Critical Evaluation (February 2014) slides. Delivered as part of the Durham University Researcher Development Programme. Further Training available at https://www.dur.ac.uk/library/research/training/
2. Session outline
- What is Critical Reading / Critical Thinking?
- Definitions, Three types of reading a text
- Approaching a process for critical reading
- Scanning/Skimming, Critical Reading, Critical Thinking, SQ3R
- Evaluation of Research Information
- What to look for as a critical reader when evaluating a text
- Recognising your evaluative criteria in your role
as a researcher
- What you bring to the table, self awareness and cognitive bias
4. Part 1
What do we
mean by
critical reading
& thinking?
5. The non-critical reader
- Reads a text as a source for...
- memorising facts & statements
- repeating facts & statements
- building a narrative around facts &
statements without analysing
validity, reliability or applicability
6. The critical reader
- Reads a text as...
- One interpretation of facts
- Recognises the importance of...
- what a text says
- how the text evidences and portrays
the subject matter
7. Critical Reading
“ Critical Reading involves
understanding the content of a text
as well as how the subject matter
is developed. Critical reading takes
in the facts, but goes further. “
http://www.rimt.edu.au/studyandlearningcentre/
8. The critical thinker
- Reads a text as...
- One interpretation of facts
- Recognises what a text says and does…
- applies own knowledge & values
- to evaluate and interpret a text’s
overall meaning.
9. Critical Thinking
“Critical thinking involves reflecting
on the validity of what you have
read in light of our prior knowledge
and understanding of the world.“
http://www.criticalreading.com/critical_reading_thinking.htm
10. What a text says…
(Restatement)
What a text does…
(Description)
(how it says what it says)
What a text means…
(Interpretation)
(what it means to you, as the
reader)
11. What a text says…
(Restatement)
Restate the same topics and
facts.
What a text does…
(Description)
Discuss the topics & facts within
the context of how the original
argument was made.
What a text means…
(Interpretation)
Interprets an overall meaning within
the wider context of the readers
prior knowledge and values.
13. Goals of critical reading
- recognise author's purpose
- what is within the scope of their writing, and what isn’t
- what they are trying to do; does it match what you are looking for
- understand tone & persuasive elements
of the argument
- in contrast to the objective data and evidence
- what are they trying to sell you; what are you actually being sold
- recognise bias
- identifying patterns of choice of content and language (eg
negative vs positive language, repeated omission or discounting)
14. Critical Reading & Thinking
- Is not about:
- being negative or finding fault.
- It is about:
- assessing the strength of the
evidence and the argument
presented
15. Part 2
An efficient
approach to
critical
reading:
16. Critical Reading & Thinking
- "If we sense that assertations are ridiculous or
irresponsible (critical thinking), we examine the text
more closely to test our understanding (critical reading)“
https://www.york.ac.uk/media/biology/documents/careers/critical_reading_handout.pdf
- Conversely, you can only think about a text critically if
you have understood it (critical reading)
- to understand why we agree or disagree with an
alternative opinion, statement or conclusion.
- to understand which issues we agree and/or disagree
with in an argument.
17. Critical Reading: Myth busting
- You do not have the time to read
everything.
- You do not have the time to read
everything critically.
- You must be selective.
- Stay focussed: get the info you need.
18. Adopt an efficient approach
- Start with some basic principles
- Quickly scan/skim the material
- [Critical Reading] Read more thoroughly
and make notes
- [Critical Thinking] Consider/Review
against your prior knowledge and
understanding of the topic
20. Some basics
- Most readers have an attention span of 15-20 minutes.
- Be clear about why you are reading the text.
- Pause for thought
- Don’t (always) read in isolation.
Discuss authors, publications, ideas and arguments with
colleagues.
- Usually, reading the text once is not
enough.
22. SQRRR
- Survey
- Question
- Read
- Recall
- Review
Scan / Skim text to
provide an overall
impression of
usefulness, scope,
structure and
argument.
