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Critical Evaluation 
Critical Reading 
Critical Thinking 
James Bisset james.bisset@durham.ac.uk 
Academic Liaison Librarian (Research Support)
Session outline 
- What is Critical Reading / Critical Thinking? 
- Definitions, Three types of reading a text 
- Approaching a process for critical reading 
- Scanning/Skimming, Critical Reading, Critical Thinking, SQ3R 
- Evaluation of Research Information 
- What to look for as a critical reader when evaluating a text 
- Recognising your evaluative criteria in your role 
as a researcher 
- What you bring to the table, self awareness and cognitive bias
Exercise 1 
• Spend 5 minutes to read the short extract on your desks, and 
make some brief notes which you would find useful to return to 
later to re-appraise yourself of the text. 
Via Flickr Creative Commons, by © Stuti Sakhalkar. Original available 
at http://www.flickr.com/photos/theblackcanvas/2945878325/
Part 1 
What do we 
mean by 
critical reading 
& thinking?
The non-critical reader 
- Reads a text as a source for... 
- memorising facts & statements 
- repeating facts & statements 
- building a narrative around facts & 
statements without analysing 
validity, reliability or applicability
The critical reader 
- Reads a text as... 
- One interpretation of facts 
- Recognises the importance of... 
- what a text says 
- how the text evidences and portrays 
the subject matter
Critical Reading 
“ Critical Reading involves 
understanding the content of a text 
as well as how the subject matter 
is developed. Critical reading takes 
in the facts, but goes further. “ 
http://www.rimt.edu.au/studyandlearningcentre/
The critical thinker 
- Reads a text as... 
- One interpretation of facts 
- Recognises what a text says and does… 
- applies own knowledge & values 
- to evaluate and interpret a text’s 
overall meaning.
Critical Thinking 
“Critical thinking involves reflecting 
on the validity of what you have 
read in light of our prior knowledge 
and understanding of the world.“ 
http://www.criticalreading.com/critical_reading_thinking.htm
What a text says… 
(Restatement) 
What a text does… 
(Description) 
(how it says what it says) 
What a text means… 
(Interpretation) 
(what it means to you, as the 
reader)
What a text says… 
(Restatement) 
Restate the same topics and 
facts. 
What a text does… 
(Description) 
Discuss the topics & facts within 
the context of how the original 
argument was made. 
What a text means… 
(Interpretation) 
Interprets an overall meaning within 
the wider context of the readers 
prior knowledge and values.
Exercise 2 
• Spend 5 minutes to read the following short [edited] extract and 
think about: 
- what the text says 
- what the text does 
- what the text means 
Via Flickr Creative Commons, by © Stuti Sakhalkar. Original available 
at http://www.flickr.com/photos/theblackcanvas/2945878325/
Goals of critical reading 
- recognise author's purpose 
- what is within the scope of their writing, and what isn’t 
- what they are trying to do; does it match what you are looking for 
- understand tone & persuasive elements 
of the argument 
- in contrast to the objective data and evidence 
- what are they trying to sell you; what are you actually being sold 
- recognise bias 
- identifying patterns of choice of content and language (eg 
negative vs positive language, repeated omission or discounting)
Critical Reading & Thinking 
- Is not about: 
- being negative or finding fault. 
- It is about: 
- assessing the strength of the 
evidence and the argument 
presented
Part 2 
An efficient 
approach to 
critical 
reading:
Critical Reading & Thinking 
- "If we sense that assertations are ridiculous or 
irresponsible (critical thinking), we examine the text 
more closely to test our understanding (critical reading)“ 
https://www.york.ac.uk/media/biology/documents/careers/critical_reading_handout.pdf 
- Conversely, you can only think about a text critically if 
you have understood it (critical reading) 
- to understand why we agree or disagree with an 
alternative opinion, statement or conclusion. 
- to understand which issues we agree and/or disagree 
with in an argument.
Critical Reading: Myth busting 
- You do not have the time to read 
everything. 
- You do not have the time to read 
everything critically. 
- You must be selective. 
- Stay focussed: get the info you need.
Adopt an efficient approach 
- Start with some basic principles 
- Quickly scan/skim the material 
- [Critical Reading] Read more thoroughly 
and make notes 
- [Critical Thinking] Consider/Review 
against your prior knowledge and 
understanding of the topic
Some basics
Some basics 
- Most readers have an attention span of 15-20 minutes. 
- Be clear about why you are reading the text. 
- Pause for thought 
- Don’t (always) read in isolation. 
Discuss authors, publications, ideas and arguments with 
colleagues. 
- Usually, reading the text once is not 
enough.
SQ3R
SQRRR 
- Survey 
- Question 
- Read 
- Recall 
- Review 
Scan / Skim text to 
provide an overall 
impression of 
usefulness, scope, 
structure and 
argument.
SQRRR 
- Survey 
- Question 
- Read 
- Recall 
- Review 
Formulate questions 
you want to answer / 
points you want to 
confirm through more 
in depth reading.
SQRRR 
- Survey 
- Question 
- Read 
- Recall 
- Review 
Read the text in a more 
focussed way, aiming to 
answer the questions 
formulated.
SQRRR 
- Survey 
- Question 
- Read 
- Recall 
- Review 
Pause. 
Then test your 
understanding and 
memory of the text, and 
if you feel you have 
addressed all your 
questions raised.
SQRRR 
- Survey 
- Question 
- Read 
- Recall 
- Review 
You could also ‘test’ 
your understanding by 
discussing with a 
colleague.
SQRRR 
- Survey 
- Question 
- Read 
- Recall 
- Review 
Return to the text. Read 
in more detail, taking 
notes and identifying 
any further questions 
raised or left 
unanswered.
Survey 
Scanning / Skimming 
the text
Scanning text 
- Before reading in any detail 
- “Scan” your eye over the text quickly 
- to identify specific words or phrases 
- to get a feel for structure 
• headings & subheadings 
• figures, data, images 
• contents pages 
• index (for keywords) 
• reference list 
• abstract / body text
Scanning text – why? 
- Note – requires you to have thought about why 
you are reading / what you are looking for.
Scanning text – why? 
