This presentation may be useful in case you need to improve your writing skills.

1. Advice on
Academic Writing
University of Toronto
Summarized by Ana Randi
ISFD n° 41. WE IV

2. General Advice on Essay Writing
 An academic essay should develop a
single “thesis”, this is a set of closely
related points, by reasoning, and
evidence, adding examples and
confirming citations from texts or
other sources.
 It should have an argument. It
should answer a question and try to
prove something
Academic essays have as many
paragraphs as needed. These
paragraphs shoud be one third of a
page long. They should begin with a
topic sentence and they should end
when your point has been sufficiently
supported.
You should not only collect facts
but develop and display your
aptitude for reasoning.
 Note the key terms that define the
kind of reasoning you should be
using (analysis, comparison,
evaluation, agreement or
disagreement) and also note which
concepts or methods your topics asks
you to use. Ask yourself qusetions
about the topic , look for
controversies that may help the
course of your investigation.
 For an essay of argument, formulate
a tentative thesis statement at an
early stage. Although you do not
have to stick to this answer, it will
help focus your investigation.
 Bear in mind that an excellent essay
will display evidence of original
thinking; good organization; your
own capacity to analyze and
synthesize; a superior grasp of
subject; and evidence of extensive
knowledge base.

3. Planning and Organizing
your Essay
 The best time to think about the
organizations of your paper is during
the pre-writing stage.
 When you begin planning you should
bare in mind the type of essay you are
writing, its genre and structure.
Although they are not fixed, they can be
a helpful guidance.
 Essay outlines: they are an important
part of writng a piece. They are meant
to serve you and probably no one else.
You may follow some principles for
writing an outline: very shortly convey a
thesis and describe your piece by
writing a full sentence for each part:
the Introduction, the different
paragraphs, the conclusion.
 The earlier you begin planning, the
better. It is usually a mistake to do all of
your research and note-taking before
beginning to draw up an outline. Of
course, you will have to do some
reading and weighing of evidence before
you start to plan. But as a potential
argument begins to take shape in your
mind, you may start to formalize your
thoughts in the form of a tentative plan.
 Try to find your own technique for
integrating note-taking and planning:
Index cards; the compute; the circle
method.
 Planning provides the
following advantages: helps you to
produce a logical and orderly argument
that your readers can follow; helps you
to produce an economical paper by
allowing you to spot repetition; helps
you to produce a thorough paper by
making it easier for you to notice
whether you have left anything out;
makes drafting the paper easier by
allowing you to concentrate on writing
issues such as grammar, word choice,
and clarity.
 However, overplanning poses the
following risks: doesn't leave you
enough time to write and revise; leads
you to produce papers that try to cover
too much ground at the expense of
analytic depth; can result in a writing
style that lacks spontaneity and ease;
does not provide enough opportunity to
discover new ideas in the process of
writing

4. Thesis
Statements
Some myths:
•Every paper requires one.
•A thesis statement must
come at the end of the first
paragraph.
•A thesis statement must be
• one sentence in length, no
matter how many clauses it
contains.
•You can't start writing an
essay until you have a perfect
thesis statement.
•A thesis statement must give
three points of support.
 It makes a definite and limited
assertion that needs to be
explained and supported by
further discussion.
 It shows the emphasis and
indicates the methodology of
your argument.
 It shows awareness of
difficulties and disagreements.

5. Introduction Conclusion
 A good introduction should
identify your topic, provide
essential context, and indicate
your particular focus in the
essay. It also needs to engage
your readers' interest.
 Do not invest too much time on it.
 Some people write their
introduction only after they have
completed the rest of the essay.
Others write the introduction first
but rewrite it according to what
they claim in the body of their
paper.
 The size of your introduction
should bear some relationship to
the length and complexity of your
paper.
 A strong conclusion will
provide a sense of closure to
the essay while again placing
your concepts in a somewhat
wider context. It will also, in
some instances, add a stimulus
to further thought.
 It is not merely a summery of
your points or a re-statement of
your thesis.
 It involves critical thinking, a
deep reflection upon the
significance of what you have
written.
 For most essays, one well-
developed paragraph is sufficient
for a conclusion. As with
introductions, the length of the
conclusion should reflect the
length of the essay.