23. SQRRR
- Survey
- Question
- Read
- Recall
- Review
Formulate questions
you want to answer /
points you want to
confirm through more
in depth reading.
24. SQRRR
- Survey
- Question
- Read
- Recall
- Review
Read the text in a more
focussed way, aiming to
answer the questions
formulated.
25. SQRRR
- Survey
- Question
- Read
- Recall
- Review
Pause.
Then test your
understanding and
memory of the text, and
if you feel you have
addressed all your
questions raised.
26. SQRRR
- Survey
- Question
- Read
- Recall
- Review
You could also ‘test’
your understanding by
discussing with a
colleague.
27. SQRRR
- Survey
- Question
- Read
- Recall
- Review
Return to the text. Read
in more detail, taking
notes and identifying
any further questions
raised or left
unanswered.
29. Scanning text
- Before reading in any detail
- “Scan” your eye over the text quickly
- to identify specific words or phrases
- to get a feel for structure
• headings & subheadings
• figures, data, images
• contents pages
• index (for keywords)
• reference list
• abstract / body text
30. Scanning text – why?
- Note – requires you to have thought about why
you are reading / what you are looking for.
31. Scanning text – why?
- Evaluate the relevance and usefulness
- Make a judgment on whether you
should read further
- Can help you to decide what parts of a
document you want to focus time on.
32. Skimming text
- Note – scanning the text first can help you
decide where to concentrate your time.
33. Skimming text
- Speed read to get an overview of
- structure of text
- scope and content of the text
• Note key points in summaries / abstract
• Read 1st and last paragraph / section to get main points
• look at 1st sentence of each paragraph to get a feel of
content and thrust of argument.
36. What are you looking for?
- background info?
- latest developments?
- seek evidence to support/refute an idea?
- to reinforce your own prejudices?
- to examine a methodology or identify how
a result was reached?
- because you have to?
38. Tips whilst reading
- Identify core arguments
- link evidence to any conclusions drawn
- identify arguments you feel are under-evidenced
/ purpose behind arguments +
interpretation of author.
- identify alternative conclusions which
could have been drawn.
39. Tips whilst reading
- Look for repetitions of argument,
phrases or words to give clues to
authors intentions.
- what do they consider crucial?
- does this match what you think is
crucial?
41. Tips for making notes
- Make notes as you read...
- throw away your highlighter
- annotate margins: key issues /
questions raised
- develop your own symbols...
(AP) ** // !!
42. Tips for making notes
An argument should:
- explain why the authors
considered what they are
doing is worthwhile
- explain the approach and
methodology chosen
- explain why the data
collected/material selected
was most appropriate
- how conclusions drawn link
to wider context
43. Tips for making notes
Broad definition of evidence:
- encompasses what you read,
not just the data collected and
presented
- choice of methodology
- context of data collection /
creation (eg sources used,
scope of study/experiment)
- rationale for interpretations
and conclusions drawn
- relevance of theory
underpinning argument
45. Evaluating information
When reading critically you need to evaluate:
• Relevance to the topic
• Authority of the author, publisher etc
• Purpose / Objectivity
• Presentation
• Methodology
• Currency
46. Relevance to the topic
• Before reading the text…
• Read the abstract, introduction or summary.
• Scan the bibliographic information which may
highlight key subject areas not specifically
alluded to.
• Emphasis may not be clear until you read in full.
48. Relevance to the topic
• Upon reading the text…
• What level is the information at?
• Does it contain, and discuss in enough detail the
information you are seeking?
• Is the research relevant to the subject domain /
geographical area / demographic / time period
you are interested in?