- Evaluate the relevance and usefulness 
- Make a judgment on whether you 
should read further 
- Can help you to decide what parts of a 
document you want to focus time on.
Skimming text 
- Note – scanning the text first can help you 
decide where to concentrate your time.
Skimming text 
- Speed read to get an overview of 
- structure of text 
- scope and content of the text 
• Note key points in summaries / abstract 
• Read 1st and last paragraph / section to get main points 
• look at 1st sentence of each paragraph to get a feel of 
content and thrust of argument.
Exercise 3 
• From a 30 second view, skim the text (focus on first and last lines 
of each paragraph) to try and get an impression of the scope and 
content of the text. 
• Holmes, P., Fay, R., Andrews, J., Attia, M., (2013) Researching 
multilingually: New theoretical and methodological directions. 
International Journal of Applied Linguistics 23, 285–299. 
Via Flickr Creative Commons, by © Stuti Sakhalkar. Original 
available at 
http://www.flickr.com/photos/theblackcanvas/2945878325/
Question 
Why are you reading 
the text?
What are you looking for? 
- background info? 
- latest developments? 
- seek evidence to support/refute an idea? 
- to reinforce your own prejudices? 
- to examine a methodology or identify how 
a result was reached? 
- because you have to?
Read
Tips whilst reading 
- Identify core arguments 
- link evidence to any conclusions drawn 
- identify arguments you feel are under-evidenced 
/ purpose behind arguments + 
interpretation of author. 
- identify alternative conclusions which 
could have been drawn.
Tips whilst reading 
- Look for repetitions of argument, 
phrases or words to give clues to 
authors intentions. 
- what do they consider crucial? 
- does this match what you think is 
crucial?
Recall & Review
Tips for making notes 
- Make notes as you read... 
- throw away your highlighter 
- annotate margins: key issues / 
questions raised 
- develop your own symbols... 
(AP) ** // !!
Tips for making notes 
An argument should: 
- explain why the authors 
considered what they are 
doing is worthwhile 
- explain the approach and 
methodology chosen 
- explain why the data 
collected/material selected 
was most appropriate 
- how conclusions drawn link 
to wider context
Tips for making notes 
Broad definition of evidence: 
- encompasses what you read, 
not just the data collected and 
presented 
- choice of methodology 
- context of data collection / 
creation (eg sources used, 
scope of study/experiment) 
- rationale for interpretations 
and conclusions drawn 
- relevance of theory 
underpinning argument
Part 3 
Evaluation of 
Research 
Information
Evaluating information 
When reading critically you need to evaluate: 
• Relevance to the topic 
• Authority of the author, publisher etc 
• Purpose / Objectivity 
• Presentation 
• Methodology 
• Currency
Relevance to the topic 
• Before reading the text… 
• Read the abstract, introduction or summary. 
• Scan the bibliographic information which may 
highlight key subject areas not specifically 
alluded to. 
• Emphasis may not be clear until you read in full.
Critical Evaluation: Critical Reading & Critical Thinking
Relevance to the topic 
• Upon reading the text… 
• What level is the information at? 
• Does it contain, and discuss in enough detail the 
information you are seeking? 
• Is the research relevant to the subject domain / 
geographical area / demographic / time period 
you are interested in?
Relevance to the topic 
“In the course of a series of investigations into various aspects 
of mental inheritance an intensive study has been made of so-called 
‘identical’ twins. The cases examined fall into two main 
groups: first, those reared together in their parents' homes; 
secondly, those separated in early infancy, and brought up 
apart. With the latter, despite wide differences in environmental 
conditions, the correlations for intelligence, unlike those for 
school attainments, prove to be surprisingly high. It is argued 
that this implies that ‘intelligence’, when adequately assessed, 
is largely dependent on genetic constitution.” 
http://10.1111/j.2044-8295.1966.tb01014.x 
“ Burt’s study of monozygotic twins reared apart … involved the 
largest number of separated twin pairs at the time and produced 
the highest estimate of heritability for IQ”
Relevance to the topic 
Restatement: Burke identified a link between IQ and 
inherited genes. 
Description: This article compares the evidence for IQ 
being determined by inherited genes as opposed to IQ 
being affected by external environmental factors. 
Interpretation: Evidence for IQ being an inherited trait 
rather than affected by external factors has potential 
implications for the development of social and education 
policy.
Relevance to the topic 
• Key topics and ideas. 
• Level of information presented. 
• Relevance in terms of location/subject/scope. 
• Does the content and level match your needs. 
Be aware of what is filtering your choices… 
- Vocabulary and broadness of interpretation. Are you under-estimating 
the value of a source because it doesn’t match your 
choice of keywords precisely?
Authority 
“The trouble with quotes from the 
internet is that you never know if 
they are genuine.” 
Abraham Lincoln 
(1809-1865, President of the United States of America).
Authority 
• Is it clear where the information comes from? 
• Are the authors acknowledged experts in the 
field? 
- frequently cited? do they have an h-index? 
- have you or colleagues heard of them? 
- can you find any profile information where they work? 
- how well respected is the author, and their work, in their related 
field of research? 
• Where is it published? 
- impact factors for a journal (not always an accurate measure of 
quality, but potentially one of prestige) 
- is it peer reviewed?
Authority 
• Sir Cyril Burt 
• Fellow of British Academy 
• Author of over 350 articles and a 
number of books. 
• “pioneer research on the 
inheritance of mental ability”
Authority – Citations
””the most satisfactory attempt” to estimate 
hereditability of IQ” and “”the most valuable” of 
all the separated twin research.” 
• Professor at the University of California, Berkeley. 
• Author of 400+ peer reviewed papers. 
• In 2002, was listed in the Review of General Psychology’s top 
50 “most eminent psychologists of the 20th century” 
”the largest of its kind and the only one where “the 
distribution of children into foster homes was 
random ” “ 
• Edge Pierce Professor of Psychology at Harvard University. 
• Author of several peer reviewed papers and books. 
• Credited with discovering and developing several models 
and theories as one of the founding researchers in the field 
of quantitative analysis of behaviour. 
Richard J 
Herrnstein 
Arthur R 
Jenson
”the only one of its kind in which the calculation of 
heritability had any meaning.” 
