DíAZ, Porfirio Full name José de la Cruz Porfirio Díaz (1830-1915), Mexican soldier and statesman, born in Oaxaca. He entered the army and served with distinction in three wars: the U.S.-Mexican War (1846-48); the civil war (1858-60) between liberals and conservatives, called the War of the Reform, in which he supported the liberal cause led by Benito Juárez; and the patriotic war (1863-67) against Maximilian.Díaz was an unsuccessful candidate in 1867 and 1871 for the presidency of Mexico. After each defeat he led an unsuccessful military uprising, ostensibly to terminate the power and influence of foreign capitalists in Mexico, but in reality to further his personal ambition for power. In 1876 he overthrew the government of President Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada (1827-89) and was installed as president the following year. Because, under the Mexican constitution, he could not serve two consecutive terms, Díaz relinquished the presidency in 1880. He was reelected in 1884, secured passage of an amendment to the constitution permitting a succession of presidential terms, and remained in power until 1911.His regime was marked by notable achievements, but also by a brutal tyranny. Under Díaz, the finances of Mexico were stabilized, and the country experienced an unprecedented economic development. Foreign capital, especially American, was invested in the exploitation of the country's mineral resources; the mining, textile, and other industries were expanded; railroad and telegraph lines were constructed; and foreign trade increased about 300 percent. On the other hand, foreign investors drained a great part of the country's wealth, much of the ancient communal lands (ejidos) of the Indians was concentrated in the hands of a relatively small number of landowners, and poverty and illiteracy were widespread. Manifestations of the resulting social discontent were suppressed by Díaz with an iron hand until the revolution of 1911, led by Francisco Madero, among others. Díaz was compelled to resign and leave the country. He died in exile in Paris. An article from Funk & Wagnalls® New Encyclopedia. ©2005 World Almanac Education Group, a WRC Media Company. All rights reserved.

Full name José de la Cruz Porfirio Díaz (1830-1915), Mexican soldier and statesman, born in Oaxaca. He entered the army and served with distinction in three wars: the U.S.-Mexican War (1846-48); the civil war (1858-60) between liberals and conservatives, called the War of the Reform, in which he supported the liberal cause led by Benito Juárez; and the patriotic war (1863-67) against Maximilian.Díaz was an unsuccessful candidate in 1867 and 1871 for the presidency of Mexico. After each defeat he led an unsuccessful military uprising, ostensibly to terminate the power and influence of foreign capitalists in Mexico, but in reality to further his personal ambition for power. In 1876 he overthrew the government of President Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada (1827-89) and was installed as president the following year. Because, under the Mexican constitution, he could not serve two consecutive terms, Díaz relinquished the presidency in 1880. He was reelected in 1884, secured passage of an amendment to the constitution permitting a succession of presidential terms, and remained in power until 1911.His regime was marked by notable achievements, but also by a brutal tyranny. Under Díaz, the finances of Mexico were stabilized, and the country experienced an unprecedented economic development. Foreign capital, especially American, was invested in the exploitation of the country's mineral resources; the mining, textile, and other industries were expanded; railroad and telegraph lines were constructed; and foreign trade increased about 300 percent. On the other hand, foreign investors drained a great part of the country's wealth, much of the ancient communal lands (ejidos) of the Indians was concentrated in the hands of a relatively small number of landowners, and poverty and illiteracy were widespread. Manifestations of the resulting social discontent were suppressed by Díaz with an iron hand until the revolution of 1911, led by Francisco Madero, among others. Díaz was compelled to resign and leave the country. He died in exile in Paris.