49. Relevance to the topic
“In the course of a series of investigations into various aspects
of mental inheritance an intensive study has been made of so-called
‘identical’ twins. The cases examined fall into two main
groups: first, those reared together in their parents' homes;
secondly, those separated in early infancy, and brought up
apart. With the latter, despite wide differences in environmental
conditions, the correlations for intelligence, unlike those for
school attainments, prove to be surprisingly high. It is argued
that this implies that ‘intelligence’, when adequately assessed,
is largely dependent on genetic constitution.”
http://10.1111/j.2044-8295.1966.tb01014.x
“ Burt’s study of monozygotic twins reared apart … involved the
largest number of separated twin pairs at the time and produced
the highest estimate of heritability for IQ”
50. Relevance to the topic
Restatement: Burke identified a link between IQ and
inherited genes.
Description: This article compares the evidence for IQ
being determined by inherited genes as opposed to IQ
being affected by external environmental factors.
Interpretation: Evidence for IQ being an inherited trait
rather than affected by external factors has potential
implications for the development of social and education
policy.
51. Relevance to the topic
• Key topics and ideas.
• Level of information presented.
• Relevance in terms of location/subject/scope.
• Does the content and level match your needs.
Be aware of what is filtering your choices…
- Vocabulary and broadness of interpretation. Are you under-estimating
the value of a source because it doesn’t match your
choice of keywords precisely?
52. Authority
“The trouble with quotes from the
internet is that you never know if
they are genuine.”
Abraham Lincoln
(1809-1865, President of the United States of America).
53. Authority
• Is it clear where the information comes from?
• Are the authors acknowledged experts in the
field?
- frequently cited? do they have an h-index?
- have you or colleagues heard of them?
- can you find any profile information where they work?
- how well respected is the author, and their work, in their related
field of research?
• Where is it published?
- impact factors for a journal (not always an accurate measure of
quality, but potentially one of prestige)
- is it peer reviewed?
54. Authority
• Sir Cyril Burt
• Fellow of British Academy
• Author of over 350 articles and a
number of books.
• “pioneer research on the
inheritance of mental ability”
56. ””the most satisfactory attempt” to estimate
hereditability of IQ” and “”the most valuable” of
all the separated twin research.”
• Professor at the University of California, Berkeley.
• Author of 400+ peer reviewed papers.
• In 2002, was listed in the Review of General Psychology’s top
50 “most eminent psychologists of the 20th century”
”the largest of its kind and the only one where “the
distribution of children into foster homes was
random ” “
• Edge Pierce Professor of Psychology at Harvard University.
• Author of several peer reviewed papers and books.
• Credited with discovering and developing several models
and theories as one of the founding researchers in the field
of quantitative analysis of behaviour.
Richard J
Herrnstein
Arthur R
Jenson
57. ”the only one of its kind in which the calculation of
heritability had any meaning.”
• Professor of Psychology at the Institute of Psychiatry, King’s
College, London.
• In 2002, was listed in the Review of General Psychology’s top
100 “most eminent psychologists of the 20th century” as the
most cited living psychologist at the time of his death.
””the best data“ on separated twins.”
• Alexander M. Poniatoff Professor of Engineering and
Applied Science at Stanford University.
• Joint awarded Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956.
• 1960’s and 1970’s moved also into area of hereditary
behaviour.
William B
Shockley
Hans
Eysenck
58. Authority – Impact Factors
- British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology
- Impact Factor 1.258
- 5th of 13 journals in category “Psychology, Mathematical”
- British Journal of Educational Psychology
- Impact Factor 2.093
- 11th of 50 journals in category “Psychology, Educational”
- British Journal of Psychology
- Impact Factor 2.103
- 26th of 126 journals in category “Psychology, Multi-disciplinary”
59. Authority
• Are the authors acknowledged experts in the
field?
- frequently cited? do they have an h-index?
- have you or colleagues heard of them?
- can you find any profile information where they work?
- how well respected is the author, and their work, in their related field of
research?
• Where is it published?
- Impact factors for a journal (not always an accurate measure of quality, but
potentially one of prestige) and is it peer reviewed?
Be aware of what is filtering your choices y
- Is the prestige of the author or the publication impacting on how you
evaluate the content?
60. Objectivity
• Is the subject controversial?
• Does the author use emotive language?
• What is the authors purpose in writing the
paper?