• Professor of Psychology at the Institute of Psychiatry, King’s 
College, London. 
• In 2002, was listed in the Review of General Psychology’s top 
100 “most eminent psychologists of the 20th century” as the 
most cited living psychologist at the time of his death. 
””the best data“ on separated twins.” 
• Alexander M. Poniatoff Professor of Engineering and 
Applied Science at Stanford University. 
• Joint awarded Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956. 
• 1960’s and 1970’s moved also into area of hereditary 
behaviour. 
William B 
Shockley 
Hans 
Eysenck
Authority – Impact Factors 
- British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology 
- Impact Factor 1.258 
- 5th of 13 journals in category “Psychology, Mathematical” 
- British Journal of Educational Psychology 
- Impact Factor 2.093 
- 11th of 50 journals in category “Psychology, Educational” 
- British Journal of Psychology 
- Impact Factor 2.103 
- 26th of 126 journals in category “Psychology, Multi-disciplinary”
Authority 
• Are the authors acknowledged experts in the 
field? 
- frequently cited? do they have an h-index? 
- have you or colleagues heard of them? 
- can you find any profile information where they work? 
- how well respected is the author, and their work, in their related field of 
research? 
• Where is it published? 
- Impact factors for a journal (not always an accurate measure of quality, but 
potentially one of prestige) and is it peer reviewed? 
Be aware of what is filtering your choices y 
- Is the prestige of the author or the publication impacting on how you 
evaluate the content?
Objectivity 
• Is the subject controversial? 
• Does the author use emotive language? 
• What is the authors purpose in writing the 
paper? 
• If there are differing views on the subject 
area, does the author consistently fall into 
one ‘camp’?
Objectivity 
** This is an over-simplification…. 
** 
IQ is inherited IQ is affected by 
external factors 
Burt, C (1943) “Ability and Income” British Journal of Educational 
Psychology 
Burt, C.L. (1957) “Heredity and Intelligence; A reply to criticisms” 
British Journal of Statistical Psychology 
Burt, C.L. (1958). "The inheritance of mental ability", American 
Psychologist, 
Burt, C.L. (1972). "Inheritance of general intelligence", American 
Psychologist, 
Burt C (1966) “The Genetic Determination of Differences in 
Intelligence: A Study of Monozygotic Twins Reared Apart and 
Together.” British Journal of Psychology
Objectivity 
• Is the subject controversial? 
• Does the author use emotive language? 
• What is the authors purpose in writing the paper? 
• If there are differing views on the subject area, does the 
author consistently fall into one ‘camp’? 
Be aware of what is filtering your choices 
- Does the author demonstrate any hidden bias on the topic? 
- Evaluate yourself? Are you subconsciously over-valuing the 
resource because it confirms your own prejudices? Are you being 
objective?
Methodology 
• are the methodology and sources of data used 
clearly identified or explained? 
• what evidence is presented to support the ideas 
and conclusions expressed? 
• is the methodology direct or indirect? 
• are the conclusions and assumptions made by 
the author consistent, logical and justified? 
• does the research raise any unanswered 
questions?
Methodology 
“ tests of the usual type… as a means of estimating genotypic 
differences, even the most carefully constructed tests are highly 
fallible instruments, and … their verdicts are far less trustworthy 
than the judgments of the pupil’s own teachers.” 
Burt, C. (1957)British Journal of Statistical Psychology 
“the unaided judgments even of the most experienced teachers … 
are nevertheless far less trustworthy in the long run that the 
results obtained by properly applied intelligence tests.” 
Burt, C. (1943)British Journal of Educational Psychology
Part 3 Summary 
• Various criteria you can assess a resource by. 
- a lot more ‘citation’ tools available for journal 
literature. 
• How much time do you realistically have?
Part 3 Summary 
• Some quotes and opinions were taken from one 
article: 
Tucker, W.H.(1994) “Fact and fiction in the discovery 
of Sir Cyril Burt’s Flaws” Journal of the History of the 
Behavioral Sciences (30). 
• Does that change your opinion on some of the 
previous slides assertions and emphasis?
Part 4 
Recognising 
your 
evaluative 
criteria
Critical Thinking 
“Critical thinking involves reflecting 
on the validity of what you have 
read in light of our prior knowledge 
and understanding of the world.“ 
http://www.criticalreading.com/critical_reading_thinking.htm
Ecology 
• Resources are 
interconnected and 
they evolve 
• Information 
resources are 
transformed into 
knowledge 
• Knowledge 
becomes a resource 
• Therefore prior 
knowledge shapes 
what we go on to 
create
Cognitive biases 
• Subjectivity is vulnerable to bias & hunches 
• Concept of cognitive bias was developed in 
1970s by Tversky and Kahneman 
• Four main groups 
- Social - Probability/belief 
- Memory - Decision making
1) “Hwang faked all research on 
human stem cells”
Critical Evaluation: Critical Reading & Critical Thinking
Critical Evaluation: Critical Reading & Critical Thinking
“Hwang faked all research on 
human stem cells” 
Halo effect 
“The tendency for a person's positive or 
negative traits to "spill over" from one 
personality area to another in others' 
perceptions of them”
2) Strange, Hayne & Garry (2008) ‘A photo, a 
suggestion, a false memory’ Applied 
Cognitive Psychology. 22, 587–603.
Strange, Hayne & Garry (2008) ‘A photo, a 
suggestion, a false memory’ Applied Cognitive 
Psychology. 22, 587–603. 
False memory bias 
“A form of misattribution where 
imagination, or incorrect recall, is 
mistaken for a memory.”
Memory biases
3) “Once people become aware of 
an event or conclusion, they will 
usually express a good deal of 
confidence about the predictability 
of the outcome.”
Fischhoff, B., and Beyth, R. (1975) ‘"I knew it would 
happen" Remembered probabilities of once-future 
things’ Organizational Behaviour and Human 
Performance. 13, 1-16. 
Hindsight bias 
“The inclination to see past events as being 
more predictable than they actually were”
Exercise 4 
• Read through the example “cognitive bias” on the cards, and try 
to decide which of the four “groups” of cognitive bias each might 
sit in. 
