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Lectin-functionalized carboxymethylated
kappa-carrageenan microparticles for
oral insulin delivery




                ANKIT GILANI [NIPERA1113PC03]
         DEPT. OF PHARMACOLOGY & TOXICOLOGY
                             NIPER AHMEDABAD
CONTENTS
•   INTRODUCTION
•   ARTICLE INFO.
•   MATERIALS AND METHODS
•   RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
•   CONCLUSION
•   FUTURE PROSPECTS
•   REFERENCES
INTRODUCTION
• The current administration of peptide-based
  drugs, such as insulin, is predominately via the
  parenteral route, which has a number of
  disadvantages.
• The recent introduction
  of an inhaled delivery
  system for insulin was
  short-lived and resulted
  in the withdrawal of the
  product from the
  market by
  pharmaceutical
  companies.
• Therefore, the oral delivery of insulin still
  remains an attractive alternative delivery
  route.
• But there are two main hurdles :
   1) enzymatic degradation and
   2) their inability to transverse the biological
  barriers of the gastrointestinal tract.
Techniques to manufacture
                microcapsules
(1) Physical methods
          * Pan coating
          * Air-suspension coating
          * Centrifugal extrusion
          * Vibrational Nozzle
          * Spray–drying

(2) Physico-chemical methods
          * Ionotropic gelation
          * Coacervation

(3) Chemical methods
         * Interfacial polycondensation
         * Interfacial cross-linking
         * In-situ polymerization
         * Matrix polymerization
Ionotropic gelation technique
• Ionotropic gelation is based on the ability of
  polyelectrolytes to cross link in the presence of
  counter ions to form hydrogels.
• The natural polyelectrolytes inspite, having a
  property of coating on the drug core and acts as
  release rate retardants contains certain anions on
  their chemical structure.
• These anions forms meshwork structure by
  combining with the polyvalent cations and induce
  gelation by binding mainly to the anion blocks.
• The hydrogel beads are produced by dropping
  a drug-loaded polymeric solution into the
  aqueous solution of polyvalent cations.
• The cations diffuse into the drug-loaded
  polymeric drops, forming a three dimensional
  lattice of ionically crossed linked moiety.
• Biomolecules can also be loaded into these
  hydrogel beads under mild conditions to
  retain their three dimensional structure.
Lectin-functionalized carboxymethylated kappa-carrageenan microparticles for oral insulin delivery
Lectin-functionalized carboxymethylated kappa-carrageenan microparticles for oral insulin delivery
Polyelectrolyte biopolymers
    employed in hydrogel preparation
•   Alginates
•   Gellan Gum
•   Chitosan
•   Carboxymethyl Cellulose
•   Kappa-carrageenan
Lectin-functionalized carboxymethylated kappa-carrageenan microparticles for oral insulin delivery
MATERIALS AND METHODS
MATERIALS
•   kappa-Carrageenan
•   Human recombinant insulin
•   lectin from Triticum vulgaris (WGA)
•   200 mM L-glutamine, fetal bovine serum (FBS), 0.25%
    trypsin-EDTA
•   phosphate-buffered saline (pH 7.4) tablets
•   Potassium chloride, sodium hydroxide, potassium
    dihydrogen orthophosphate.
•   37% fuming hydrochloric acid and acetonitrile
•   Glutaraldehyde 25% (v/v), orthophosphoric acid,
    sodium acetate salt
MATERIALS (cont..)
• Chromolith Performance RP-18e HPLC
  columns (4.6 m × 100 mm)
• Syringes (1 mL) and needles with diameters of
  25G, 26G and 27G
Synthesis and characterization of
carboxymethylated kappa-carrageenan
5 g of powdered kappa-carrageenan was suspended in 100 mL of 2-
      propanol and stirred for 30 min at room temperature.


 Next, 5 mL of 16 N sodium hydroxide was added at a rate of 1 mL
    per 15 min with continuous stirring at room temperature.


 Monochloroacetic acid (5.3 g) was then added portionwise to the
           reaction mixture over a period of 20 min.


The reaction mixture was heated to 50 ◦C with continuous stirring
       for 4 h to drive the reaction process to completion.
The product was recovered through vacuum filtration and washed
   alternately with 50 mL of ethanol–water (4:1) and 50 mL of
ethanol three times. The modified carrageenan was oven dried at
         70 ◦C overnight and powdered in a glass mortar.