• If there are differing views on the subject
area, does the author consistently fall into
one ‘camp’?
61. Objectivity
** This is an over-simplification….
**
IQ is inherited IQ is affected by
external factors
Burt, C (1943) “Ability and Income” British Journal of Educational
Psychology
Burt, C.L. (1957) “Heredity and Intelligence; A reply to criticisms”
British Journal of Statistical Psychology
Burt, C.L. (1958). "The inheritance of mental ability", American
Psychologist,
Burt, C.L. (1972). "Inheritance of general intelligence", American
Psychologist,
Burt C (1966) “The Genetic Determination of Differences in
Intelligence: A Study of Monozygotic Twins Reared Apart and
Together.” British Journal of Psychology
62. Objectivity
• Is the subject controversial?
• Does the author use emotive language?
• What is the authors purpose in writing the paper?
• If there are differing views on the subject area, does the
author consistently fall into one ‘camp’?
Be aware of what is filtering your choices
- Does the author demonstrate any hidden bias on the topic?
- Evaluate yourself? Are you subconsciously over-valuing the
resource because it confirms your own prejudices? Are you being
objective?
63. Methodology
• are the methodology and sources of data used
clearly identified or explained?
• what evidence is presented to support the ideas
and conclusions expressed?
• is the methodology direct or indirect?
• are the conclusions and assumptions made by
the author consistent, logical and justified?
• does the research raise any unanswered
questions?
64. Methodology
“ tests of the usual type… as a means of estimating genotypic
differences, even the most carefully constructed tests are highly
fallible instruments, and … their verdicts are far less trustworthy
than the judgments of the pupil’s own teachers.”
Burt, C. (1957)British Journal of Statistical Psychology
“the unaided judgments even of the most experienced teachers …
are nevertheless far less trustworthy in the long run that the
results obtained by properly applied intelligence tests.”
Burt, C. (1943)British Journal of Educational Psychology
65. Part 3 Summary
• Various criteria you can assess a resource by.
- a lot more ‘citation’ tools available for journal
literature.
• How much time do you realistically have?
66. Part 3 Summary
• Some quotes and opinions were taken from one
article:
Tucker, W.H.(1994) “Fact and fiction in the discovery
of Sir Cyril Burt’s Flaws” Journal of the History of the
Behavioral Sciences (30).
• Does that change your opinion on some of the
previous slides assertions and emphasis?
68. Critical Thinking
“Critical thinking involves reflecting
on the validity of what you have
read in light of our prior knowledge
and understanding of the world.“
http://www.criticalreading.com/critical_reading_thinking.htm
69. Ecology
• Resources are
interconnected and
they evolve
• Information
resources are
transformed into
knowledge
• Knowledge
becomes a resource
• Therefore prior
knowledge shapes
what we go on to
create
70. Cognitive biases
• Subjectivity is vulnerable to bias & hunches
• Concept of cognitive bias was developed in
1970s by Tversky and Kahneman
• Four main groups
- Social - Probability/belief
- Memory - Decision making
74. “Hwang faked all research on
human stem cells”
Halo effect
“The tendency for a person's positive or
negative traits to "spill over" from one
personality area to another in others'
perceptions of them”
75. 2) Strange, Hayne & Garry (2008) ‘A photo, a
suggestion, a false memory’ Applied
Cognitive Psychology. 22, 587–603.
76. Strange, Hayne & Garry (2008) ‘A photo, a
suggestion, a false memory’ Applied Cognitive
Psychology. 22, 587–603.
False memory bias
“A form of misattribution where
imagination, or incorrect recall, is
mistaken for a memory.”
78. 3) “Once people become aware of
an event or conclusion, they will
usually express a good deal of
confidence about the predictability
of the outcome.”
79. Fischhoff, B., and Beyth, R. (1975) ‘"I knew it would
happen" Remembered probabilities of once-future
things’ Organizational Behaviour and Human
Performance. 13, 1-16.
