Powering the New Generation of Electric Vehicles

Powering the New
Generation of Electric
Vehicles: Issues and Challenges

Powering the New Generation of Electric Vehicles: Issues and Challenges

Powering the New Generation of Electric
Vehicles: Issues and Challenges

By 2015, there may be as many as 1 million electric-powered vehicles on roads and
highways in the United States. That’s the target set by President Barack Obama in his
2011 State of the Union address. Although skeptics question whether President Obama’s
1 million vehicle target is actually achievable by that date, automobile manufacturers
are moving to bring electric vehicles (EVs) to the market as quickly as possible. In fact,
it is estimated that over 20 different EV models will be available for sale in U.S. car
dealerships by 2015.1

The rapid and dramatic increase in the number of EVs on the road will bring about
many changes, not the least of which is the deployment of an infrastructure to power
this new generation of high-technology vehicles. Already, pilot programs are underway
throughout the United States to install electric vehicle charging stations (EVCSs), timed
to support the new EVs that are rolling out of dealer showrooms. Further, owners of EVs
will require the installation of EVCSs where they garage their vehicles. Some calculations
place the number of EVCS required to support a fleet of 1 million EVs at more than 2.5
million units.

The introduction of electric-powered vehicles presents significant growth opportunities
for automobile manufacturers as well as the manufacturers of power systems used
to build and fuel America’s new EV fleet. At the same time, the installation and
maintenance of potentially millions of EVCSs presents logistical and training issues
for the technology companies that manufacture and service such equipment. Finally,
consumers are likely to seek reassurances regarding the safety of electric-powered
vehicles and the systems used to charge them.

This UL white paper provides an overview of the general issues regarding the
introduction of EVs, and reviews the various types of EVs and the technology
components required to power them. The white paper then discusses potential issues
related to the widespread deployment of EVs, including the development of an EV
power structure, safety concerns addressed by regulations and consensus standards,
and the training needs of designers, field installation specialists, and enforcement
officials. The white paper concludes with a preview of prospective issues facing
manufacturers of EVs and EV charging equipment.

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Electric Vehicles— two separate propulsion systems, a do not include a conventional internal

A Technology Overview conventional internal combustion engine combustion engine. Energy is transferred
and an electrical propulsion system, a to a vehicle either by plugging it into an
The future outlook for growth in the
combination designed to optimize fuel electric supply or exchanging the vehicle’s
use of EVs has never been brighter. The
economy. By May 2011, 2.0 million spent battery for a charged one. Vehicles
emerging alignment of environmental,
HEVs had reportedly been sold in operated exclusively on battery power are
economic and political concerns
the United States.3 possible due to advancements in battery
stemming from the continued
Although manufacturers continue to technologies, with the current generation
dependence on imported petroleum and
make improvements in the efficiency of of lithium-ion battery systems offering
other fossil fuels has resulted in increased
their HEV models, major investments higher power and energy densities, and
interest by consumers in electric-powered
in electronic propulsion systems have providing greater driving ranges and
vehicles and increased investment by
automobile manufacturers in battery and shifted to the development of plug-in increased acceleration.

hybrid technologies necessary to power hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). Like
HEVs, PHEVs typically have two separate
A Review of EV
them.2 In addition, new corporate average
fuel economy (CAFE) standards requiring and independent propulsion systems. Power Components
vehicle fleets to achieve nearly 55 miles What makes PHEVs different from HEVs Beyond the technical sophistication of
per gallon by 2025 are likely to drive is the presence of a rechargeable battery electric-powered vehicle propulsion, EVs
growth and additional investment. This system that can be restored to a full require a complex system of electrical
interest has been further stimulated by charge by connecting the vehicle to a and electronic components to support
billions of dollars of federal funds directed charging system. General Motors was the recharging of the vehicle’s on-board
toward research and development, the first to introduce a PHEV to the U.S. batteries. On the other side, an electrical
market development programs, and even market in late 2010 with the debut of system is required to provide the requisite
the deployment of a federal EV fleet. the Chevy Volt, but a number of other power to recharge EVs. These on-board
manufacturers plan PHEV introductions and off-board systems and components
Electric-powered vehicles have evolved
in the next few years, including Ford, must be designed to integrate seamlessly
significantly over the fifteen years since
Toyota, Volvo, Audi, Suzuki and Fisker. with one another to ensure a safe,
they were first introduced in the United
convenient and trouble-free experience
States. Hybrid gas-electric vehicles (also Development efforts are also proceeding
for consumers.
known as a hybrid electric vehicles or on all-electric vehicles, such as the
HEVs) made their debut in the late 1990s Nissan LEAF. These battery electric On-board and off-board charging systems
with the introduction of the Toyota Prius vehicles (BEVs) are powered exclusively typically include some or all of the
and Honda Insight. HEVs typically include by rechargeable battery systems and following individual components:

