertson and Robertson (1952) studied children who were exposed to short-term separations from their mothers. deprivation DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Where the mother’s affection and care was substituted by another person, the damage was not so profound.

Long-term effects of deprivation Deprivation, separation and privation He stated that by depriving a child of attachment during the critical period, it would result in a profound effect on the child’s character. Bowlby put forward the MATERNAL DEPRIVATION hypothesis. deprivation DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Where the mother’s affection and care was substituted by another person, the damage was not so profound.

Rutter’s theories Deprivation, separation and privation Rutter considered that distress in the child was due to disruption of the attachment process but not specifically of the mother. Rutter (1981) reviewed Bowlby’s work and agreed that early deprivation would indeed have damaging effects. deprivation DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY He also thought that some of the results seen could be due to a lack of stimulating experiences.

Rutter’s theories Deprivation, separation and privation Rutter also formed the conclusion that what Bowlby had termed ‘ maternal deprivation’ was more likely to be due to a lack of something in the child's life (privation) rather than any kind of removal in life (deprivation). deprivation DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY He also identified the failure to bond with anyone, not just the maternal figure, could lead to emotional development problems.

Rutter’s theories Deprivation, separation and privation Rutter identified unstable family life as being associated with later anti-social behaviour. deprivation DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Retardation in development was, he believed, due to a lack of stimulation and experiences in childhood. Rutter agreed with the concept of deprivation but stressed that children who have not had strong attachments appear to fare the worst.

Rutter’s theories Deprivation, separation and privation Rutter identified family discord as a major reason for maladjustment in children. deprivation DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY There is evidence though to suggest that although certain children will suffer as a result of deprivation, others will not. As often is the case in psychology, individual cases did not always uphold theories of deprivation.

Other long-term effects of deprivation Deprivation, separation and privation Hospitalisation and children brought up in institutions have also been the focus of studies in deprivation. deprivation DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY The depression that can be experienced is termed ‘ anaclitic depression’ where children are separated from their mothers for long periods of time.

Other long-term effects of deprivation Deprivation, separation and privation Bowlby studied 44 juvenile delinquents and found that many lacked the ability to show any affection. deprivation DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Over 80% of these young people had been removed from their homes before they were two years old and had been in foster homes or hospitals. The state of these young people was described by Bowlby as ‘AFFECTIONLESS PSYCHOPATHY’.

Affectionless psychopathy is a syndrome identified by Bowlby to describe an inability to feel affection for other people or to form close relationships. What is ‘ affectionless psychopathy’ ? Glossary DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Criticisms Deprivation, separation and privation The criticism of the study was that the data was taken from people’s memories and this may be inaccurate. deprivation DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Retrospective evidence can be flawed as people do not always remember things accurately. Also, there has been the criticism that maternal separation may not be the sole reason for affectionless psychopathy.

Privation describes the lack of something Deprivation, separation and privation In attachment theory, privation describes the lack of being able to become attached because the opportunity was never there to form the attachment. privation DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY There have been horrific cases of children coming to the attention of the authorities who have experienced emotional privation. In these cases the children may be unable to speak and have retardation in emotional, social and physical aspects.

Privation describes the lack of something Deprivation, separation and privation In these appalling cases, it is difficult to form conclusions about privation. privation DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY The numbers of children are small and some recovered well from their ordeal: others did not. It is also difficult to assess due to the fact that the evidence is collected retrospectively.

Privation describes the lack of something Deprivation, separation and privation Privation may affect cognitive development as well as emotional and social development. privation DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Research carried out by Hodges and Tizard into the effects of privation, looked at the effects of early institutionalisation. This was a study of children who had been placed in care before they reached the age of four months.

Privation describes the lack of something Deprivation, separation and privation The children who had been adopted had fewer difficulties than other children, including those who had been returned to live with their families. privation DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY In later life the adopted children had the same problems as the children who had returned home, in terms of relationships. The results, however, were biased as certain individuals dropped out of the study as they grew older.

What is day care? Critical issue: day care Day care refers to pre-school children being looked after by temporary caregivers, such as child minders or nursery staff in day nurseries. The children are returned to the primary caregiver each day and do not stay overnight. Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis would suggest that there will be long-term consequences in this arrangement as children are separated from their primary caregiver for long periods each day. The quality of care is also variable and parents have to take this into account when deciding on day care for their children. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

The effects of day care Critical issue: day care Factors such as a stimulating environment at the day care centre and caring staff, as well as the ratio of staff to children are all factors which will affect the impact that day care will have on children. Stimulation affects cognitive development. Interaction with peers can also affect social development. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Attachment with substitute caregivers can promote social and emotional development. All this sounds very positive, doesn’t it?

Day care may: Nursery staff/ childminders may have to divide their time and attention between a number of children Increase social skills as children mix with their peer group and cope well with social situations Increase the child’s desire to be with others Day care may: Day care promotes development DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Critical issue: day care Day care harms development Affect adversely the attachment between child and primary caregiver Nursery staff/childminders may have less time to devote to talk to children, affecting language development Promote cognitive development if staff know how to stimulate children mentally

Day care: conclusions Critical issue: day care There are no hard and fast conclusions about day care. Research has shown that it can be beneficial in areas such as social development but equally some shy children find it threatening. Children can cope or not cope with day care on an individual basis. Where there is a constant turn-over of staff or staff who do not want to form attachments to the children, the positive benefits of day care may be less. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY The quality of the day care can alter the quality of children’s experiences

Conclusions Conclusions We have been considering the issues involved in developmental psychology. These have included biological mechanisms (nature) and the influence of socialisation (nurture). We have also looked closely at the development of children, how their parents interact with them and how this influences their development. Developmental psychology research allows us to consider the behaviour changes that occur over time and the influencing factors on that behaviour. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

THE END

Developmental psychology Introduction to developmental psychology P2-29 Cognitive development,including introduction to Piaget P30-40 Paiget’s stages of cognitive development P41-70 Summing up Piaget P71-75 Opinions on Piaget’s theories P76-78 Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development P79-85 Opinions on Vygotsky’s theories P86 Attachments in development P88-111 Cross cultural variation P112-121 Ethology P122-130 Bowlby’s theories P131-134 Deprivation, separation and privation P135-151 Critical issue: day care P152-155 Conclusions p156 How do Piaget and Vygotsky compare? P86-87

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY This unit is all about the way that we change during our lifetime. Introduction to the developmental approach to psychology Developmental psychologists consider all the physical and psychological changes that take place in human beings between birth and old age. These changes may be: inherited factors (nature) which include the effects on us as we mature and lifetime experiences and conditions (nurture) which will include our social relationships with other people. 2