Hindsight bias
“The inclination to see past events as being
more predictable than they actually were”
81. Cognitive biases
• Shape how we read, interpret and evaluate
the information we receive.
• Shape how others read, interpret and
evaluate the information they receive.
• Any published research is just one
interpretation of the facts available
82. Further Reading
• Tucker, W.H.(1994) “Fact and fiction in the discovery of Sir Cyril Burt’s Flaws” Journal of the
History of the Behavioral Sciences (30).
• University of Leicester: What is Critical Reading
http://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/ld/resources/writing/writing-resources/critical-reading
• University of Newcastle: Think Critically
http://www.ncl.ac.uk/library/research-support/informed-researcher/think-critically/
• Open University: Critical Reading Techniques
http://www.open.ac.uk/skillsforstudy/critical-reading-techniques.php/
• Dan Kurland’s Critical Reading Website
http://www.criticalreading.com/
• The SQ3R method
http://www.ic.arizona.edu/ic/wrightr/other/sq3r.html
83. Image Credits
[69] Via Flickr Creative Commons, by Martin LaBar. Original available at
http://www.flickr.com/photos/32454422@N00/163107859/
[4,44,67] Via Flickr Creative Commons, by Kevin Dooley. Available at
http://www.flickr.com/photos/12836528@N00/2577006675
[75] Via Flickr Creative Commons, and by Brian Yap: Original available at
http://www.flickr.com/photos/30265340@N00/465957804
[15] Via Flickr Creative Commons, and by FutUndBeidl: Available at
http://www.flickr.com/photos/61423903@N06/7369580478
Editor's Notes
Image – self awareness, reflection on your role as a researcher.
Validity: do they come from an authoritive source relevant to the field of knowledge
Reliability: are the facts and statements accurate and backed up with evidence
Applicability: does the reader apply the facts and statements appropriately
Is the text arguing a point, offering examples, appealing for sympathy, making a contrast, defending a viewpoint?
Also sometimes referred to as: Comprehension / Analysis / Interpretation
Interpretation: How have the facts presented, and the way they have been presented, shaped our perception of the topic being discussed?
recognise author's purpose - what is within the scope of their writing, and what isn’t - what they are trying to do, and does it match what you are looking for
understand tone & persuasive elements of the argument - in contrast to the objective data and evidence - what are they trying to sell you vs. what are you actually being sold
recognise bias
- eg where have assumptions been made, questions left unanswered or evidence/argument overlooked in favour of alternative evidence or arguments.
There is a fine line...
Critical Reading and Thinking in harmony
Critical Reading and Thinking in harmony
In reality, critical reading/critical thinking are probably happening simultaneously.
I’m going to start with some basics...
... Then look at once suggested approach which takes in the process
Attention span: How will this affect your ability to read and analyse the facts, text and ideas the publication contains.
Why you are reading the text:
- background info?
- latest developments?
- seek evidence to support/refute your idea?
- to reinforce your own prejudices?
- to examine a methodology or identify how a result was reached?
- because you have to?
- if supervisor's request... Reading may inform why they wanted you to read it
Pause: you do not need to read it all at once. Take time to let ideas settle and for you to consider them.
Reading the text once: ... But you may not need to read the whole text to extract the information you need and grasp the meaning or argument.
“Open Access” analogy. I will often be drawn first to those articles which I feel I will disagree with.
Has anyone heard of or used the SQ3R process?
SQ3R
These questions will inform you in how much depth you want to read the article.
Highlighter: only highlights you thought something was important at some point in time.
You might want to think about taking your notes with these key areas to look at.
I personally probably wouldn’t use such a form, but it illustrates how you might take a systematic approach to your note taking to ensure you are reading and thinking critically.
You might want to think about taking your notes with these key areas to look at.
I personally probably wouldn’t use such a form, but it illustrates how you might take a systematic approach to your note taking to ensure you are reading and thinking critically.
Image – pause and reflect on what might be affecting any practical decisions and actions you might take...