On-Board Off-Board

Connectors Connectors

Cables Cables

Chargers Personal protection equipment

Power supplies Power outlets

Batteries Smart meters

Motors Charging stations

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Off-board components On-board components
On-Board Motor
Off-Board Charge Level 1-3
Controller
On-Board
Chargers
Personnel Off-Board On-Board On-Board
Protection Connectors Connectors
Cable Connectors Cable
Equipment
On-Board
Power
Supply

Power Outlets

Smart
Meter

On-Board On-Board On-Board
Charge Stations Motors Inverters Batteries
Level 1 & 2

Figure 1: EV on-board and off-board components

At the same time, manufacturers are recharge vehicle batteries. Initial efforts use multipliers of between 0.5 and 2.5
developing enhanced charging systems in this area are already underway, charging units per EV to calculate the
and components to take advantage notably the EV Project, a public/private
4
anticipated demand for EVCSs. For the
of new technological innovations. For program with approximately $230 million fleet of 1 million EVs projected to be on
example, a new generation of batteries in combined federal government and U.S. roadways by 2015, these multipliers
is being developed that will provide private funding, that is slated to deploy would project a short-term requirement
consumers with the ability to make nearly 15,000 charging stations in 16 cities of anywhere between 500,000 and
reserve battery power available to in six states (Arizona, California, Oregon, 2.5 million EVCS.
utilities in response to peaks in demand Tennessee, Texas and Washington) and
Given the significant market potential in
(so-called vehicle-to-grid technology). the District of Columbia through the end
meeting the expected demand for EVCSs,
Moving these and other innovations from of 2011. EV Project partners Nissan and
it is not surprising that companies from
the research lab to the field will require a Chevrolet are also expected to cover the
diverse industries around the world are
variety of new connectors, cables, motors, cost of installing residential chargers for
actively exploring ways to leverage new
inverters and other components essential buyers of the Nissan LEAF (an all-electric
and existing technologies in support of
to safe and dependable performance. vehicle), and the Chevrolet Volt (a PHEV).
the development of EVCS infrastructure
But estimates of the number of EVCS and equipment. As an illustration, a
Supplier Dynamics in Deploying installations required to support a 2010 UL webinar on electric vehicle
an EV Power Infrastructure growing fleet of EVs greatly exceeds infrastructure issues attracted more
The commercial success of PHEVs and the scope of the EV Project. According than 600 participants from across the
BEVs will depend on the deployment to Pike Research, nearly 1 million charge United States and from countries around
of a nationwide network of public and points will need to be installed in the the world, including China, India, Brazil
private charging stations that will allow United States by 2015 to support PHEVs and the European Union. Companies
consumers to safely and conveniently and other chargeable vehicles. Others
5
represented at the webinar included