MADERO, Francisco Indalecio (1873-1913), Mexican revolutionist and statesman, born Oct. 30, 1873, in Parras de la Fuenta, Coahuila State, and educated at the University of California. Although he came from a family of landowners, Madero was an exponent of political and agrarian reform. He was also an outspoken critic of the dictatorial regime of President Porfirio Díaz and in 1908 wrote La Successión Presidencial en 1910 ( The Presidential Succession in 1910 ), urging the voters not to reelect Díaz. In spite of suppression by the government, the book was widely circulated and established Madero as Díaz's principal political opponent. During the election campaign, however, Madero was jailed for allegedly fomenting a revolt. Díaz thus succeeded in winning the election. Madero was released in November 1910 and fled to Texas, where he proclaimed a revolution against Díaz. Madero reentered Mexico and launched a military campaign that culminated in the capture of Ciudad Juárez in May 1911. Díaz resigned, Madero became provisional president, and in November 1911, Madero was elected president of Mexico. He retained in office both the congress of the Díaz regime and the army officers who had served Díaz. In 1912 simultaneous revolutions broke out in northern and southern Mexico, and in February 1913, the commander in chief of the army, Gen. Victoriano Huerta, overthrew Madero and assumed the presidency. On Feb. 22, 1913, while awaiting trial on a charge of treason, Madero was killed, reputedly during an attempt to escape (ley fuga!). An article from Funk & Wagnalls® New Encyclopedia. ©2005 World Almanac Education Group, a WRC Media Company. All rights reserved.

(1873-1913), Mexican revolutionist and statesman, born Oct. 30, 1873, in Parras de la Fuenta, Coahuila State, and educated at the University of California. Although he came from a family of landowners, Madero was an exponent of political and agrarian reform. He was also an outspoken critic of the dictatorial regime of President Porfirio Díaz and in 1908 wrote La Successión Presidencial en 1910 ( The Presidential Succession in 1910 ), urging the voters not to reelect Díaz. In spite of suppression by the government, the book was widely circulated and established Madero as Díaz's principal political opponent. During the election campaign, however, Madero was jailed for allegedly fomenting a revolt. Díaz thus succeeded in winning the election. Madero was released in November 1910 and fled to Texas, where he proclaimed a revolution against Díaz. Madero reentered Mexico and launched a military campaign that culminated in the capture of Ciudad Juárez in May 1911. Díaz resigned, Madero became provisional president, and in November 1911, Madero was elected president of Mexico. He retained in office both the congress of the Díaz regime and the army officers who had served Díaz. In 1912 simultaneous revolutions broke out in northern and southern Mexico, and in February 1913, the commander in chief of the army, Gen. Victoriano Huerta, overthrew Madero and assumed the presidency. On Feb. 22, 1913, while awaiting trial on a charge of treason, Madero was killed, reputedly during an attempt to escape (ley fuga!).

VILLA, Francisco (Pancho) Commonly called Pancho Villa (1877-1923), Mexican revolutionary leader. Originally named Doroteo Arango, he was born in Rio Grande. Upon the outbreak of the revolution of 1910-11 against the Mexican dictator Porfirio Díaz, Villa offered his services to the rebel leader Francisco I. Madero. During Madero's administration he served under the Mexican general Victoriano Huerta, who sentenced him to death for insubordination. Villa escaped to the U.S., and following the assassination of Madero and the assumption of power by Huerta in 1913, he returned to join the opposition under the revolutionary leader Venustiano Carranza. The two men soon became enemies, however, and when Carranza seized power in 1914, Villa led a rebellion against him. The following year the U.S. government recognized Carranza as president of Mexico, and on March 9, 1916, Villa crossed the border and attacked Columbus, N. Mex., killing a number of citizens and destroying part of the town. A punitive expedition dispatched to Mexico from the U.S. failed to capture Villa. After the overthrow of Carranza in 1920, he came to terms with the new government and retired to a ranch near Parral, Chihuahua. He was assassinated there in 1923. An article from Funk & Wagnalls® New Encyclopedia. ©2005 World Almanac Education Group, a WRC Media Company. All rights reserved.