Worksheets handout – an example of different things to look at to inform any ‘value judgment’ you make on an information resource.
Practical tips handout – highlight some tools to aid in this, and examples of those criteria mentioned in the worksheet.
See handout (images from handout)
Three ways of reading a passage: Comprehension / Analysis / Interpretation
Three ways of reading a passage: Comprehension / Analysis / Interpretation
Quick intro – need to think carefully about the provenance, where you have found the information, is the source reliable.
Bit of a fudge as these are impact factors for the most recent years data, not from 1970 which is before the JCRs were published.
Number of citations can be misleading – these may include positive and negative citations. But gives you a controlled list of references to check to see how others might have evaluated the research.
But to give an idea of one measure of ‘authority’ of where the paper has been published, these journals were some of the key titles (or inherited titles) the author published in.
Highlight the expertise and standing of these commentators, ask class if this would lead to them tending to give the paper a higher or lower value as a source of information?
Looking back at cognitive bias…
Halo effect? - applying the respect earned by the author for earlier work generally to all of their research
Bandwagon effect? - other experts in the field agreed / praised the research.
Confirmation bias? - was the research given positive treatment because it confirmed the prejudices or beliefs of others?
Bit of a fudge as these are impact factors for the most recent years data, not from 1970 which is before the JCRs were published. But to give an idea of one measure of ‘authority’ of where the paper has been published, these journals were some of the key titles (or inherited titles) the author published in.
Highlight the “impact factor” of journals the research appeared in, ask class if this would lead to them tending to give the paper a higher or lower value as a source of information?
Looking back at cognitive bias…
Stereotyping/Ingroup bias? - assumption that because an article is in this journal, it must have the same value as other articles.
Halo effect? - ascribing the characteristics of other articles to this paper.
Confirmation bias? - was the research given positive treatment because it confirmed the prejudices or beliefs of others?
Demo H-index and JCRs, comparing a journal within its subject field in a year an article was published.
JCRs for journal
H-index for author (mention comparison to other authors)
H-index of journal, for the same year as article interested in as a comparison to the number of citations received by the article.
Remind them – Impact factors are based on number of citations to the publication. The number of citations should not be assumed to indicate a level of quality. But, as many researchers still cling to these as a measure of prestige (wanting to publish in “high impact” journals), it is some measure of ‘perceived level of interest it may generate for the subject community’ at the point of publication.
H-index is also a measure of the “no. of citations” and does not provide a clear positive or negative value.
Emotive language: refer back to ‘police brutality’ example
Authors purpose:- - does the author have a specific message they wish to report - has a contemporary issue, ‘viewpoint’ or policy influenced the authors purpose?
- for whom is the material intended? - does the author declare any connections or vested interests (MMR link to autism)
Question for class: Does the author consistently fall on to one side of a particular discussion. What other information would you want to look at:
- the opposing point of view
- criticisms and critiques of both sides of the argument
Authors purpose:- - does the author have a specific message they wish to report - has a contemporary issue, ‘viewpoint’ or policy influenced the authors purpose?
- for whom is the material intended?
Authors purpose:- - does the author have a specific message they wish to report - has a contemporary issue, ‘viewpoint’ or policy influenced the authors purpose? (refer back to ecology of resources)
- for whom is the material intended?
If the article is peer-reviewed, be aware of differences in peer-review requirements (blind peer review, select your own reviewers, etc.)
Editorial policy may give some indication of what influences choices I what is published?
Direct or indirect:
1) to estimate density of bacteria in a culture
- Direct: take a sample and count
- Indirect: measure he optical density to calculate density of cells
2) to estimate size of military expedition in early 15th century
- Direct: Count those listed on army list or payroll
- Indirect: Look at payments for materials and rations, and extrapolate based on that
Might then want to look at other work of the same author to seek clarification on “tests of the usual type” or why iq tests are considered far less trustworthy than the judgments of teachers...
How much time do you have? Thinking back to the unmotivated cat... Do you have more sympathy now thinking about all the different impacts upon your decision process, and the different things you could explore in great detail?