- Social (Ascribe positive or negative traits to self, individuals or groups) 
- Probability/belief (disregard or to pay too much attention to probability) 
- Memory (How you perceive past events) 
- Decision making (Influences on your decisions by own or group biases) 
Via Flickr Creative Commons, by © Stuti Sakhalkar. Original 
available at 
http://www.flickr.com/photos/theblackcanvas/2945878325/
Cognitive biases 
• Shape how we read, interpret and evaluate 
the information we receive. 
• Shape how others read, interpret and 
evaluate the information they receive. 
• Any published research is just one 
interpretation of the facts available
Further Reading 
• Tucker, W.H.(1994) “Fact and fiction in the discovery of Sir Cyril Burt’s Flaws” Journal of the 
History of the Behavioral Sciences (30). 
• University of Leicester: What is Critical Reading 
http://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/ld/resources/writing/writing-resources/critical-reading 
• University of Newcastle: Think Critically 
http://www.ncl.ac.uk/library/research-support/informed-researcher/think-critically/ 
• Open University: Critical Reading Techniques 
http://www.open.ac.uk/skillsforstudy/critical-reading-techniques.php/ 
• Dan Kurland’s Critical Reading Website 
http://www.criticalreading.com/ 
• The SQ3R method 
http://www.ic.arizona.edu/ic/wrightr/other/sq3r.html
Image Credits 
[69] Via Flickr Creative Commons, by Martin LaBar. Original available at 
http://www.flickr.com/photos/32454422@N00/163107859/ 
[4,44,67] Via Flickr Creative Commons, by Kevin Dooley. Available at 
http://www.flickr.com/photos/12836528@N00/2577006675 
[75] Via Flickr Creative Commons, and by Brian Yap: Original available at 
http://www.flickr.com/photos/30265340@N00/465957804 
[15] Via Flickr Creative Commons, and by FutUndBeidl: Available at 
http://www.flickr.com/photos/61423903@N06/7369580478

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Critical Evaluation: Critical Reading & Critical Thinking

  • 1. Critical Evaluation Critical Reading Critical Thinking James Bisset james.bisset@durham.ac.uk Academic Liaison Librarian (Research Support)
  • 2. Session outline - What is Critical Reading / Critical Thinking? - Definitions, Three types of reading a text - Approaching a process for critical reading - Scanning/Skimming, Critical Reading, Critical Thinking, SQ3R - Evaluation of Research Information - What to look for as a critical reader when evaluating a text - Recognising your evaluative criteria in your role as a researcher - What you bring to the table, self awareness and cognitive bias
  • 3. Exercise 1 • Spend 5 minutes to read the short extract on your desks, and make some brief notes which you would find useful to return to later to re-appraise yourself of the text. Via Flickr Creative Commons, by © Stuti Sakhalkar. Original available at http://www.flickr.com/photos/theblackcanvas/2945878325/
  • 4. Part 1 What do we mean by critical reading & thinking?
  • 5. The non-critical reader - Reads a text as a source for... - memorising facts & statements - repeating facts & statements - building a narrative around facts & statements without analysing validity, reliability or applicability
  • 6. The critical reader - Reads a text as... - One interpretation of facts - Recognises the importance of... - what a text says - how the text evidences and portrays the subject matter
  • 7. Critical Reading “ Critical Reading involves understanding the content of a text as well as how the subject matter is developed. Critical reading takes in the facts, but goes further. “ http://www.rimt.edu.au/studyandlearningcentre/
  • 8. The critical thinker - Reads a text as... - One interpretation of facts - Recognises what a text says and does… - applies own knowledge & values - to evaluate and interpret a text’s overall meaning.
  • 9. Critical Thinking “Critical thinking involves reflecting on the validity of what you have read in light of our prior knowledge and understanding of the world.“ http://www.criticalreading.com/critical_reading_thinking.htm
  • 10. What a text says… (Restatement) What a text does… (Description) (how it says what it says) What a text means… (Interpretation) (what it means to you, as the reader)
  • 11. What a text says… (Restatement) Restate the same topics and facts. What a text does… (Description) Discuss the topics & facts within the context of how the original argument was made. What a text means… (Interpretation) Interprets an overall meaning within the wider context of the readers prior knowledge and values.
  • 12. Exercise 2 • Spend 5 minutes to read the following short [edited] extract and think about: - what the text says - what the text does - what the text means Via Flickr Creative Commons, by © Stuti Sakhalkar. Original available at http://www.flickr.com/photos/theblackcanvas/2945878325/
  • 13. Goals of critical reading - recognise author's purpose - what is within the scope of their writing, and what isn’t - what they are trying to do; does it match what you are looking for - understand tone & persuasive elements of the argument - in contrast to the objective data and evidence - what are they trying to sell you; what are you actually being sold - recognise bias - identifying patterns of choice of content and language (eg negative vs positive language, repeated omission or discounting)
  • 14. Critical Reading & Thinking - Is not about: - being negative or finding fault. - It is about: - assessing the strength of the evidence and the argument presented
  • 15. Part 2 An efficient approach to critical reading:
  • 16. Critical Reading & Thinking - "If we sense that assertations are ridiculous or irresponsible (critical thinking), we examine the text more closely to test our understanding (critical reading)“ https://www.york.ac.uk/media/biology/documents/careers/critical_reading_handout.pdf - Conversely, you can only think about a text critically if you have understood it (critical reading) - to understand why we agree or disagree with an alternative opinion, statement or conclusion. - to understand which issues we agree and/or disagree with in an argument.
  • 17. Critical Reading: Myth busting - You do not have the time to read everything. - You do not have the time to read everything critically. - You must be selective. - Stay focussed: get the info you need.
  • 18. Adopt an efficient approach - Start with some basic principles - Quickly scan/skim the material - [Critical Reading] Read more thoroughly and make notes - [Critical Thinking] Consider/Review against your prior knowledge and understanding of the topic
  • 20. Some basics - Most readers have an attention span of 15-20 minutes. - Be clear about why you are reading the text. - Pause for thought - Don’t (always) read in isolation. Discuss authors, publications, ideas and arguments with colleagues. - Usually, reading the text once is not enough.