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automobile manufacturers, but also are potential fire and electrical safety includes an extensive glossary of terms
consumer electronics manufacturers, issues. Indeed, according to a Summary related to EVs and EVCSs.
aerospace and defense contractors, Report of the U.S. National Electric
The primary intent of NEC Article 625 is
industrial infrastructure equipment Vehicle Safety Standards Summit held
to prevent users from being exposed to
suppliers, electrical utilities and others. in Detroit, Michigan in October 2010,6 energized live parts, and to provide them
But the convergence of diverse the issue of safety related to vehicle with a safe EV charging environment.
technologies from global companies charging infrastructure was one of the To achieve that objective, Section 625.5
also presents a number of challenges for three greatest concerns among summit requires that all electrical materials,
everyone involved. Manufacturers must participants. Specific safety concerns devices, fittings and equipment
develop and deliver individual products include issues related to the technical associated with EV charging equipment
and components that not only conform design and performance of EV be listed or labeled by a Nationally
with specified technical requirements, charging equipment, the types and Recognized Testing Laboratory (NRTL)
but which also work seamlessly with quality of components used in such accredited by the U.S. Occupational Safety
products designed and produced by equipment, installation procedures and Health Administration (OSHA). (The
manufacturers in other industries. Supply and maintenance requirements. listing requirement is consistent with
chain management practices of individual Safety concerns regarding EV charging other sections of the NEC dealing with
companies must be harmonized to the equipment in the United States are electrical and electronic equipment used
extent possible so that required products primarily addressed through state and in the federally regulated workplace.)
and components are delivered where and local regulations, which most often Article 625 also includes the following
when they’re needed. Producers based reference the National Electric Code (NEC, requirements applicable to EV
outside of the United States will need to also known as NFPA 70)7, and consensus charging equipment:
anticipate the potential logistical issues standards promulgated by the Society of
• ll EV attachment plugs,
A
that come from working with partner Automotive Engineers (SAE), the National
connectors and inlets must be
companies in other parts of the world. Fire Protection Association (NFPA), UL,
listed or labeled for the purpose
In addition to these challenges, and other organizations. These consensus
(Section 625.16)
manufacturers must also understand codes and standards undergo continuous
review and revisions to address previously • EV supply equipment must include
the specific codes, regulations and
unidentified concerns as well as newly an interlock that de-energizes an
standards that will govern the design,
introduced technologies.8 Enforcement is EV connector and cable when a
installation and use of their products and
typically carried out at the local level by connector is uncoupled from an EV
components in their intended location.
an “authority having jurisdiction,” which (Section 625.18)
Finally, initial and continuous training and
education programs for installers, service can include state and local fire marshals, • EV supply equipment must
technicians, local electrical inspectors and fire and electrical inspectors, and building de-energize when strain could lead
other code authorities, first responders, and public health officials. to the rupture or separation of a
and end users are necessary to minimize The most important safety code covering cable from an electrical connector
safety risks for all involved. EV charging equipment is the NEC, (Section 625.19)

which is the basis for most state and • EVCSs must have a listed personnel
Codes and Regulations local electrical and safety requirements. protection system to protect
Addressing EV Charging Specifically, Article 625 of the NEC directly against electric shock
Equipment Safety Issues addresses requirements for the design (Section 625.22) 9
Foremost among the challenges in and installation of EVCSs and other EV
deploying an EV power infrastructure charging equipment. Article 625 also

page 5


The above discussion represents only a EV and EV charging equipment safety
brief summary of the key provisions of issues addressed in current consensus
NEC Article 625. Those involved in the standards typically address one of three
design, permitting and installation of types of risks, as follows:
EV charging equipment are encouraged
1. High voltage and current, that is,
to obtain copies of the code and to the risk of electric shock and/or fire
thoroughly review Article 625 prior
2. Environmental concerns, covering
to commencing any work on EV
temperature, humidity, water, oil
charging equipment.
and dust
It is important to note that some state
3. The equipment’s durability and
and local authorities may impose
resistance to vibration and abuse
additional safety requirements on the
design and installation of EV charging Here is a brief summary of the current
equipment that are unique to their consensus standards for EVs and EV
jurisdictions. However, in most cases, charging equipment:
local authorities strive to incorporate
• UL 62, Safety of Electric Vehicle
the NEC by reference in local electrical
Cable—This Standard covers cables
and safety codes to accurately mirror the
used to supply power, signal and
technical provisions of NEC Article 625. control to EVs during the charging
process. EV cable consists of two
Consensus Safety Standards for
or more insulated conductors, with
EVs and EV Charging Equipment
or without grounding conductors,
UL, SAE, NFPA and other organizations
with an overall jacket
have been working for more than 15
years to develop and adopt consensus • UL 2202, Safety of Electric Vehicle
standards appropriate to the safety issues (EV) Charging System Equipment—
related to EVs, EVCSs, and other types This Standard covers EV charging
of EV charging equipment and charging system equipment located on- or
components. In most cases, the technical off-board a vehicle. Off-board
requirements found in consensus equipment is connected to the
standards are closely aligned with those vehicle by means of a flexible cord
found in the NEC, and existing standards and an electric vehicle connector
undergo continuous review and revision. • UL 2231 (Parts 1 and 2), Safety of
In addition, new consensus standards are Personnel Protection Systems for
being developed to account for emerging EV Supply Circuits—This Standard
EV and EVCS technologies. For example, covers devices and systems
UL is currently developing new on- and intended to reduce the risk of
off-board EV standards for wireless electric shock to the user from
(inductive) charging and to accommodate accessible parts, in grounded or
vehicle-to-grid technology. isolated circuits for charging EVs