   The degree of carboxymethylation on the modified kappa-
           carrageenan was determined using NMR



   Molecular weight was measured using size-exclusion liquid
                       chromatography


   Sulfate content was determined using ion chromatography.
Preparation of insulin-loaded microparticles
125–175 mg powdered carboxymethylated kappacarrageenan was
dissolved in 1 mL of pH-adjusted (pH 4.0–7.0) deionized water with
0.3 M sodium acetate buffer (pH 4.0).



1 mL of human insulin (10–30 mg/mL) was added
and mixed thoroughly to form a viscous dispersion.



The resulting dispersion was then loaded into a 1 mL syringe and
extruded dropwise through needles of varying sizes (internal
diameter, 0.4–0.5 mm) into 20 mL of 1.5 M potassium chloride–HCl
solution (pH 1.2) with constant stirring (50 rpm) under a constant
stream of air blown perpendicular to the tip of the needle.
The insulin-loaded microparticles were then
collected by decantation



    dried in a desiccator overnight at 4◦C.
Preparation of insulin-loaded lectin
   surface-conjugated microparticles
   microparticles were first surface activated with
polyglutaraldehyde, followed by conjugation to lectin
                    rinsed four
                    successive times
                    with 5 mL of 1.5 M     immersed in a
soaked in 10 mL of potassium
                                           lectin solution   Washed and then
polyglutaraldehyde chloride–HCl
                                             (0.25–1.25         dried in a
     solution       solution (pH 1.2) to    mg/mL PBS,          desiccator
(0.1–5.0%, v/v) for remove excess            pH 7.4) for     overnight at 4 ◦C.
        1 h.        crosslinking
                    reagent, followed         30 min.
                    by washing with
                    deionized water.
Determination of insulin encapsulation
efficiency and insulin load
• an indirect method to measure the insulin
  content in the 1.5 M potassium chloride–HCl
  solution (hardening solution) using an
  established HPLC protocol was performed
• the AUC values were used to construct the
  standard curve for the estimation of insulin
  content in the hardening solution.
Determination of insulin encapsulation
efficiency and insulin load
Determination of the degree of surface
lectin conjugation
• performed in parallel to determine the insulin
  encapsulation efficiency and insulin load.
Microparticle size and surface
characteristics determination
• The diameters of freshly prepared (wet) and
  dried microparticles were estimated using a
  microscope (CX31, Olympus Optical Co., Ltd.,
  Tokyo, Japan).

• The size and surface characteristics were
  assessed using a field emission scanning electron
  microscope (Quanta 200 FESEM, FEI, Oregon,
  USA) in a low-vacuum mode with 50×, 2000×,
  8000× and 50000× magnifications.
In vitro insulin release kinetics

simulated gastric fluid (SGF)
 (pH 1.2) with stirring (100
   rpm) at 37 ◦C for 2 h.



  After 2 h, the SGF was
   carefully removed,
 replaced and incubated
with 20 mL of SIF (pH 7.4)
with stirring at 37 ◦C for 8
             h.
In vitro insulin release kinetics
• Insulin profiles from the encapsulated microparticles
  were fitted to the power law equation to calculate n
  and determine the insulin release kinetics:



  Where,
  Mt is the amount of insulin released up to a specified time, t;
  M∞ is the final amount of insulin released;
  k is the structural/geometric constant for a particular system;
  t is the sampling time and n represents the release exponent
  of the release mechanism.
In vivo study
Induction of diabetes




                         i.p. administration of
                                                  After two weeks, rats
  male Sprague–               45 mg/kg of          with fasting blood
   Dawley rats.          streptozocin in 0.1 M    glucose levels above
                         sodium citrate buffer
                                                       300 mg/dL
                               (pH 4.0).
In vivo study




The microparticles were pre-
packed in hard gelatin
capsules (size 9, Qualicaps®
capsule) and administered
orally at 25, 50 and 100 IU
insulin/kg using
a bulb-tipped gavage needle
In vivo study
GROUP                                 DOSE                       ROUTE

TEST               (1) LECTIN         25, 50 and 100 IU          ORAL
                   FUNCTIONALIZED     insulin/kg
                   MICROPARTICLES

                   (2) NON-LECTIN     50 and 100 IU insulin/kg   ORAL
                   FUNCTIONALIZED
                   MICROPARTICLES

POSITIVE CONTROL   INSULIN SOLUTION   2 IU insulin/kg            SC

                   INSULIN SOLUTION   100 IU/kg                  ORAL

NEGATIVE CONTROL                         UNTREATED

                                      EMPTY CAPSULES             ORAL
• Blood was collected from the tail vein immediately
  before treatment and 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 4,6, 8, 12, 24 and
  36 h after administration. Blood glucose levels were
  measured using an Accu-Check Active blood glucose
  meter. The post-treatment blood glucose levels were
  expressed as the percent of pre-treatment blood
  glucose.

