Chapter 2 Understanding Children's Behavior

Every Child is Unique
Although typical patterns can be identified, children have individual patterns and rates of development
The only valid reason for comparing a child’s rate of development to standard rates is to be alert to any “red flags” that may indicate a need for professional screening and possibly a need for medical or therapeutic intervention
©2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.

Developmental Red Flags
Signs a child may need referral for screening or therapeutic intervention:
excessive aggression
extreme withdrawal
delays in motor skill development
language delays

PIAGET’S Sensorimotor Period
Birth to two years
Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development
Cognitive system is limited to motor reflexes at birth
Infant builds on reflexes to practice motor coordination
Activities become generalized into increasingly complex chains of behavior
Child has physiological urge to practice motor skills and explore surroundings

Appropriate Guidance for the Sensorimotor Period
Provide responsive, affectionate caregiving
Provide consistent, predictable routines
Nurture the development of trust by responding promptly to the child’s needs

PIAGET’S Preoperational Thought
Two to six years
In Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development, the child
begins with achievement of object permanence
is egocentric and cannot take another’s point of view
develops representational skills in imagery and language
in imaginative play, can let one object stand as a representation for another
believes quantity changes when objects are rearranged

Appropriate Guidance for the Preoperational Period
In a caring and consistent way, teach self- help skills such as self-feeding, toilet learning, and dressing
Give children opportunities to make choices within reasonable limitations
Provide a developmentally appropriate environment for the child to explore and challenge emerging skills
As children grow, increase their responsibilities to match their abilities

PIAGET’S Concrete Operations
Six to 12 years
In Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development, the child
develops the ability to take another’s point of view
takes into account more than one perspective simultaneously
understands and solves concrete, but not abstract, problems
develops the ability to replay events mentally and evaluate experience logically
does not consider all logically possible outcomes

Appropriate Guidance for the Concrete Operational Period
Provide creative activities
Give encouragement and deserved recognition to support the development of competence and self-esteem
Use class meetings to solve problems
Teach conflict resolution skills
Nurture each child to help her discover and develop her own special talents and abilities

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
STAGE 1: INFANTS—BIRTH TO ONE YEAR
Crisis: Trust versus mistrust
Description: Early in life, infants depend on others for food, care, and affection, and must be able to blindly trust caregivers to meet their needs
Positive outcome: A sense of hope —If their needs are met consistently and responsively, infants will develop a secure attachment and will develop a sense of trust
Negative outcome: If not, infants will not develop a sense of trust

Trust versus Mistrust
In Erikson’s first stage, babies need…
Consistent, warm, loving caregivers
To have their comfort needs met immediately
To be held much of the time, or carried in a sling or baby carrier so they can feel the warmth of the adult’s body

STAGE 2: TODDLERS—ONE TO TWO YEARS
Crisis: Independence versus doubt and shame
Description: Toddlers begin to develop self-help skills, self-feeding, potty learning, dressing, etc., at this age. Their self-confidence in this stage hinges on their negotiation of this difficult new territory with caregivers
Positive outcome: A strong will —If caregivers encourage the child’s initiative and encourage her when she fails, she will develop confidence
Negative outcome: If caregivers are overprotective, negative, or disapproving of her newfound independence, she may doubt her abilities and feel shame

Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt
In Erikson’s second stage, toddlers need to…
Discover that their behavior is their own
Assert their new sense of independence
Have a safe environment to explore freely
Be assured of unconditional affection

STAGE 3: PRESCHOOLERS—TWO TO SIX YEARS
Crisis: Initiative versus guilt
Description: Children find a new sense of power and freedom as they develop the motor skills and the language skills they need to become fully engaged in the environment and the social interactions around them
They discover that with this power and freedom comes new adult pressure to control immature impulses and to follow rules
Positive outcome: A sense of purpose —If adults are encouraging, positive, and consistent in guidance, children learn to accept rules without guilt
Negative outcome: If not, children may develop a sense of guilt and may become clingy and dependent, or rebellious and resistant

Initiative versus Guilt
In Erikson’s third stage, preschoolers need…
Materials for creative play such as
Arts, crafts and other construction supplies
Dress-ups for role play
Hands-on cooking experiences
Outdoor play equipment that challenges their motor skills
A non-critical, supportive environment in which to try out their new skills
Help, ideas, questions and enthusiasm about their new abilities

STAGE 4: ELEMENTARY AND MIDDLE SCHOOL-AGERS—SIX TO TWELVE YEARS
Crisis: Industry versus inferiority
Description: School is the critical factor of this stage. Children make a transition from the world of home into the world of community, school, and peers. Home is still important, but succeeding outside the home takes on new importance
Positive outcome: A feeling of competence —If children learn that they can succeed, that others value their work, they develop a sense of competence
Negative outcome: If not, they will develop a sense of inferiority and may start looking for negative ways to win status with peers (Erikson, 1959)

Industry versus Inferiority
In Erikson’s fourth stage of development, children need to…
Expand their understanding of their world
Continue to develop appropriate gender-role identity
Learn basic skills required for school success
Achieve sense of industry, setting and attaining personal goals
Failure to do so results in a sense of inadequacy

Developing Self-Awareness
Egocentrism
cognitive limitation of children in the preoperational stage
inability to view reality from standpoint of another
Self-concept
one’s idea or image of oneself
Self-esteem
perceiving oneself as worthwhile and valuable

Object permanence
recognition that something hidden from view is not gone forever
Stimuli
perceptions taken in through the senses that might spark activity or thought
Unconscious reactions
unplanned actions

Conditioning
Classical conditioning
associative learning made famous by Pavlov’s experiments with dogs
no contingency between response and reinforcer
Operant conditioning
associative learning like Skinner’s experiments with rats and pigeons
contingency between response and reinforcer