  • 21. SQ3R
  • 22. SQRRR - Survey - Question - Read - Recall - Review Scan / Skim text to provide an overall impression of usefulness, scope, structure and argument.
  • 23. SQRRR - Survey - Question - Read - Recall - Review Formulate questions you want to answer / points you want to confirm through more in depth reading.
  • 24. SQRRR - Survey - Question - Read - Recall - Review Read the text in a more focussed way, aiming to answer the questions formulated.
  • 25. SQRRR - Survey - Question - Read - Recall - Review Pause. Then test your understanding and memory of the text, and if you feel you have addressed all your questions raised.
  • 26. SQRRR - Survey - Question - Read - Recall - Review You could also ‘test’ your understanding by discussing with a colleague.
  • 27. SQRRR - Survey - Question - Read - Recall - Review Return to the text. Read in more detail, taking notes and identifying any further questions raised or left unanswered.
  • 28. Survey Scanning / Skimming the text
  • 29. Scanning text - Before reading in any detail - “Scan” your eye over the text quickly - to identify specific words or phrases - to get a feel for structure • headings & subheadings • figures, data, images • contents pages • index (for keywords) • reference list • abstract / body text
  • 30. Scanning text – why? - Note – requires you to have thought about why you are reading / what you are looking for.
  • 31. Scanning text – why? - Evaluate the relevance and usefulness - Make a judgment on whether you should read further - Can help you to decide what parts of a document you want to focus time on.
  • 32. Skimming text - Note – scanning the text first can help you decide where to concentrate your time.
  • 33. Skimming text - Speed read to get an overview of - structure of text - scope and content of the text • Note key points in summaries / abstract • Read 1st and last paragraph / section to get main points • look at 1st sentence of each paragraph to get a feel of content and thrust of argument.
  • 34. Exercise 3 • From a 30 second view, skim the text (focus on first and last lines of each paragraph) to try and get an impression of the scope and content of the text. • Holmes, P., Fay, R., Andrews, J., Attia, M., (2013) Researching multilingually: New theoretical and methodological directions. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 23, 285–299. Via Flickr Creative Commons, by © Stuti Sakhalkar. Original available at http://www.flickr.com/photos/theblackcanvas/2945878325/
  • 35. Question Why are you reading the text?
  • 36. What are you looking for? - background info? - latest developments? - seek evidence to support/refute an idea? - to reinforce your own prejudices? - to examine a methodology or identify how a result was reached? - because you have to?
  • 37. Read
  • 38. Tips whilst reading - Identify core arguments - link evidence to any conclusions drawn - identify arguments you feel are under-evidenced / purpose behind arguments + interpretation of author. - identify alternative conclusions which could have been drawn.
  • 39. Tips whilst reading - Look for repetitions of argument, phrases or words to give clues to authors intentions. - what do they consider crucial? - does this match what you think is crucial?
  • 41. Tips for making notes - Make notes as you read... - throw away your highlighter - annotate margins: key issues / questions raised - develop your own symbols... (AP) ** // !!
  • 42. Tips for making notes An argument should: - explain why the authors considered what they are doing is worthwhile - explain the approach and methodology chosen - explain why the data collected/material selected was most appropriate - how conclusions drawn link to wider context
  • 43. Tips for making notes Broad definition of evidence: - encompasses what you read, not just the data collected and presented - choice of methodology - context of data collection / creation (eg sources used, scope of study/experiment) - rationale for interpretations and conclusions drawn - relevance of theory underpinning argument
  • 44. Part 3 Evaluation of Research Information
  • 45. Evaluating information When reading critically you need to evaluate: • Relevance to the topic • Authority of the author, publisher etc • Purpose / Objectivity • Presentation • Methodology • Currency
  • 46. Relevance to the topic • Before reading the text… • Read the abstract, introduction or summary. • Scan the bibliographic information which may highlight key subject areas not specifically alluded to. • Emphasis may not be clear until you read in full.
  • 48. Relevance to the topic • Upon reading the text… • What level is the information at? • Does it contain, and discuss in enough detail the information you are seeking? • Is the research relevant to the subject domain / geographical area / demographic / time period you are interested in?
  • 49. Relevance to the topic “In the course of a series of investigations into various aspects of mental inheritance an intensive study has been made of so-called ‘identical’ twins. The cases examined fall into two main groups: first, those reared together in their parents' homes; secondly, those separated in early infancy, and brought up apart. With the latter, despite wide differences in environmental conditions, the correlations for intelligence, unlike those for school attainments, prove to be surprisingly high. It is argued that this implies that ‘intelligence’, when adequately assessed, is largely dependent on genetic constitution.” http://10.1111/j.2044-8295.1966.tb01014.x “ Burt’s study of monozygotic twins reared apart … involved the largest number of separated twin pairs at the time and produced the highest estimate of heritability for IQ”
  • 50. Relevance to the topic Restatement: Burke identified a link between IQ and inherited genes. Description: This article compares the evidence for IQ being determined by inherited genes as opposed to IQ being affected by external environmental factors. Interpretation: Evidence for IQ being an inherited trait rather than affected by external factors has potential implications for the development of social and education policy.
  • 51. Relevance to the topic • Key topics and ideas. • Level of information presented. • Relevance in terms of location/subject/scope. • Does the content and level match your needs. Be aware of what is filtering your choices… - Vocabulary and broadness of interpretation. Are you under-estimating the value of a source because it doesn’t match your choice of keywords precisely?
  • 52. Authority “The trouble with quotes from the internet is that you never know if they are genuine.” Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865, President of the United States of America).
  • 53. Authority • Is it clear where the information comes from? • Are the authors acknowledged experts in the field? - frequently cited? do they have an h-index? - have you or colleagues heard of them? - can you find any profile information where they work? - how well respected is the author, and their work, in their related field of research? • Where is it published? - impact factors for a journal (not always an accurate measure of quality, but potentially one of prestige) - is it peer reviewed?