6. Interesting Introductions Effective Conclusions
 Find a startling statistic that illustrates
the seriousness of the problem you will
address.
 Quote an expert (but be sure to
introduce him or her first).
 Mention a common misperception that
your thesis will argue against.
 Give some background information
necessary for understanding the essay.
 Use a brief narrative or anecdote that
exemplifies your reason for choosing the
topic. In an assignment that encourages
personal reflection, you may draw on
your own experiences; in a research
essay, the narrative may illustrate a
common real-world scenario.
 In a science paper, explain key scientific
concepts and refer to relevant literature.
Lead up to your own contribution or
intervention.
 In a more technical paper, define a term
that is possibly unfamiliar to your
audience but is central to understanding
the essay.
 If your essay deals with a contemporary
problem, warn readers of the possible
consequences of not attending to the
problem.
 Recommend a specific course of action.
 Use an apt quotation or expert opinion
to lend authority to the conclusion you
have reached.
 Give a startling statistic, fact, or visual
image to drive home the ultimate point
of your paper.
 If your discipline encourages personal
reflection, illustrate your concluding
point with a relevant narrative drawn
from your own life experiences.
 Return to an anecdote, example, or
quotation that you introduced in your
introduction, but add further insight that
derives from the body of your essay.
 In a science or social science paper,
mention worthwhile avenues for future
research on your topic.
 Be aware, however, that different
genres have their own special
expectations about beginnings and
endings. Some academic genres may
not even require an introduction or
conclusion. CHECK YoUr ASSIGMENT!

7. Paragraphs
 A paragraph is a series of related sentences developing a central
idea, called the topic. Paragraphs add one idea at a time to your
broader argument.
 The most effective way to achieve paragraph unity is to express the
central idea of the paragraph in a topic sentence. Topic sentences
are similar to mini thesis statements. Like a thesis statement, a
topic sentence has a specific main point. Whereas the thesis is the
main point of the essay, the topic sentence is the main point of the
paragraph.
 By avoiding irrelevant information that does not relate to the topic
sentence, you can compose a unified paragraph.
 Paragraphs vary in length depending on the needs of the paragraph.
A series of long paragraphs can make prose dense and unpleasant to
read. Check any paragraph that is a page or longer to see whether it
would work better as two or more paragraphs. Break it at a logical
place (e.g., where your focus shifts), and see whether you need to
create new topic sentences to make the shift clear.

8. Developing Ideas in a
Paragraph: some techniques.
 Illustration in a paragraph
supports a general statement
by means of examples, details,
or relevant quotations (with
your comments).
 The definition
paragraph does exactly what
you would expect: it defines a
term, often by drawing
distinctions between the term
and other related ones.
 The analysis or
classification
paragraph develops a topic
by distinguishing its
component parts and
discussing each of these parts
separately.
 A comparison or a contrast
paragraph shows a key
similarity or difference
between, for instance, two
sources, positions, or ideas.
 A qualification
paragraph acknowledges that
what you previously asserted
is not absolutely true or
always applicable.
 The process
paragraph involves a
straightforward step-by-step
description. Process
description often follows a
chronological sequence.

9. Showing connection within
paragraphs: some techniques
 Deliberate repetition of key words helps. Reiterating
the focus of your analysis by repeating key words or
synonyms for key words enhances the overall flow of the
paragraph.
 Strategic use of pronouns such as it, they,
and this keeps the focus on the ideas announced at the
beginning of the paragraph. Make sure they are clearly
linked to specific nouns
 Specialized linking words can also be powerful tools for
pulling ideas together. Make sure you use them to support
your logic. (To signal a reinforcement of ideas: Also, in
other words, in addition, for example, moreover, more
importantly; To signal a change in ideas: but, on the
other hand, however, instead, yet, in contrast, although,
nevertheless, in spite of sth; To signal a conclusion:
thus, therefore, ultimately, in conclusion, finally)

10. Reading and Researching
Critical Reading
Towards Critical Writing
Reading: Looking for Ways of
Thinking
 Most of the papers you write will
involve reflection on written texts - the
thinking and research that has already
been done on your subject. In order to
write your own analysis of this subject,
you will need to do careful critical
reading of sources and to use them
critically to make your own argument.
 To read critically is to make
judgements about how a text is
argued. This is a highly reflective skill
requiring you to "stand back" and gain
some distance from the text you are
reading.
 THE KEY IS THIS:
Do not read looking only or primarily
for information.
Do read looking for ways of
thinking about the subject matter.
 First determine central claims
or purpose of the text (its thesis).
 Begin to make some judgements
about context .
 Distinguish the kinds of
reasoning the text employs.
 Examine the evidence (the
supporting facts, examples, etc) the
text employs.
 Critical reading involve evaluation.
Some tips:
 Begin by skimming research
materials, especially introductions
and conclusions, in order to
strategically choose where to focus
your critical efforts.
 When highlighting a text or taking
notes from it, highlight arguments.
 When you quote directly from a
source, use the quotation critically.
 Critical reading skills are also critical
listening skills. In your lectures,
listen not only for information but
also for ways of thinking.