• quantitative serum insulin determination
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
• Preparation of insulin-loaded microparticles




Encapsulation efficiency of insulin using various polymer weights
(125–175 mg) and needle sizes (0.4–0.5 mm).
The effect of pH on the encapsulation efficiency of insulin by
the addition of 0.3 M sodium acetate buffer into the insulin–
polymer mixture.
Above pH 5.4, insulin is negatively
charged. Encapsulation improvement
occurs (97.7±2.2%) when insulin has
a net positive charge of less than 1



     At a pH lower than 4.8,
     insulin has a net positive
     charge of more than 1
Encapsulation efficiency of insulin with increasing amounts
of drug (10–35 mg).
(E) Percentage of insulin release in simulated intestinal fluid (SIF) (pH
7.4) after crosslinking with polyglutaraldehyde (0.1–1.0% v/v).
(F) Percentage of microparticles by weight adhered to short segments
(6 cm) of rat intestine after lectin functionalization with increasing
amount of lectin (0.25–1.25 mg).
In vitro studies




Dissolution profile of non-functionalized and lectin-functionalized
carboxymethylated kappa-carrageenan microparticles in simulated gastric fluid
(SGF) at 37 ◦C for 2 h, followed by simulated intestinal fluid (SIF) at 37 ◦C for 8 h.
In vitro insulin release kinetics
• parameter n was calculated by fitting the release
  data into the power law, the average n value



 1) for the non-functionalized microparticles is
 0.45±0.06
 2) for lectin-functionalized microparticles is
 0.36±0.10
• For a spherical system, when
   (1) n ≤ 0.43, the release mechanism is diffusion-controlled
  (CaseI),
   (2) n ≥ 0.85, the release mechanism is swelling controlled
  (Case II) and
   (3) values between 0.43 and 0.89 present a mixed mode of
  a both diffusion- and swelling-controlled mechanisms
  (anomalous transport)

• Thus, the release mechanism of insulin from
  nonfunctionalized microparticles is a mixed mode but is
  predominantly diffusion-controlled, whereas for lectin-
  functionalized microparticles, it is diffusion-controlled.
In vivo studies
CONCLUSION
• This study clearly shows that insulin entrapped in
  lectin functionalized carboxymethylated kappa-
  carrageenan microparticles was protected from
  hydrolysis and proteolysis by stomach acids and
  enzymes.

• Grafting of lectin (WGA) on the surface of the
  microparticles improves the interactions of these
  microparticles with the intestinal wall and
  enhances the absorption of insulin compared to
  the non-functionalized microparticles.
• The covalently bound, negatively charged sulfate
  groups in carboxymethylated kappa-carrageenan
  interact with the amino groups of the amino acid
  residues in insulin via ionic interactions that
  prevented the bulk release of insulin in the
  intestine, and these interactions imparted a
  sustained release of up to 12–24 h for the insulin
  entrapped in the microparticles in contrast to the
  rapid dissipation of the hypoglycemic effect of
  insulin via the parenteral route.
FUTURE PROSPECTS
• lectin-functionalized oral formulation might serve as a
  promising alternative or as a complementary therapy to
  parenteral administration to provide better basal and
  prolonged hypoglycemic control.
• Currently, oral insulin formulations such as Insugen
  (available commercially), and 4-CNAB and Capsulin (in
  clinical trials) show rapid insulin action that last no
  longer than 6–8 h.
• While the insulin-loaded microparticles in this study
  showed prolonged glycemic control that lasted 12–24 h,
  and hence complement existing insulin formulations to
  provide for the basal insulin needs of the patient.
REFERENCES
1. Andrews, G. P., Laverty, T. P., & Jones, D. S. (2009). Mucoadhesive polymeric platforms for
   controlled drug delivery. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics, 71, 505–
   518.
2. Bies, C., Lehr, C. M., & Woodley, J. F. (2004). Lectin-mediated drug targeting: History and
   applications. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 56, 425–435.
3. Chowdary, K. P. R., & Rao, Y. S. (2004). Mucoadhesive microspheres for controlled
    drug delivery. Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 27, 1717–1724. Clark, M. A., Hirst, B. H.,
   & Jepson, M. A. (2000). Lectin-mediated mucosal delivery of drugs and microparticles.
   Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 43, 207–223.
4. Clement, S., Dandona, P., Still, J. G., & Kosutic, G. (2004). Oral modified insulin (HIM2) in
   patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus: Results from a phase I/II clinical trial. Metabolism, 53,
   54–58.
5. Deeb, S. E., Preu, L., & Wätzig, H. (2007). Evaluation of monolithic HPLC columns for various
   pharmaceutical separations: Method transfer from conventional phases and batch to batch
   repeatability. Journal of Pharmaceutical & Biomedical Analysis, 44, 85–95.
6. Gabor, F., Bogner, E., Weissenboeck, A., & Wirth, M. (2004). The lectin-cell interaction and its
   implications to intestinal lectin-mediated drug delivery. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 56,
   459–480.
Lectin-functionalized carboxymethylated kappa-carrageenan microparticles for oral insulin delivery
Lectin-functionalized carboxymethylated kappa-carrageenan microparticles for oral insulin delivery
Lectin-functionalized carboxymethylated kappa-carrageenan microparticles for oral insulin delivery