But you do need to be responsible as a researcher... And be aware that others may not have been.
How much time do you have? Thinking back to the unmotivated cat... Do you have more sympathy now thinking about all the different impacts upon your decision process, and the different things you could explore in great detail?
But you do need to be responsible as a researcher... And be aware that others may not have been.
Image – self awareness, reflection on your role as a researcher.
Prior knowledge shapes what we go on to find, how we interpret it and what we create.
The chronology of what we learn impacts on our and other future decisions… what we read and where to search.
How we evaluate information is the same, not a distinct clinical process. Our evaluation of information is subject to our own and others personal bias.
Diagram… looking at the ‘original acorn’, that key text in any area of research.
- You find it, and it moves you. - You think about it. You link it to other information and knowledge. And it grows, and changes. You shape it into a new form (the tree)…
- others do the same, and it grows new branches…
- others also find your work, and develop from your knowledge… and new stems grow
- all of these branches and leaves grow and are shaped by us
We, as professionals and researchers are affected by bias... And so are those we may be researching or speaking to as part of our research.
Tversky and Kahneman, professors at Stanford and Princeton respectively in the 70’s, demonstrated ways in which our own judgments and decisions differ from rational choices. - arises as a natural mechanism to prevent cognitive overload, eg when asking directions.
Has been suggested we are subject to over 200 attempts to influence our opinions each day (adverts, news, newspapers, conversations etc.)
I’m just going to quickly summarise a few examples of each of these four main groups... Then there is a short exercise for you to try and match examples from the literature to their respective groups...
Allow 30 seconds to scan-read (or up to 60 seconds)
Halo effect
Halo effect... See following screenshots.
Example from a few years ago of fraudulent research that successfully duped the research establishment and caught media attention . Leading South Korean stem cell research scientist, Dr Hwang Woo-suk, who was found to have "faked all his research on cloned human stem cells". (2006. Cloner's Disgrace. New Scientist. Jan 10. p.4 )
Highlighted section demonstrates that he had a number of influences – money and reputation.
Shock wasn’t so much that he had been fraudulent, but that he had got through the review process seemingly because his research wasnt’ questionned as thoroughly as it should have been, because of his esteem in the related field of cloning where he had been involved in the first successful cloning of a dog embryo.
Because the author was held in high esteem for his work in the field of cloning, his work has perhaps not been as rigorously tested as it should have been as he moved into the field of stem cell research.
Strange, Hayne and Garry conducted research in 2008 on false memories.
Showed half a group of children doctored pictures of themselves in a hot air balloon and then later on, questioned them over if they had had a ride in a hot air balloon, and asked them to describe it.
And over half of them did, and expanded on the memory... And were also when asked very confident that it had actually happened.
These data highlight a potential problem with the use of photographs as tools in therapy.
Fischhoff and Beyth (1975) presented students with historical accounts of unfamiliar incidents, such as a conflict between the Gurkhas and the British in 1814.
Given the account as background knowledge, five groups of students were asked what they would have predicted as the probability for each of four possible outcomes:
Four experimental groups were respectively told that these four outcomes were the historical outcome.
The fifth, control group was not told any historical outcome.
In every case, a group told an outcome assigned substantially higher probability to that outcome, than did any other group or the control group.
The mind builds its current wisdom around what we have already been told. We are “biased” in favor of old information.
We, as professionals and researchers are affected by bias... And so are those we may be researching or speaking to as part of our research.
Tversky and Kahneman, professors at Stanford and Princeton respectively in the 70’s, demonstrated ways in which our own judgments and decisions differ from rational choices. - arises as a natural mechanism to prevent cognitive overload, eg when asking directions.
Has been suggested we are subject to over 200 attempts to influence our opinions each day (adverts, news, newspapers, conversations etc.)
I’m just going to quickly summarise a few examples of each of these four main groups... Then there is a short exercise for you to try and match examples from the literature to their respective groups...