Commonly called Pancho Villa (1877-1923), Mexican revolutionary leader. Originally named Doroteo Arango, he was born in Rio Grande. Upon the outbreak of the revolution of 1910-11 against the Mexican dictator Porfirio Díaz, Villa offered his services to the rebel leader Francisco I. Madero. During Madero's administration he served under the Mexican general Victoriano Huerta, who sentenced him to death for insubordination. Villa escaped to the U.S., and following the assassination of Madero and the assumption of power by Huerta in 1913, he returned to join the opposition under the revolutionary leader Venustiano Carranza. The two men soon became enemies, however, and when Carranza seized power in 1914, Villa led a rebellion against him. The following year the U.S. government recognized Carranza as president of Mexico, and on March 9, 1916, Villa crossed the border and attacked Columbus, N. Mex., killing a number of citizens and destroying part of the town. A punitive expedition dispatched to Mexico from the U.S. failed to capture Villa. After the overthrow of Carranza in 1920, he came to terms with the new government and retired to a ranch near Parral, Chihuahua. He was assassinated there in 1923.

ZAPATA, Emiliano (1877?-1919), Mexican revolutionary leader and agrarian reformer, born in San Miguel Anenecuilco (now Anenecuilco de los Zapata), in Morelos State. An semi-literate tenant farmer of almost pure Indian blood, he recruited an army of Indians from villages and haciendas in Morelos and, under the rallying cry "Land and Liberty," joined the Mexican revolutionist Francisco Madero in the 1910 revolt against the Mexican soldier-statesman Porfirio Díaz. Having lost faith in Madero, who assumed the presidency in 1911, Zapata formulated his agrarian reform plan; known as the Plan of Ayala, it called for the land to be redistributed among the Indians. During the provisional presidencies of the Mexican soldier-politician Victoriano Huerta and, later, the Mexican statesman Venustiano Carranza, Zapata continued his resistance to the government. By this time Zapata had extended his power throughout southern Mexico. With the Mexican revolutionary general Pancho Villa, Zapata marched on Mexico City, entering it the first of three times in 1914. The following year Zapata withdrew to Morelos where, still resisting, he later was murdered by an agent of Carranza. Although regarded as merely a pillaging bandit by his enemies, Zapata was idolized by the Indians as the true revolutionary reformer and hero; his life has inspired countless legends and ballads. An article from Funk & Wagnalls® New Encyclopedia. ©2005 World Almanac Education Group, a WRC Media Company. All rights reserved.

(1877?-1919), Mexican revolutionary leader and agrarian reformer, born in San Miguel Anenecuilco (now Anenecuilco de los Zapata), in Morelos State. An semi-literate tenant farmer of almost pure Indian blood, he recruited an army of Indians from villages and haciendas in Morelos and, under the rallying cry "Land and Liberty," joined the Mexican revolutionist Francisco Madero in the 1910 revolt against the Mexican soldier-statesman Porfirio Díaz. Having lost faith in Madero, who assumed the presidency in 1911, Zapata formulated his agrarian reform plan; known as the Plan of Ayala, it called for the land to be redistributed among the Indians. During the provisional presidencies of the Mexican soldier-politician Victoriano Huerta and, later, the Mexican statesman Venustiano Carranza, Zapata continued his resistance to the government. By this time Zapata had extended his power throughout southern Mexico. With the Mexican revolutionary general Pancho Villa, Zapata marched on Mexico City, entering it the first of three times in 1914. The following year Zapata withdrew to Morelos where, still resisting, he later was murdered by an agent of Carranza. Although regarded as merely a pillaging bandit by his enemies, Zapata was idolized by the Indians as the true revolutionary reformer and hero; his life has inspired countless legends and ballads.

HUERTA, Victoriano (1854-1916), Mexican soldier and political figure, born in Colotlán, Jalisco State, and educated at Chapultepec Military College. He served in the Mexican army and was promoted to the rank of brigadier general by President Porfirio Díaz in 1902. During the administration of Francisco I. Madero, in February 1913, while in command of the government forces sent to suppress an insurrection, Huerta turned against Madero and forced his resignation. Madero was killed a few days later, and Huerta became provisional president. The hostile attitude of the U.S. toward Huerta's regime, a clash between the U.S. and Mexico at Tampico involving the seizure of crew members of an American ship, and the rising pressure of the opponents of his dictatorial regime finally caused Huerta to resign in July 1914. He was in exile in Europe and the U.S. between 1914 and 1916 and was arrested twice in the U.S. for conspiring to incite a revolution in Mexico. He died in El Paso, Tex., while in custody of the U.S. government. An article from Funk & Wagnalls® New Encyclopedia. ©2005 World Almanac Education Group, a WRC Media Company. All rights reserved.