11. Getting the Most
Out of Reading
It is a very important skill is
to read with comprehension
and memory. Here are some
tips on reading different
material in appropriate ways:
Textbooks sometimes repay
intensive reading.
Primary Sources. Read
through each literary work or
historical document, paying
attention to your own
responses and questions.
Research Readings. In
going through sources for a
research essay, you are
looking for facts to support or
modify your original view of
the topic, and for others'
opinions to bolster and to
challenge your own.
Taking notes. Three main principles:
 1. Know what kind of ideas you
need to record. Focus your
approach to the topic before you
start detailed research. Then you will
read with a purpose in mind, and you
will be able to sort out relevant
ideas. Look for in your research
reading: facts and theories that
help answer your question, and other
people's opinions about whether
specific answers are good ones
 2. Do not write down too much.
Your essay must be an expression of
your own thinking, not a patchwork
of borrowed ideas. Compress ideas in
your own words.
 3. Label your notes intelligently.
Whether you use cards or pages for
note-taking, take notes in a way that
allows for later use.

12. Readind and Research
Research
Using the Internet
Previewing
 Research on the Net is very different
from traditional library research, and
the differences can cause problems. The
Net is a tremendous resource, but it
must be used carefully and critically.
 The printed resources you find in the
Library have almost always been
thoroughly evaluated by experts before
they are published. On the Internet, on
the other hand, anyone can put
anything they want on a Web site, there
is no review or screening process.
Some basic guidelines:
 Do not rely exclusively on Net resources
 Narrow your research topic before
logging on
 Know your subject directories and
search engines
 Keep a detailed record of sites you visit
and the sites you use.
 Double-check all URLs that you put in
your paper.
 Spend a few minutes previewing a
text before starting to read, in
order to orient yourself toward
what is important for you in this
reading. Here is a basic method:
 Read the title.
 Think about the subject matter.
 What information do you have
about this author?
 Where was this text
originally published? Who would
be the audience?
 When was this text originally
published? What is
the significance of this time
period in this field of study?
 Read the chapter titles or
the headings that break up the
chapter or article.
 What kinds of facts and ideas are
you expected to retain from this
reading?

13. Reading and researching
Skimming and
Scanning
Summarizing
 By first skimming a text, you can
get a sense of its overall logical
progression. Skimming can also
help you make decisions about
where to place your greatest focus
when you have limited time for
your reading. Scanning is
basically skimming with a more
tightly focused purpose: skimming
to locate a particular fact or
figure, or to see whether this text
mentions a subject you are
researching. Scanning is
essential in the writing of research
papers, when you may need to
look through many articles and
books in order to find the material
you need. Keep a specific set of
goals in mind as you scan the text,
and avoid becoming distracted by
other material.
 Summarizing a text, or distilling its
essential concepts into a
paragraph or two, is a useful study
tool as well as good writing
practice. A summary has two
aims: (1) to reproduce the
overarching ideas in a text,
identifying the general concepts
that run through the entire piece,
and (2) to express these
overarching ideas using precise,
specific language.
 You must also make decisions
about which concepts to leave in
and which to omit, taking into
consideration your purposes in
summarizing and also your view of
what is important in this text.

14. Using Sources:
How not to Plagiarize
Documentation Quotation
 Some samples of common
systems, showing the kinds of
information needed and some
details of punctuation,
typeface, and indentation.
There are different formats for
each case.
 Traditional Endnotes or
Footnotes with Superscript
Numbers (humanities)
 APA System
 Numbered Note Systems
(sciences)
 Electronic Sources
 Consider quoting a passage from one of
your sources if any of the following
conditions holds:
 The language of the passage is
particularly elegant or powerful or
memorable.
 You wish to confirm the credibility of
your argument by enlisting the support
of an authority on your topic.
 The passage is worthy of further
analysis.
 You wish to argue with someone else's
position in considerable detail.
 If an argument from one of your
sources is particularly relevant to your
paper but does not deserve to be
quoted consider:
 paraphrasing the passage if you wish
to convey the points in the passage at
roughly the same level of detail as in
the original
 summarizing the relevant passage if
you wish to sketch only the most
essential points in the passage.