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Lectin-functionalized carboxymethylated kappa-carrageenan microparticles for oral insulin delivery

  • 1. Lectin-functionalized carboxymethylated kappa-carrageenan microparticles for oral insulin delivery ANKIT GILANI [NIPERA1113PC03] DEPT. OF PHARMACOLOGY & TOXICOLOGY NIPER AHMEDABAD
  • 2. CONTENTS • INTRODUCTION • ARTICLE INFO. • MATERIALS AND METHODS • RESULTS AND DISCUSSION • CONCLUSION • FUTURE PROSPECTS • REFERENCES
  • 3. INTRODUCTION • The current administration of peptide-based drugs, such as insulin, is predominately via the parenteral route, which has a number of disadvantages.
  • 4. • The recent introduction of an inhaled delivery system for insulin was short-lived and resulted in the withdrawal of the product from the market by pharmaceutical companies.
  • 5. • Therefore, the oral delivery of insulin still remains an attractive alternative delivery route. • But there are two main hurdles : 1) enzymatic degradation and 2) their inability to transverse the biological barriers of the gastrointestinal tract.
  • 6. Techniques to manufacture microcapsules (1) Physical methods * Pan coating * Air-suspension coating * Centrifugal extrusion * Vibrational Nozzle * Spray–drying (2) Physico-chemical methods * Ionotropic gelation * Coacervation (3) Chemical methods * Interfacial polycondensation * Interfacial cross-linking * In-situ polymerization * Matrix polymerization
  • 7. Ionotropic gelation technique • Ionotropic gelation is based on the ability of polyelectrolytes to cross link in the presence of counter ions to form hydrogels. • The natural polyelectrolytes inspite, having a property of coating on the drug core and acts as release rate retardants contains certain anions on their chemical structure. • These anions forms meshwork structure by combining with the polyvalent cations and induce gelation by binding mainly to the anion blocks.
  • 8. • The hydrogel beads are produced by dropping a drug-loaded polymeric solution into the aqueous solution of polyvalent cations. • The cations diffuse into the drug-loaded polymeric drops, forming a three dimensional lattice of ionically crossed linked moiety. • Biomolecules can also be loaded into these hydrogel beads under mild conditions to retain their three dimensional structure.
  • 11. Polyelectrolyte biopolymers employed in hydrogel preparation • Alginates • Gellan Gum • Chitosan • Carboxymethyl Cellulose • Kappa-carrageenan
  • 14. MATERIALS • kappa-Carrageenan • Human recombinant insulin • lectin from Triticum vulgaris (WGA) • 200 mM L-glutamine, fetal bovine serum (FBS), 0.25% trypsin-EDTA • phosphate-buffered saline (pH 7.4) tablets • Potassium chloride, sodium hydroxide, potassium dihydrogen orthophosphate. • 37% fuming hydrochloric acid and acetonitrile • Glutaraldehyde 25% (v/v), orthophosphoric acid, sodium acetate salt
  • 15. MATERIALS (cont..) • Chromolith Performance RP-18e HPLC columns (4.6 m × 100 mm) • Syringes (1 mL) and needles with diameters of 25G, 26G and 27G
  • 16. Synthesis and characterization of carboxymethylated kappa-carrageenan 5 g of powdered kappa-carrageenan was suspended in 100 mL of 2- propanol and stirred for 30 min at room temperature. Next, 5 mL of 16 N sodium hydroxide was added at a rate of 1 mL per 15 min with continuous stirring at room temperature. Monochloroacetic acid (5.3 g) was then added portionwise to the reaction mixture over a period of 20 min. The reaction mixture was heated to 50 ◦C with continuous stirring for 4 h to drive the reaction process to completion.
  • 17. The product was recovered through vacuum filtration and washed alternately with 50 mL of ethanol–water (4:1) and 50 mL of ethanol three times. The modified carrageenan was oven dried at 70 ◦C overnight and powdered in a glass mortar. The degree of carboxymethylation on the modified kappa- carrageenan was determined using NMR Molecular weight was measured using size-exclusion liquid chromatography Sulfate content was determined using ion chromatography.