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• UL 2251, Safety of Plugs, including the pin configuration, when the marketplace is flooded with
Receptacles, and Couplers for dimensions and overall design unknown brand names from around
EVs—This Standard covers plugs, of a connector. SAE J 1772 the world, consumers are increasingly
receptacles, vehicle inlets and references UL 2251 regarding wary about the quality and safety of
connectors rated up to 800 coupler safety requirements electrical and electronic devices. Savvy
amperes and up to 600 volts ac consumers recognize that equipment
or dc, intended for conductive The Role of Testing and components bearing the UL label
connection systems and Certification or that of another NRTL meet or exceed
As previously noted, compliance with applicable safety standards, and EV
• UL Subject 2594, Safety of Electric
the provisions of the NEC requires that charging equipment and components
Vehicle (EV) Supply Equipment—
EVCSs and other EV charging equipment that have been certified will be viewed
This subject Standard covers
be listed or labeled. Such listings are by consumers as part of a manufacturer’s
equipment intended to provide
typically achieved through testing overall commitment to safety.
power to an EV with an onboard
by an accredited testing laboratory,
charging unit. Specific products
in which representative samples of The Importance of EV and EV
covered by Subject 2594 include EV
equipment are evaluated for compliance Charging Equipment Training
power outlets, EV cord sets and EV
with the technical specifications and In addition to safety issues related to the
charging stations
performance criteria detailed in relevant EV charging infrastructure, attendees at
• UL Subject 2735, Safety of Electric consensus standards. Equipment that the 2010 U.S. National Electric Vehicle
Utility (Smart) Meters—This is found compliant with the consensus Safety Standards Summit cited training as
subject Standard covers electric standards is then published in the testing a key ingredient in the successful and safe
utility meters designed to measure, laboratory’s listing of approved or introduction of EVs into widespread use in
monitor, record, transmit or receive certified products and is labeled as proof the United States.10 Summit participants
electrical energy generation or of that certification. focused exclusively on training for
use consumption information. local enforcement officials and first
The testing and certification of EVCSs and
Such meters may be used as a responders. But training and education
EV charging equipment and components
standalone device or as part of efforts will necessarily reach beyond this
are key elements in the overall safety of
an EVCS group to include designers of charging
the EV power infrastructure. Testing by
• UL Subject 2750, Wireless Charging systems, electricians and field installation
an experienced, independent third-party
Equipment for Electric Vehicles— specialists, maintenance technicians, local
laboratory supports claims that a product
This subject Standard covers code officials and others.
has been rigorously and objectively
products used in the systems evaluated for safety, both with respect As an example of the training already
for wireless charging of electric to design and use, even under conditions available or in planning stages, UL has
vehicles, including the primary and not anticipated by a manufacturer. announced an initial curriculum of three
secondary coil units, and the power Rather than slowing time to market, separate e-Learning courses/webinars,
source. These systems are rated at the certification of products by UL or as follows:
a maximum 250 V ac another NRTL can actually speed product
• Electric Vehicle Charging Station
• SAE J 1772, Electric Vehicle and acceptance by purchasing authorities and
Infrastructure Design—For
Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle local enforcement officials.
construction engineers, architects,
Conductive Charge Coupler— Product testing and certification are municipalities and property
This SAE Standard addresses the also essential in the effort to build owners, this course provides
configuration of the charge coupler, consumer acceptance. At a time a comprehensive overview of

page 7


EVCS technology, and design efforts to encourage employment and job by state and local enforcement officials.
considerations for large-scale growth in so-called green technologies, Politics aside, the consequences for
installations providing work opportunities for regulators who miss a potentially

• Electric Vehicle Charging System thousands of workers. catastrophic safety risk related to the EV
Installation—For experienced power infrastructure are too great. Look
What’s Ahead for for more, not less, attempts at federal
and qualified electricians,
Manufacturers? oversight in this area.
this self-paced course covers
the entire EVCS installation The market for electric-powered vehicles
and the energy systems that power them Product Safety Will Drive
process. Participants who pass a
will grow dramatically in the coming Market Acceptance
comprehensive online assessment
following the course are awarded years. While it is impossible to predict As noted throughout this white paper,