(1854-1916), Mexican soldier and political figure, born in Colotlán, Jalisco State, and educated at Chapultepec Military College. He served in the Mexican army and was promoted to the rank of brigadier general by President Porfirio Díaz in 1902. During the administration of Francisco I. Madero, in February 1913, while in command of the government forces sent to suppress an insurrection, Huerta turned against Madero and forced his resignation. Madero was killed a few days later, and Huerta became provisional president. The hostile attitude of the U.S. toward Huerta's regime, a clash between the U.S. and Mexico at Tampico involving the seizure of crew members of an American ship, and the rising pressure of the opponents of his dictatorial regime finally caused Huerta to resign in July 1914. He was in exile in Europe and the U.S. between 1914 and 1916 and was arrested twice in the U.S. for conspiring to incite a revolution in Mexico. He died in El Paso, Tex., while in custody of the U.S. government.

CARRANZA, Venustiano (1859-1920), Mexican president (1914-20), who represented the conservative faction in the Mexican Revolution of the early 20th century. He was born in Cuatro Ciénagas, Coahuila, and educated in Mexico City. A supporter of Francisco I. Madero, whom he joined in 1911, he was named governor of his home state later that year, and after Madero's murder in 1913, he led the Constitutionalist forces that in 1914 overthrew Gen. Victoriano Huerta, Madero's assassin. He was then installed as provisional head of the new government. Two contenders for the presidency, Emiliano Zapata and Francisco (Pancho) Villa, mounted a mass movement against Carranza, and he was driven from Mexico City. In 1915, however, he won popular support by promising far-reaching programs of social and agrarian reform. Two years later he was elected president of Mexico, following the adoption of a new constitution that mandated the projected reforms. Carranza's regime was marked by a series of conflicts with foreign investors over its attempts to restrict foreign ownership of agricultural and other property and to establish national ownership of oil and mineral deposits. Carranza, however, did not fulfill his promises for reform, and Gen. Álvaro Obregón, a former ally, led a popular revolt. Carranza fled to the state of Puebla, taking with him the nation’s gold reserves, where he was captured and killed. An article from Funk & Wagnalls® New Encyclopedia. ©2005 World Almanac Education Group, a WRC Media Company. All rights reserved.

(1859-1920), Mexican president (1914-20), who represented the conservative faction in the Mexican Revolution of the early 20th century. He was born in Cuatro Ciénagas, Coahuila, and educated in Mexico City. A supporter of Francisco I. Madero, whom he joined in 1911, he was named governor of his home state later that year, and after Madero's murder in 1913, he led the Constitutionalist forces that in 1914 overthrew Gen. Victoriano Huerta, Madero's assassin. He was then installed as provisional head of the new government. Two contenders for the presidency, Emiliano Zapata and Francisco (Pancho) Villa, mounted a mass movement against Carranza, and he was driven from Mexico City. In 1915, however, he won popular support by promising far-reaching programs of social and agrarian reform. Two years later he was elected president of Mexico, following the adoption of a new constitution that mandated the projected reforms. Carranza's regime was marked by a series of conflicts with foreign investors over its attempts to restrict foreign ownership of agricultural and other property and to establish national ownership of oil and mineral deposits. Carranza, however, did not fulfill his promises for reform, and Gen. Álvaro Obregón, a former ally, led a popular revolt. Carranza fled to the state of Puebla, taking with him the nation’s gold reserves, where he was captured and killed.