Metacognition
This is the ability to reflect on or evaluate one’s own behavior or actions
Preschoolers gradually become more aware of their own choices and intentions
Cephalocaudal
Growth follows a pattern
It begins with the head and proceeds down the body
Proximodistal
Development proceeds from center of the body outward

Appropriate Touch
Casual, affectionate, reciprocal and welcome physical contact
Never sexual, exploitative or aggressive

Behaviors
Habituated
One is accustomed to stimuli because of repetition
Stimulus may be ignored once it becomes usual
Learned helplessness
Prior repeated exposure to negative stimuli that is inescapable
Retards one’s ability to learn when avoidance is possible
Develops in children who have no control over their environment

Bedsharing
Sleeping with an infant may be beneficial if…
The baby sleeps on his back (unless the doctor says otherwise)
The baby’s face does not come in contact with soft surfaces or loose covers
The sides or edges of the bed do not present entrapment possibilities
The bed is not also shared with other siblings
The adults do not smoke or use substances such as alcohol or drugs

External environment…
physical surroundings
daily routines
interactions with others
Internal sensations…
inner feelings
biological urges
pleasurable sensations
discomforts
Conditions that Affect a Child’s Behavior ©2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.

Guidance Styles
Authoritarian
“ The Sledgehammer”
forcibly gains control over children
Permissive
“ The Doormat”
gives up responsibility for children
Authoritative
“ The Guide”
assertively develops children’s self-discipline and self-control

The attachment of babies to their adult caregivers is a critical part of their overall healthy social and emotional development

Anxiety
Stranger anxiety is apprehension in the presence of unfamiliar people
Separation anxiety is apprehension when separated from caregiver
Stranger and separation anxiety usually peak in young toddlers
Occurrence varies widely among children

Babies & Toddlers Are Egocentric
In the first months of life, babies perceive themselves as part of their caregivers and surroundings
Toddlers have some sense of personal identity, but perceive everything apart from themselves as belonging to them. Caregivers often hear the word “MINE”!
My Mommy
My Daddy
My house
My toys
My food
My tricycle

Toddlers Can’t Yet Control Their Actions or Emotions
They flip-flop between testing their new independence and being clingy
They use their senses (touch, sight, smell, taste, and hearing) to explore the physical attributes of their environment

Toddlers Repeatedly Explore Cause and Effect
Cause-and-effect relationships are an important focal point for toddler learning
Cause & Effect = “If I push this button, a bell always rings.”
Toddlers also explore the cause-and-effect relationships that occur in social interactions
“ If I touch the outlet, my mommy always says ‘no, no.’”

Toddlers Need to Explore
Healthy, well-developing toddlers have a curiosity that is boundless
Their desire to explore at times overshadows all other needs

Safety is Critical for Toddlers Because…
They can move around the environment
They can’t learn or remember rules yet
Their desire to explore is so powerful that it drives them to touch, taste, climb and otherwise explore everything

Communication
Body language
nonverbal communication
facial expression, tone of voice, body posture, or gestures
Expressive language
ability to actively communicate
vocal speech, writing, or sign language
Receptive language
ability to comprehend
vocal speech, writing, or sign language

Autonomy
Self-sufficiency and self-reliance
Social and emotional growth
Affective development

Community of learners
collaborative learners who cooperate as a team
sharing ideas, helping each other and solving problems together
Competitors
Opponents are adversaries who contend against each other
Competition discourages cooperation and may damage self-esteem
Competitors use comparisons that label and stereotype children

Some Children Become Attached to Security Blankets, Pacifiers and other Cuddlies
In most primitive cultures, children stay in close physical contact with their mothers’ bodies most of the time during their first three years of life
In fast-moving modern industrialized societies, it is not too surprising that babies and toddlers may find that “cuddlies” help them feel more comfortable
As much as possible during the day, a child over three should be gently encouraged to refrain from sucking a pacifier or thumb. It is difficult for him to practice language effectively with his mouth immobilized

The Group Contagion
In a group, silly behavior sometimes becomes “contagious” and spreads like wildfire
A well-behaved group can suddenly go gleefully out of control
Children who would not normally behave inappropriately can get caught up in the moment

Competent Three-Year-Olds Are…
Self-confident and trusting
Intellectually inquisitive
Able to use language to communicate
Physically and mentally healthy
Able to relate well to others
Empathic toward others

Using Words to Express Feelings
Preschoolers can be guided firmly to use words to get a point across rather than relying on aggression
They can be helped to practice appropriate words and allowed to express strong emotions, even anger, through their words

Stress Traps for parents and educators
Perfectionism
People pleasing
Self-doubt

Friendship Is Critical to Preschoolers
Preschoolers are elated when they feel liked by peers
Preschoolers feel emotionally crushed when they feel disliked
Some preschoolers make friends easily
Others experience a roller-coaster of emotional turmoil

Responsible Preschoolers
Allow them to do challenging things
Never do for them what they can do for themselves
Help them learn to follow rules
Be safe
Be kind
Be neat

Competition versus Community of Learners
Competition
Children become acutely aware of comparison among themselves
Whenever there are winners, by definition, there will be losers
Winners may feel stressed and pressured about continuing to win
Losers may feel inadequate
Community of Learners
Children share a sense of belonging
Children contribute to each other’s learning
Children work toward common goals
Children help each other, and cooperate as a team

Schoolagers Ask Questions
Schoolagers become more aware of the world around them
They want to know a simple answer to every puzzling phenomenon encountered
Early school-aged children are less gullible than preschoolers
They are quick to see discrepancies in adult actions

Chapter 2 Understanding Children's Behavior

by Claudia Anderson

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