UL’s EVCS Installer certificate the future with any degree of certainty, safety issues related to the vehicle
here are some thoughts on the likely charging infrastructure is the pre-eminent
• NEC Article 625—Electric Vehicle
consequences ahead for manufacturers. concern among all stakeholders, including
Charging Stations for Code
the general public. Manufacturers who
Officials: For code officials The Industry Will Grow Quickly place product safety ahead of all other
responsible for permitting and
Political turmoil and rising energy prices concerns, by designing safe products
inspecting EVCSs, this webinar
will eventually spur consumer demand and submitting them for testing and
provides an introduction to EVCS
for EVs, and manufacturers will struggle certification, will build trust among
technology, equipment and
initially to keep up. This dynamic will consumers and earn a reputation
installation requirements, as
attract an abundance of new market for quality.
defined in NEC Article 625
entrants, ranging from small technology
UL is in the process of developing start-ups with innovative ideas to large Knowledge and Training
additional training programs, consisting corporations looking to exploit their Are Essential
of both e-Learning, classroom instruction resources to capture share in this new Knowledge and training are key to the
and hands-on training. market. New players are likely to come successful deployment and acceptance
These and other courses and training and go at a startling rate, and production of any new technology, and EVs and
options are essential to support the overcapacity is a potential risk. EV charging systems are no different.
full-scale rollout of EVs over the coming Manufacturers and other stakeholders
decade and to foster the development of More, Not Less, must commit to training and education
skills necessary to install and maintain the Regulatory Oversight programs to ensure that their products
required EV power infrastructure. Equally Federal regulations already control are designed, certified, installed,
important, training and continuing most safety issues related to EVs, but maintained and used as efficiently and as
education programs focused on EVs the rollout of a national EV power safely as possible.
and EV charging systems can support infrastructure will largely be governed

page 8


Conclusion
In just a few short years, the prospect of EVs as a viable alternative to gasoline-powered
vehicles has become a reality. The deployment of a nationwide power infrastructure
to support the growing fleet of EVs will provide manufacturers with abundant new
opportunities, but those opportunities will come with additional challenges, the most
important of which is the safe operation and use of EVs and EV charging systems.
This challenge can best be met by the continued active advancement of appropriate
regulations and consensus standards, a rigorous testing and certification program, and
a commitment by manufacturers and other stakeholders to provide comprehensive
training and education options for all involved.

For additional information, please contact Chris Pauly, Business Development Manager,
at Chris.Pauly@ul.com.

1
Baum & Associates, as quoted in “Electric Vehicles: Perspectives on a Growing Investment Theme.” an industry report prepared by Citi
Investment Research & Analysis. 23 Feb 2011. Web. 23 Nov 2011 http://www.ceres.org/resources/reports/electric-vehicles-report
2
For additional information on the advantages of electric powered transportation, see “Electrification Roadmap: Revolutionizing
Transportation and Achieving Energy Security”. Electrification Coalition. Nov 2009. Web. 19 Nov 2011. http://www.
electrificationcoalition.org/reports/EC-Roadmap-screen.pdf
3
“U.S. Hybrid Sales Hit 2 Million Mark.” WardsAuto.com. 7 Jun 2011. Web. 19 Nov 2011. http://wardsauto.com/ar/hybrid_sales_
million_110607/index.html
4
“The EV Project.” www.theevproject.com 19 Nov 2011
5
“64% of Electric Vehicle Charge Points in the United States to be Residential Units.” Pike Research. 22 Sept 2010. Web. 19 Nov 2011.
http://www.pikeresearch.com/newsroom/64-percent-of-electric-vehicle-charge-points-in-the-united-states-to-be-residential-units
6
“Summary Report.” U.S. National Electric Vehicle Safety Standards Summit. Oct 2010. Web. 19 Nov 2011. http://www.nfpa.org/assets/
files/PDF/Research/RFUSNEVSSSummit.pdf
7
“NFPA 70: National Electric Code.” National Fire Protection Association. 2011. Web. 19 Nov 2011. Copies can be purchased at www.nfpg.org
8
For a preview of possible changes to the NEC and NFPA standards, for example, see “Electric Vehicle Charging and NFPA Electrical
Safety Codes and Standards.” The Fire Protection Research Foundation. Oct 2011. Web. 19 Nov 2011. http://www.evsafetytraining.org/
Resources/~/media/Files/RFEVCharging.pdf
9
Susan L. Stene. “Certification of Products for Electric Vehicles and Systems (From the Wall to the Battery).” Underwriters Laboratories,
Proceedings of the 59th International Wire & Cable Symposium. 2010. Web. 19 Nov 2011. http://iwcs.omnibooksonline.com
10
“Summary Report.” U.S. National Electric Vehicle Safety Standards Summit. Oct 2010. Web. 19 Nov 2011. http://www.nfpa.org/assets/
files/PDF/Research/RFUSNEVSSSummit.pdf

UL and the UL logo are trademarks of UL LLC © 2012. No part of this document may be copied or distributed without the prior written
consent of UL LLC 2012.

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