15. Using Sources
Paraphrase Summary
 To paraphrase means to
restate someone else’s ideas
in your own language at
roughly the same level of
detail.
Basic principles:
 Refer explicitly to the author in
your paraphrase.
 Do not just paraphrase.
Analyze.
 Not all of the details from the
original passage need to be
included in the paraphrase.
 You do not need to change
every word.
 To summarize means to reduce
the most essential points of
someone else’s work into a
shorter form.
 When you summarize a passage,
you need first to absorb the
meaning and then to capture in
your own words the most
important elements from the
original passage. A summary is
necessarily shorter than a
paraphrase.
 Paraphrase and summary are
indispensable in argumentative
papers because they allow you
to include other people’s ideas
without cluttering up your
paragraphs with quotation.

16. Specific Types of Writing
 The Book Review or Article Critique: Some reviews summarize the book's content
and then evaluate it; others integrate these functions, commenting on the book and
using summary only to give examples. Choose the method that seems most suitable
according to your professor's directions. To keep your focus, remind yourself that your
assignment is primarily to discuss the book's treatment of its topic, not the topic itself.
 An Annotated Bibliography: An annotated bibliography gives an account of the
research that has been done on a given topic. Like any bibliography, an annotated
bibliography is an alphabetical list of research sources. In addition to bibliographic data,
an annotated bibliography provides a concise summary of each source and some
assessment of its value or relevance. Depending on your assignment, an annotated
bibliography may be one stage in a larger research project, or it may be an independent
project standing on its own.
 Some language for talking about texts and arguments: It is sometimes
challenging to find the vocabulary in which to summarize and discuss a text. Here is a
list of some verbs for referring to texts and ideas that you might find useful: Account
for, clarify, describe, exemplify, indicate, question, analyze, compare, depict, exhibit,
investigate, recognize, argue, conclude, determine, explain, judge, reflect, assess,
criticize distinguish frame justify refer to assert defend evaluate identify narrate report
assume, define, emphasize, illustrate, persuade, review, claim, demonstrate, examine,
imply, propose, suggest, etc.

17. Specific Types of Writing
 The Literature Review: A literature review is an account of what has been published
on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers. In writing the literature review, your
purpose is to convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas have been established
on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. As a piece of writing, the
literature review must be defined by a guiding concept: your research objective, the
problem or issue you are discussing, or your argumentative thesis. It is a piece
of discursive prose, not a list describing or summarizing one piece of literature after
another.
 The Academic Proposal: An academic proposal is the first step in producing a thesis
or major project. Its intent is to convince a supervisor or academic committee that your
topic and approach are sound, so that you gain approval to proceed with the actual
research. As well as indicating your plan of action, an academic proposal should show
your theoretical positioning and your relationship to past work in the area. An academic
proposal is expected to contain these elements: a rationale for the choice of topic,
a review of existing published work ("the literature") that relates to the topic, an
outline of your intended approach or methodology.
 The Abstract: Abstracts are important because they give a first impression of the
document that follows, letting readers decide whether to continue reading and
showing them what to look for if they do. Some abstracts only list the contents of
the document, but more useful abstracts tell the reader the qualitative and
quantitative information in the document, and also reflect its reasoning.

18. Specific Types of Writing
 The Comparative Essay asks that you compare at least two items. You might
be asked to compare positions on an issue, theories, figures, texts, or events.
Some tips:
 Develop a list of similarities and differences.
 Develop a thesis based on the relative weight of the similarities and differences.
 Come up with a structure for your essay:
1. Alternating method: Point-by-point pattern: In the alternating method, you find
related points common to your central subjects A and B, and alternate between A and B
on the basis of these points (ABABAB you just need to have something noteworthy to say about
both A and B in each area. Finally, you may certainly include more than three pairs of alternating points)
2. Block method: Subject-by-subject pattern: In the block method (AB), you discuss all
of A, then all of B. (You are unable to find points about A and B that are closely related to
each other. Your ideas about B build upon or extend your ideas about A. You are
comparing three or more subjects as opposed to the traditional two)
 Writing about History: Primary Sources and Secondary Sources
 A primary source is a document that was created at the time of the event or
subject you have chosen to study or by people who were observers of or participants
in that event or topic. A Secondary Source is what other scholars have written about
your topic.
 When writing a historical research paper, your goal is to choose a topic and write a
paper that:
1. Asks a good historical question
2. Tells how its interpretation connects to previous work by other historians, and
3. Offers a well-organized and persuasive thesis of its own.