  • 18. Preparation of insulin-loaded microparticles 125–175 mg powdered carboxymethylated kappacarrageenan was dissolved in 1 mL of pH-adjusted (pH 4.0–7.0) deionized water with 0.3 M sodium acetate buffer (pH 4.0). 1 mL of human insulin (10–30 mg/mL) was added and mixed thoroughly to form a viscous dispersion. The resulting dispersion was then loaded into a 1 mL syringe and extruded dropwise through needles of varying sizes (internal diameter, 0.4–0.5 mm) into 20 mL of 1.5 M potassium chloride–HCl solution (pH 1.2) with constant stirring (50 rpm) under a constant stream of air blown perpendicular to the tip of the needle.
  • 19. The insulin-loaded microparticles were then collected by decantation dried in a desiccator overnight at 4◦C.
  • 20. Preparation of insulin-loaded lectin surface-conjugated microparticles microparticles were first surface activated with polyglutaraldehyde, followed by conjugation to lectin rinsed four successive times with 5 mL of 1.5 M immersed in a soaked in 10 mL of potassium lectin solution Washed and then polyglutaraldehyde chloride–HCl (0.25–1.25 dried in a solution solution (pH 1.2) to mg/mL PBS, desiccator (0.1–5.0%, v/v) for remove excess pH 7.4) for overnight at 4 ◦C. 1 h. crosslinking reagent, followed 30 min. by washing with deionized water.
  • 21. Determination of insulin encapsulation efficiency and insulin load • an indirect method to measure the insulin content in the 1.5 M potassium chloride–HCl solution (hardening solution) using an established HPLC protocol was performed • the AUC values were used to construct the standard curve for the estimation of insulin content in the hardening solution.
  • 22. Determination of insulin encapsulation efficiency and insulin load
  • 23. Determination of the degree of surface lectin conjugation • performed in parallel to determine the insulin encapsulation efficiency and insulin load.
  • 24. Microparticle size and surface characteristics determination • The diameters of freshly prepared (wet) and dried microparticles were estimated using a microscope (CX31, Olympus Optical Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan). • The size and surface characteristics were assessed using a field emission scanning electron microscope (Quanta 200 FESEM, FEI, Oregon, USA) in a low-vacuum mode with 50×, 2000×, 8000× and 50000× magnifications.
  • 25. In vitro insulin release kinetics simulated gastric fluid (SGF) (pH 1.2) with stirring (100 rpm) at 37 ◦C for 2 h. After 2 h, the SGF was carefully removed, replaced and incubated with 20 mL of SIF (pH 7.4) with stirring at 37 ◦C for 8 h.
  • 26. In vitro insulin release kinetics • Insulin profiles from the encapsulated microparticles were fitted to the power law equation to calculate n and determine the insulin release kinetics: Where, Mt is the amount of insulin released up to a specified time, t; M∞ is the final amount of insulin released; k is the structural/geometric constant for a particular system; t is the sampling time and n represents the release exponent of the release mechanism.
  • 27. In vivo study Induction of diabetes i.p. administration of After two weeks, rats male Sprague– 45 mg/kg of with fasting blood Dawley rats. streptozocin in 0.1 M glucose levels above sodium citrate buffer 300 mg/dL (pH 4.0).
  • 28. In vivo study The microparticles were pre- packed in hard gelatin capsules (size 9, Qualicaps® capsule) and administered orally at 25, 50 and 100 IU insulin/kg using a bulb-tipped gavage needle
  • 29. In vivo study GROUP DOSE ROUTE TEST (1) LECTIN 25, 50 and 100 IU ORAL FUNCTIONALIZED insulin/kg MICROPARTICLES (2) NON-LECTIN 50 and 100 IU insulin/kg ORAL FUNCTIONALIZED MICROPARTICLES POSITIVE CONTROL INSULIN SOLUTION 2 IU insulin/kg SC INSULIN SOLUTION 100 IU/kg ORAL NEGATIVE CONTROL UNTREATED EMPTY CAPSULES ORAL