OBREG Ó N, Álvaro (1880-1928), Mexican soldier and president (1920-24), born near Alamos, Sonora State. In 1912 he organized a force of about 400 Indians. As commander of this force he entered the service of Francisco Madero, president of Mexico, and crushed a revolt. After the death of Madero in 1913, Obregón supported Venustiano Carranza as the nation's new leader. During the ensuing two years, Obregón helped defeat the various rebel forces led by Carranza's rival Victoriano Huerta, and by the popular revolutionaries Pancho Villa, and Emiliano Zapata; in a battle against Villa, Obregón lost his right arm. On the election of Carranza to the presidency in 1915, Obregón was appointed commander in chief of the Mexican army. In 1920 he led a successful revolt against Carranza and soon afterward was elected president. He instituted a number of labor, agrarian, and educational reforms, and in 1923 he secured the formal recognition of his government by the U.S. Between 1924 and 1928 he was politically inactive. He was reelected president in 1928 but was assassinated before he could take office. An article from Funk & Wagnalls® New Encyclopedia. ©2005 World Almanac Education Group, a WRC Media Company. All rights reserved.

(1880-1928), Mexican soldier and president (1920-24), born near Alamos, Sonora State. In 1912 he organized a force of about 400 Indians. As commander of this force he entered the service of Francisco Madero, president of Mexico, and crushed a revolt. After the death of Madero in 1913, Obregón supported Venustiano Carranza as the nation's new leader. During the ensuing two years, Obregón helped defeat the various rebel forces led by Carranza's rival Victoriano Huerta, and by the popular revolutionaries Pancho Villa, and Emiliano Zapata; in a battle against Villa, Obregón lost his right arm. On the election of Carranza to the presidency in 1915, Obregón was appointed commander in chief of the Mexican army. In 1920 he led a successful revolt against Carranza and soon afterward was elected president. He instituted a number of labor, agrarian, and educational reforms, and in 1923 he secured the formal recognition of his government by the U.S. Between 1924 and 1928 he was politically inactive. He was reelected president in 1928 but was assassinated before he could take office.

CALLES, Plutarco Elías (1877-1945), Mexican soldier and statesman, born in Guaymas, in the state of Sonora. Calles gave up a teaching career to help the revolt of Gen. Venustiano Carranza against President Victoriano Huerta in 1914. During the Carranza administration, Calles was governor of Sonora and secretary of industry, commerce, and labor from 1919 to 1920. In 1920 Calles assisted Gen. Álvaro Obregón in overthrowing Carranza and was made secretary of the interior from 1920 to 1923 while Obregón was president. In 1924 Calles succeeded Obregón as president of Mexico. Notable among the achievements of his administration were the construction of many new highways and a number of irrigation projects; the founding of the Bank of Mexico; amortization of the public debt; encouragement of public education and the organization of labor; and the limited application of land reform laws, including division of large estates among small farmers. In 1928 Calles retired to private life, but returned to serve in various offices and was an adviser to the three presidents who succeeded him. He was exiled in 1936 because of his criticism of the social reform policies of President Lázaro Cárdenas; he returned to Mexico in 1941. An article from Funk & Wagnalls® New Encyclopedia. ©2005 World Almanac Education Group, a WRC Media Company. All rights reserved.

(1877-1945), Mexican soldier and statesman, born in Guaymas, in the state of Sonora. Calles gave up a teaching career to help the revolt of Gen. Venustiano Carranza against President Victoriano Huerta in 1914. During the Carranza administration, Calles was governor of Sonora and secretary of industry, commerce, and labor from 1919 to 1920. In 1920 Calles assisted Gen. Álvaro Obregón in overthrowing Carranza and was made secretary of the interior from 1920 to 1923 while Obregón was president. In 1924 Calles succeeded Obregón as president of Mexico. Notable among the achievements of his administration were the construction of many new highways and a number of irrigation projects; the founding of the Bank of Mexico; amortization of the public debt; encouragement of public education and the organization of labor; and the limited application of land reform laws, including division of large estates among small farmers. In 1928 Calles retired to private life, but returned to serve in various offices and was an adviser to the three presidents who succeeded him. He was exiled in 1936 because of his criticism of the social reform policies of President Lázaro Cárdenas; he returned to Mexico in 1941.