  • 54. Authority • Sir Cyril Burt • Fellow of British Academy • Author of over 350 articles and a number of books. • “pioneer research on the inheritance of mental ability”
  • 56. ””the most satisfactory attempt” to estimate hereditability of IQ” and “”the most valuable” of all the separated twin research.” • Professor at the University of California, Berkeley. • Author of 400+ peer reviewed papers. • In 2002, was listed in the Review of General Psychology’s top 50 “most eminent psychologists of the 20th century” ”the largest of its kind and the only one where “the distribution of children into foster homes was random ” “ • Edge Pierce Professor of Psychology at Harvard University. • Author of several peer reviewed papers and books. • Credited with discovering and developing several models and theories as one of the founding researchers in the field of quantitative analysis of behaviour. Richard J Herrnstein Arthur R Jenson
  • 57. ”the only one of its kind in which the calculation of heritability had any meaning.” • Professor of Psychology at the Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College, London. • In 2002, was listed in the Review of General Psychology’s top 100 “most eminent psychologists of the 20th century” as the most cited living psychologist at the time of his death. ””the best data“ on separated twins.” • Alexander M. Poniatoff Professor of Engineering and Applied Science at Stanford University. • Joint awarded Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956. • 1960’s and 1970’s moved also into area of hereditary behaviour. William B Shockley Hans Eysenck
  • 58. Authority – Impact Factors - British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology - Impact Factor 1.258 - 5th of 13 journals in category “Psychology, Mathematical” - British Journal of Educational Psychology - Impact Factor 2.093 - 11th of 50 journals in category “Psychology, Educational” - British Journal of Psychology - Impact Factor 2.103 - 26th of 126 journals in category “Psychology, Multi-disciplinary”
  • 59. Authority • Are the authors acknowledged experts in the field? - frequently cited? do they have an h-index? - have you or colleagues heard of them? - can you find any profile information where they work? - how well respected is the author, and their work, in their related field of research? • Where is it published? - Impact factors for a journal (not always an accurate measure of quality, but potentially one of prestige) and is it peer reviewed? Be aware of what is filtering your choices y - Is the prestige of the author or the publication impacting on how you evaluate the content?
  • 60. Objectivity • Is the subject controversial? • Does the author use emotive language? • What is the authors purpose in writing the paper? • If there are differing views on the subject area, does the author consistently fall into one ‘camp’?
  • 61. Objectivity ** This is an over-simplification…. ** IQ is inherited IQ is affected by external factors Burt, C (1943) “Ability and Income” British Journal of Educational Psychology Burt, C.L. (1957) “Heredity and Intelligence; A reply to criticisms” British Journal of Statistical Psychology Burt, C.L. (1958). "The inheritance of mental ability", American Psychologist, Burt, C.L. (1972). "Inheritance of general intelligence", American Psychologist, Burt C (1966) “The Genetic Determination of Differences in Intelligence: A Study of Monozygotic Twins Reared Apart and Together.” British Journal of Psychology
  • 62. Objectivity • Is the subject controversial? • Does the author use emotive language? • What is the authors purpose in writing the paper? • If there are differing views on the subject area, does the author consistently fall into one ‘camp’? Be aware of what is filtering your choices - Does the author demonstrate any hidden bias on the topic? - Evaluate yourself? Are you subconsciously over-valuing the resource because it confirms your own prejudices? Are you being objective?
  • 63. Methodology • are the methodology and sources of data used clearly identified or explained? • what evidence is presented to support the ideas and conclusions expressed? • is the methodology direct or indirect? • are the conclusions and assumptions made by the author consistent, logical and justified? • does the research raise any unanswered questions?
  • 64. Methodology “ tests of the usual type… as a means of estimating genotypic differences, even the most carefully constructed tests are highly fallible instruments, and … their verdicts are far less trustworthy than the judgments of the pupil’s own teachers.” Burt, C. (1957)British Journal of Statistical Psychology “the unaided judgments even of the most experienced teachers … are nevertheless far less trustworthy in the long run that the results obtained by properly applied intelligence tests.” Burt, C. (1943)British Journal of Educational Psychology
  • 65. Part 3 Summary • Various criteria you can assess a resource by. - a lot more ‘citation’ tools available for journal literature. • How much time do you realistically have?
  • 66. Part 3 Summary • Some quotes and opinions were taken from one article: Tucker, W.H.(1994) “Fact and fiction in the discovery of Sir Cyril Burt’s Flaws” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences (30). • Does that change your opinion on some of the previous slides assertions and emphasis?
  • 67. Part 4 Recognising your evaluative criteria
  • 68. Critical Thinking “Critical thinking involves reflecting on the validity of what you have read in light of our prior knowledge and understanding of the world.“ http://www.criticalreading.com/critical_reading_thinking.htm
  • 69. Ecology • Resources are interconnected and they evolve • Information resources are transformed into knowledge • Knowledge becomes a resource • Therefore prior knowledge shapes what we go on to create
  • 70. Cognitive biases • Subjectivity is vulnerable to bias & hunches • Concept of cognitive bias was developed in 1970s by Tversky and Kahneman • Four main groups - Social - Probability/belief - Memory - Decision making
  • 71. 1) “Hwang faked all research on human stem cells”
  • 74. “Hwang faked all research on human stem cells” Halo effect “The tendency for a person's positive or negative traits to "spill over" from one personality area to another in others' perceptions of them”
  • 75. 2) Strange, Hayne & Garry (2008) ‘A photo, a suggestion, a false memory’ Applied Cognitive Psychology. 22, 587–603.
  • 76. Strange, Hayne & Garry (2008) ‘A photo, a suggestion, a false memory’ Applied Cognitive Psychology. 22, 587–603. False memory bias “A form of misattribution where imagination, or incorrect recall, is mistaken for a memory.”
  • 78. 3) “Once people become aware of an event or conclusion, they will usually express a good deal of confidence about the predictability of the outcome.”