  • 30. • Blood was collected from the tail vein immediately before treatment and 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 4,6, 8, 12, 24 and 36 h after administration. Blood glucose levels were measured using an Accu-Check Active blood glucose meter. The post-treatment blood glucose levels were expressed as the percent of pre-treatment blood glucose. • quantitative serum insulin determination
  • 31. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION • Preparation of insulin-loaded microparticles Encapsulation efficiency of insulin using various polymer weights (125–175 mg) and needle sizes (0.4–0.5 mm).
  • 32. The effect of pH on the encapsulation efficiency of insulin by the addition of 0.3 M sodium acetate buffer into the insulin– polymer mixture.
  • 33. Above pH 5.4, insulin is negatively charged. Encapsulation improvement occurs (97.7±2.2%) when insulin has a net positive charge of less than 1 At a pH lower than 4.8, insulin has a net positive charge of more than 1
  • 34. Encapsulation efficiency of insulin with increasing amounts of drug (10–35 mg).
  • 35. (E) Percentage of insulin release in simulated intestinal fluid (SIF) (pH 7.4) after crosslinking with polyglutaraldehyde (0.1–1.0% v/v). (F) Percentage of microparticles by weight adhered to short segments (6 cm) of rat intestine after lectin functionalization with increasing amount of lectin (0.25–1.25 mg).
  • 36. In vitro studies Dissolution profile of non-functionalized and lectin-functionalized carboxymethylated kappa-carrageenan microparticles in simulated gastric fluid (SGF) at 37 ◦C for 2 h, followed by simulated intestinal fluid (SIF) at 37 ◦C for 8 h.
  • 37. In vitro insulin release kinetics • parameter n was calculated by fitting the release data into the power law, the average n value 1) for the non-functionalized microparticles is 0.45±0.06 2) for lectin-functionalized microparticles is 0.36±0.10
  • 38. • For a spherical system, when (1) n ≤ 0.43, the release mechanism is diffusion-controlled (CaseI), (2) n ≥ 0.85, the release mechanism is swelling controlled (Case II) and (3) values between 0.43 and 0.89 present a mixed mode of a both diffusion- and swelling-controlled mechanisms (anomalous transport) • Thus, the release mechanism of insulin from nonfunctionalized microparticles is a mixed mode but is predominantly diffusion-controlled, whereas for lectin- functionalized microparticles, it is diffusion-controlled.
  • 40. CONCLUSION • This study clearly shows that insulin entrapped in lectin functionalized carboxymethylated kappa- carrageenan microparticles was protected from hydrolysis and proteolysis by stomach acids and enzymes. • Grafting of lectin (WGA) on the surface of the microparticles improves the interactions of these microparticles with the intestinal wall and enhances the absorption of insulin compared to the non-functionalized microparticles.
  • 41. • The covalently bound, negatively charged sulfate groups in carboxymethylated kappa-carrageenan interact with the amino groups of the amino acid residues in insulin via ionic interactions that prevented the bulk release of insulin in the intestine, and these interactions imparted a sustained release of up to 12–24 h for the insulin entrapped in the microparticles in contrast to the rapid dissipation of the hypoglycemic effect of insulin via the parenteral route.
  • 42. FUTURE PROSPECTS • lectin-functionalized oral formulation might serve as a promising alternative or as a complementary therapy to parenteral administration to provide better basal and prolonged hypoglycemic control. • Currently, oral insulin formulations such as Insugen (available commercially), and 4-CNAB and Capsulin (in clinical trials) show rapid insulin action that last no longer than 6–8 h. • While the insulin-loaded microparticles in this study showed prolonged glycemic control that lasted 12–24 h, and hence complement existing insulin formulations to provide for the basal insulin needs of the patient.
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