C Á RDENAS, Lazaro (1895-1970), Lázaro Cárdenas was born in Jiquilpan, Michoacán. In 1913, he joined the Revolution in Apatzingán, under the command of General Guillermo García. In 1914, he was promoted to the rank of captain and, one year later, became lieutenant colonel. Cárdenas would later become one of the closest followers of Sonoran leader Plutarco Elías Calles. With Calles' support, Cárdenas rose up through the ranks, until he finally became a general and fought in several battles. He gave his support to the Plan of Agua Prieta, which opposed President Carranza. From 1928 to 1930, he became Governor of the state of Michoacán, where he implemented the political and social policy he would later apply to the entire country. In 1934, Lázaro Cárdenas became President of Mexico. Cárdenas applied the social provisions of the 1917 Constitution. This became clear when Articles 27 and 127 were enforced for the first time. The first of these articles governs national ownership of the land (mines and natural resources) while the latter focuses on improving the conditions of peasants and workers. These goals were attained by the oil expropriation and by the distribution of land, as well as through better legislation to ensure respect for workers' rights. His two main concerns were the integration of the workers and agrarian reform, which, until that time, had been largely overlooked. The agrarian situation led him to promote the goal of "reducing inequality, as far as possible". Cárdenas carried out an agrarian reform that eliminated the latifundios or large estates, distributing almost 18 million hectares of land. After a prolonged conflict with the US oil companies exploiting Mexican oil, he expropriated them and brought this natural resource under national control. Cárdenas promoted profound educational reforms; he demonstrated Mexico's tolerance and plurality by accepting Trotsky as a political refugee, and by supporting the Spanish Republic. He also responded to the discontent of the peasants by organizing and unifying the peasant movement in a single organization known as the Confederación Nacional Campesina (the CNC or the National Peasant Confederation). Cárdenas left the presidency in 1940, and was succeeded by Manuel Avila Camacho. An article from The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition | Date: 2007

(1895-1970), Lázaro Cárdenas was born in Jiquilpan, Michoacán. In 1913, he joined the Revolution in Apatzingán, under the command of General Guillermo García. In 1914, he was promoted to the rank of captain and, one year later, became lieutenant colonel. Cárdenas would later become one of the closest followers of Sonoran leader Plutarco Elías Calles. With Calles' support, Cárdenas rose up through the ranks, until he finally became a general and fought in several battles. He gave his support to the Plan of Agua Prieta, which opposed President Carranza. From 1928 to 1930, he became Governor of the state of Michoacán, where he implemented the political and social policy he would later apply to the entire country. In 1934, Lázaro Cárdenas became President of Mexico. Cárdenas applied the social provisions of the 1917 Constitution. This became clear when Articles 27 and 127 were enforced for the first time. The first of these articles governs national ownership of the land (mines and natural resources) while the latter focuses on improving the conditions of peasants and workers. These goals were attained by the oil expropriation and by the distribution of land, as well as through better legislation to ensure respect for workers' rights. His two main concerns were the integration of the workers and agrarian reform, which, until that time, had been largely overlooked. The agrarian situation led him to promote the goal of "reducing inequality, as far as possible". Cárdenas carried out an agrarian reform that eliminated the latifundios or large estates, distributing almost 18 million hectares of land. After a prolonged conflict with the US oil companies exploiting Mexican oil, he expropriated them and brought this natural resource under national control. Cárdenas promoted profound educational reforms; he demonstrated Mexico's tolerance and plurality by accepting Trotsky as a political refugee, and by supporting the Spanish Republic. He also responded to the discontent of the peasants by organizing and unifying the peasant movement in a single organization known as the Confederación Nacional Campesina (the CNC or the National Peasant Confederation). Cárdenas left the presidency in 1940, and was succeeded by Manuel Avila Camacho.