  • 79. Fischhoff, B., and Beyth, R. (1975) ‘"I knew it would happen" Remembered probabilities of once-future things’ Organizational Behaviour and Human Performance. 13, 1-16. Hindsight bias “The inclination to see past events as being more predictable than they actually were”
  • 80. Exercise 4 • Read through the example “cognitive bias” on the cards, and try to decide which of the four “groups” of cognitive bias each might sit in. - Social (Ascribe positive or negative traits to self, individuals or groups) - Probability/belief (disregard or to pay too much attention to probability) - Memory (How you perceive past events) - Decision making (Influences on your decisions by own or group biases) Via Flickr Creative Commons, by © Stuti Sakhalkar. Original available at http://www.flickr.com/photos/theblackcanvas/2945878325/
  • 81. Cognitive biases • Shape how we read, interpret and evaluate the information we receive. • Shape how others read, interpret and evaluate the information they receive. • Any published research is just one interpretation of the facts available
  • 82. Further Reading • Tucker, W.H.(1994) “Fact and fiction in the discovery of Sir Cyril Burt’s Flaws” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences (30). • University of Leicester: What is Critical Reading http://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/ld/resources/writing/writing-resources/critical-reading • University of Newcastle: Think Critically http://www.ncl.ac.uk/library/research-support/informed-researcher/think-critically/ • Open University: Critical Reading Techniques http://www.open.ac.uk/skillsforstudy/critical-reading-techniques.php/ • Dan Kurland’s Critical Reading Website http://www.criticalreading.com/ • The SQ3R method http://www.ic.arizona.edu/ic/wrightr/other/sq3r.html
  • 83. Image Credits [69] Via Flickr Creative Commons, by Martin LaBar. Original available at http://www.flickr.com/photos/32454422@N00/163107859/ [4,44,67] Via Flickr Creative Commons, by Kevin Dooley. Available at http://www.flickr.com/photos/12836528@N00/2577006675 [75] Via Flickr Creative Commons, and by Brian Yap: Original available at http://www.flickr.com/photos/30265340@N00/465957804 [15] Via Flickr Creative Commons, and by FutUndBeidl: Available at http://www.flickr.com/photos/61423903@N06/7369580478

Editor's Notes

  1. Image – self awareness, reflection on your role as a researcher.
  2. Validity: do they come from an authoritive source relevant to the field of knowledge Reliability: are the facts and statements accurate and backed up with evidence Applicability: does the reader apply the facts and statements appropriately
  3. Is the text arguing a point, offering examples, appealing for sympathy, making a contrast, defending a viewpoint?
  4. Also sometimes referred to as: Comprehension / Analysis / Interpretation
  5. Interpretation: How have the facts presented, and the way they have been presented, shaped our perception of the topic being discussed?
  6. recognise author's purpose - what is within the scope of their writing, and what isn’t - what they are trying to do, and does it match what you are looking for understand tone & persuasive elements of the argument - in contrast to the objective data and evidence - what are they trying to sell you vs. what are you actually being sold recognise bias - eg where have assumptions been made, questions left unanswered or evidence/argument overlooked in favour of alternative evidence or arguments.
  7. There is a fine line...
  8. Critical Reading and Thinking in harmony
  9. Critical Reading and Thinking in harmony
  10. In reality, critical reading/critical thinking are probably happening simultaneously. I’m going to start with some basics... ... Then look at once suggested approach which takes in the process
  11. Attention span: How will this affect your ability to read and analyse the facts, text and ideas the publication contains. Why you are reading the text:   - background info?  - latest developments?  - seek evidence to support/refute your idea?     - to reinforce your own prejudices?  - to examine a methodology or identify how a result was reached?  - because you have to?     - if supervisor's request... Reading may inform why they wanted you to read it Pause: you do not need to read it all at once. Take time to let ideas settle and for you to consider them. Reading the text once: ... But you may not need to read the whole text to extract the information you need and grasp the meaning or argument. “Open Access” analogy. I will often be drawn first to those articles which I feel I will disagree with.
  12. Has anyone heard of or used the SQ3R process?
  13. SQ3R
  14. These questions will inform you in how much depth you want to read the article.
  15. Highlighter: only highlights you thought something was important at some point in time.
  16. You might want to think about taking your notes with these key areas to look at. I personally probably wouldn’t use such a form, but it illustrates how you might take a systematic approach to your note taking to ensure you are reading and thinking critically.
  17. You might want to think about taking your notes with these key areas to look at. I personally probably wouldn’t use such a form, but it illustrates how you might take a systematic approach to your note taking to ensure you are reading and thinking critically.
  18. Image – pause and reflect on what might be affecting any practical decisions and actions you might take...
  19. Worksheets handout – an example of different things to look at to inform any ‘value judgment’ you make on an information resource. Practical tips handout – highlight some tools to aid in this, and examples of those criteria mentioned in the worksheet.
  20. See handout (images from handout)
  21. Three ways of reading a passage: Comprehension / Analysis / Interpretation
  22. Three ways of reading a passage: Comprehension / Analysis / Interpretation
  23. Quick intro – need to think carefully about the provenance, where you have found the information, is the source reliable.
  24. Bit of a fudge as these are impact factors for the most recent years data, not from 1970 which is before the JCRs were published. Number of citations can be misleading – these may include positive and negative citations. But gives you a controlled list of references to check to see how others might have evaluated the research. But to give an idea of one measure of ‘authority’ of where the paper has been published, these journals were some of the key titles (or inherited titles) the author published in.
  25. Highlight the expertise and standing of these commentators, ask class if this would lead to them tending to give the paper a higher or lower value as a source of information? Looking back at cognitive bias… Halo effect? - applying the respect earned by the author for earlier work generally to all of their research Bandwagon effect? - other experts in the field agreed / praised the research. Confirmation bias? - was the research given positive treatment because it confirmed the prejudices or beliefs of others?
  26. Bit of a fudge as these are impact factors for the most recent years data, not from 1970 which is before the JCRs were published. But to give an idea of one measure of ‘authority’ of where the paper has been published, these journals were some of the key titles (or inherited titles) the author published in. Highlight the “impact factor” of journals the research appeared in, ask class if this would lead to them tending to give the paper a higher or lower value as a source of information? Looking back at cognitive bias… Stereotyping/Ingroup bias? - assumption that because an article is in this journal, it must have the same value as other articles. Halo effect? - ascribing the characteristics of other articles to this paper. Confirmation bias? - was the research given positive treatment because it confirmed the prejudices or beliefs of others?
  27. Demo H-index and JCRs, comparing a journal within its subject field in a year an article was published. JCRs for journal H-index for author (mention comparison to other authors) H-index of journal, for the same year as article interested in as a comparison to the number of citations received by the article. Remind them – Impact factors are based on number of citations to the publication. The number of citations should not be assumed to indicate a level of quality. But, as many researchers still cling to these as a measure of prestige (wanting to publish in “high impact” journals), it is some measure of ‘perceived level of interest it may generate for the subject community’ at the point of publication. H-index is also a measure of the “no. of citations” and does not provide a clear positive or negative value.
  28. Emotive language: refer back to ‘police brutality’ example Authors purpose:- - does the author have a specific message they wish to report - has a contemporary issue, ‘viewpoint’ or policy influenced the authors purpose? - for whom is the material intended? - does the author declare any connections or vested interests (MMR link to autism)
  29. Question for class: Does the author consistently fall on to one side of a particular discussion. What other information would you want to look at: - the opposing point of view - criticisms and critiques of both sides of the argument Authors purpose:- - does the author have a specific message they wish to report - has a contemporary issue, ‘viewpoint’ or policy influenced the authors purpose? - for whom is the material intended?
  30. Authors purpose:- - does the author have a specific message they wish to report - has a contemporary issue, ‘viewpoint’ or policy influenced the authors purpose? (refer back to ecology of resources) - for whom is the material intended?
  31. If the article is peer-reviewed, be aware of differences in peer-review requirements (blind peer review, select your own reviewers, etc.) Editorial policy may give some indication of what influences choices I what is published? Direct or indirect: 1) to estimate density of bacteria in a culture  - Direct: take a sample and count  - Indirect: measure he optical density to calculate density of cells 2) to estimate size of military expedition in early 15th century  - Direct: Count those listed on army list or payroll  - Indirect: Look at payments for materials and rations, and extrapolate based on that
  32. Might then want to look at other work of the same author to seek clarification on “tests of the usual type” or why iq tests are considered far less trustworthy than the judgments of teachers...
  33. How much time do you have? Thinking back to the unmotivated cat... Do you have more sympathy now thinking about all the different impacts upon your decision process, and the different things you could explore in great detail? But you do need to be responsible as a researcher... And be aware that others may not have been.
  34. How much time do you have? Thinking back to the unmotivated cat... Do you have more sympathy now thinking about all the different impacts upon your decision process, and the different things you could explore in great detail? But you do need to be responsible as a researcher... And be aware that others may not have been.
  35. Image – self awareness, reflection on your role as a researcher.
  36. Prior knowledge shapes what we go on to find, how we interpret it and what we create. The chronology of what we learn impacts on our and other future decisions… what we read and where to search. How we evaluate information is the same, not a distinct clinical process. Our evaluation of information is subject to our own and others personal bias. Diagram… looking at the ‘original acorn’, that key text in any area of research. - You find it, and it moves you. - You think about it. You link it to other information and knowledge. And it grows, and changes. You shape it into a new form (the tree)… - others do the same, and it grows new branches… - others also find your work, and develop from your knowledge… and new stems grow - all of these branches and leaves grow and are shaped by us
  37. We, as professionals and researchers are affected by bias... And so are those we may be researching or speaking to as part of our research. Tversky and Kahneman, professors at Stanford and Princeton respectively in the 70’s, demonstrated ways in which our own judgments and decisions differ from rational choices. - arises as a natural mechanism to prevent cognitive overload, eg when asking directions. Has been suggested we are subject to over 200 attempts to influence our opinions each day (adverts, news, newspapers, conversations etc.) I’m just going to quickly summarise a few examples of each of these four main groups... Then there is a short exercise for you to try and match examples from the literature to their respective groups...
  38. Allow 30 seconds to scan-read (or up to 60 seconds)
  39. Halo effect Halo effect... See following screenshots. Example from a few years ago of fraudulent research that successfully duped the research establishment and caught media attention . Leading South Korean stem cell research scientist, Dr Hwang Woo-suk, who was found to have "faked all his research on cloned human stem cells". (2006. Cloner's Disgrace. New Scientist. Jan 10. p.4 ) Highlighted section demonstrates that he had a number of influences – money and reputation.
  40. Shock wasn’t so much that he had been fraudulent, but that he had got through the review process seemingly because his research wasnt’ questionned as thoroughly as it should have been, because of his esteem in the related field of cloning where he had been involved in the first successful cloning of a dog embryo.
  41. Because the author was held in high esteem for his work in the field of cloning, his work has perhaps not been as rigorously tested as it should have been as he moved into the field of stem cell research.
  42. Strange, Hayne and Garry conducted research in 2008 on false memories. Showed half a group of children doctored pictures of themselves in a hot air balloon and then later on, questioned them over if they had had a ride in a hot air balloon, and asked them to describe it. And over half of them did, and expanded on the memory... And were also when asked very confident that it had actually happened. These data highlight a potential problem with the use of photographs as tools in therapy. 
  43. Fischhoff and Beyth (1975) presented students with historical accounts of unfamiliar incidents, such as a conflict between the Gurkhas and the British in 1814.  Given the account as background knowledge, five groups of students were asked what they would have predicted as the probability for each of four possible outcomes: Four experimental groups were respectively told that these four outcomes were the historical outcome.  The fifth, control group was not told any historical outcome.  In every case, a group told an outcome assigned substantially higher probability to that outcome, than did any other group or the control group.
  44. The mind builds its current wisdom around what we have already been told. We are “biased” in favor of old information.
  45. We, as professionals and researchers are affected by bias... And so are those we may be researching or speaking to as part of our research. Tversky and Kahneman, professors at Stanford and Princeton respectively in the 70’s, demonstrated ways in which our own judgments and decisions differ from rational choices. - arises as a natural mechanism to prevent cognitive overload, eg when asking directions. Has been suggested we are subject to over 200 attempts to influence our opinions each day (adverts, news, newspapers, conversations etc.) I’m just going to quickly summarise a few examples of each of these four main groups... Then there is a short exercise for you to try and match examples from the literature to their respective groups...