19. Specific Types of Writing
 Writing about Literature: requires critical thought and strong
argumentation, but its focus on language and close textual analysis makes it
unique.
Some tips:
 Avoid plot summary.
 Master the art of the analitical thesis.
 Let the structure of your argument determine the structure of your paper.
 Focus on analysis instead of evaluative judgements.
 Do not confuse the author with the narrator.
 Integrate quotations fully into your argument.
 Writing in the Sciences: it should be written in a clear and concise
style, its paragraphs should be coherent, and its ideas should be well
organized.
 You should focus on Audience, Titles, Headings, Jargon.
 You should try to use active voice whenever possible.
 The two most common tenses in science papers are present and past.
 References: generally you list references on a separate page at the end of the paper
in numerical sequence according to the order in which sources are cited in the paper,
rather than in alphabetical order. In the body, you insert the reference number in the
appropriate place (within parentheses or as a superscript), repeating a previous
number if you have already cited the same source earlier. The citation-sequence
system minimizes clutter and allows readers to find references quickly.

20. Specific Types of Writing
Effective Admission
Letters
Application Letters
and Résumés
 You will make your case as much by the way
you write as by what you say.
Qualities to aim for:
 Be focussed
 Be coherent
 Be interpretive (Provide explicit answers for the
question that arises in the mind of any reader
looking at a hundred or more similar
documents)
 Be specific
 Be personal
Standard patterns for prose exposition:
 Narrative: Linear, easy to organize. Make sure
you balance interpretive points with specific
facts.
 Analytic: give an overall answer about yourself
and then discuss the elements that contribute
to your engagement with the discipline and
predict your contributions.
 Technical: To indicate your research or
professional interests, show your involvement
with a specific issue.
Employers say they want to hire people who
can communicate clearly, handle personal
interactions, and analyse complex
situations. Use your application package to
demonstrate these qualities:
 Keep the reader’s interests in mind.
 Balance facts and claims.
 Write concisely.
 Application letters: Use stardard letter format,
with internal addresses and salutations.
 Resumes: The basic choice is between
the traditional chronological
organization (with the main sections Education
and Experience) and the functional one
(where sections name types of experience or
qualities of character)

21. Specific Types of Writing
Lab Report Oral Presentations
 The goal of lab reports is to
document your findings
and communicate their
significance.
Some basic components:
 Title Page
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Methods and Materials (or
Equipment)
 Experimental Procedure
 Results
 Discussion
 Conclusion
 References
 Appendices
 Further Reading
 They become easier with
preparation and practice:
 Sign up early.
 It helps to know what is expected
of you
 Choose your topic carefully.
 Define the scope of your research.
 Organize your talk as you would do
for an essay.
 Try to make use of supplementary
media to illustrate aspects of your
talk.
 Leave time to rehearse your
presentation.
 Treat your presentation like a well-
planned performance: Set the
stage, Stay in control.
 Handle questions with confidence.
 Take time to assess your
“performance”

22. Style and Editing
 Markers look at four general areas in
deciding on a mark for a written
assignment:
 how well you've handled the topic
and followed the assignment
 the quality of your ideas
 the way you've organized your paper
 the quality of your writing style and
grammar.
 This means that grammar is only one
of a number of factors determining
your grade. Still, too many errors in
grammar, punctuation, and style will
lose you marks.
A Note on Appearance:
 Include a cover page giving the title of
your paper, the name of the course,
your name, the date, and the
instructor's name.
 Number your pages.
 Double-space your text.
 Use a standard font.
 Put the reference list or bibliography
on a separate page at the end.
 Staple your pages.
 Revising gives you the chance
to preview your work on behalf
of the eventual reader.
Revision is much more than
proofreading, though in the
final editing stage it involves
some checking of details.
Good revision and editing can
transform a mediocre first
draft into an excellent final
paper.
 Start large. End small: First
check whether you have
fulfilled the intention of the
assignment. Then look at
overall organization. Finally,
polish and edit your
style by moving to smaller
matters such as word choice,
sentence structure, grammar,
punctuation, and spelling.

23. Procter, M. (n.d). Writing at the University of
Toronto. Retrieved April 25, 2016, from
University of Toronto Web site:
http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice