Problem-Solving and Decision- Making How you can become more effective in dealing with the many types of problems you face daily.

Two Sides of the Same Coin Solving Problems and Making Decisions are Often Treated as Different Processes To solve problems you have to make decisions: deciding among many alternatives. You need to: define the problem Identify important facts Generate alternative ideas Evaluate your alternative ideas Select a solution or course of action Implement and monitor your solution or course of action

Solving Problems and Making Decisions are Often Treated as Different Processes

To solve problems you have to make decisions: deciding among many alternatives.

You need to: define the problem

Identify important facts

Generate alternative ideas

Evaluate your alternative ideas

Select a solution or course of action

Implement and monitor your solution or course of action

The First Step in the Decision-Making Process Identify and Avoid Common Pitfalls Common pitfalls include: Ignoring problems Denial that a problem exists is common Expecting problems to go away is “magical thinking” The two most common styles to avoid problems or decisions: Complacency: continuing to do as usual while ignoring the signs Defensive Avoidance: seeing a problem but feeling you have little hope of a solution Seen in three forms: Rationalizing the problem Procrastinating Passing the buck

Identify and Avoid Common Pitfalls

Common pitfalls include:

Ignoring problems

Denial that a problem exists is common

Expecting problems to go away is “magical thinking”

The two most common styles to avoid problems or decisions:

Complacency: continuing to do as usual while ignoring the signs

Defensive Avoidance: seeing a problem but feeling you have little hope of a solution

Seen in three forms: Rationalizing the problem

Procrastinating

Passing the buck

More Common Pitfalls Becoming Overly Optimistic Optimism has a positive and negative side Optimists are more willing to challenge a problem, to persist and to ask for help Too much optimism can lead to keep going after issues that have no good solutions Using Past Solutions Old solutions don’t necessarily fit new problems We’ll apply more of the same solution Take actions that are the opposite of those found in the problem Seeking Perfect Solutions Perfect solutions are extremely rare Seeking the perfect solution can lead us to solutions that sound good but are ineffective Making Quick Decisions to Solve Problems Can become trapped in “decision freezing” Characterized by premature commit- ment to a course of action and bypassing important steps in solving the problem Often, “wishful thinking” is relied upon (“Everything will be alright”)

Becoming Overly Optimistic

Optimism has a positive and negative side

Optimists are more willing to challenge a problem, to persist and to ask for help

Too much optimism can lead to keep going after issues that have no good solutions

Using Past Solutions

Old solutions don’t necessarily fit new problems

We’ll apply more of the same solution

Take actions that are the opposite of those found in the problem

Seeking Perfect Solutions

Perfect solutions are extremely rare

Seeking the perfect solution can lead us to solutions that sound good but are ineffective

Making Quick Decisions to Solve Problems

Can become trapped in “decision freezing”

Characterized by premature commit- ment to a course of action and bypassing important steps in solving the problem

Often, “wishful thinking” is relied upon (“Everything will be alright”)

More Common Pitfalls Selecting the First Alternative Considered Must develop the habit of generating alternatives, then evaluating them Go for at least 3 alternatives Helps to overcome the reliance on shortcuts, past habits, and other simplistic solutions Misuse of Representative-ness and Rules-of-Thumb We try to reduce the time and effort to make worthwhile decisions Does the event conform to your pre- conceived idea of it? What is the most vivid, easily recalled, or most available solution? Letting Others Make Your Decisions If someone else makes your decisions, you’re the one who has to live with it. Keep control over your life Lack of Confidence Need to have confidence in your ability to make a good decision Look for alternative solutions and use the lessons learned from the past Steps to increase confidence Periodically visualize yourself successfully solving problems and making important decisions Get the knowledge and information you lack, and surround yourself with others who can help Whenever possible, break your problem into manageable units

Selecting the First Alternative Considered

Must develop the habit of generating alternatives, then evaluating them

Go for at least 3 alternatives

Helps to overcome the reliance on shortcuts, past habits, and other simplistic solutions

Misuse of Representative-ness and Rules-of-Thumb

We try to reduce the time and effort to make worthwhile decisions

Does the event conform to your pre- conceived idea of it?

What is the most vivid, easily recalled, or most available solution?

Letting Others Make Your Decisions

If someone else makes your decisions, you’re the one who has to live with it.

Keep control over your life

Lack of Confidence

Need to have confidence in your ability to make a good decision

Look for alternative solutions and use the lessons learned from the past

Steps to increase confidence

Periodically visualize yourself successfully solving problems and making important decisions

Get the knowledge and information you lack, and surround yourself with others who can help

Whenever possible, break your problem into manageable units

A Final Pitfall Believing You Lack Intelligence or Creativity “ Genius is 1% inspiration and 99% perspiration” – Thomas Edison Even though there’s a correlation between IQ and overall scores on problem-solving averages, other factors are also involved Chance may play a role as well as other elements that interact when solving problems Many of us develop other nonintellectual factors When people have sufficient freedom from other responsibilities, they have a better chance of developing creatively People need an environment where their efforts will be encouraged and supported

Believing You Lack Intelligence or Creativity

“ Genius is 1% inspiration and 99% perspiration” – Thomas Edison

Even though there’s a correlation between IQ and overall scores on problem-solving averages, other factors are also involved

Chance may play a role as well as other elements that interact when solving problems

Many of us develop other nonintellectual factors

When people have sufficient freedom from other responsibilities, they have a better chance of developing creatively

People need an environment where their efforts will be encouraged and supported

The Second Step in the Decision-Making Process Accept the Challenge a Problem Presents The Problem Must Not Be Perceived of as an Obstacle , Crisis, or Burden See the problem as a challenge rather than a threat Two positive things occur when a problem is seen as a challenge: You become more open to alternative ideas for solving it You will persist toward finding solutions If you see a problem as difficult or hard, you will most likely stop working on it

Accept the Challenge a Problem Presents

The Problem Must Not Be Perceived of as an Obstacle , Crisis, or Burden

See the problem as a challenge rather than a threat

Two positive things occur when a problem is seen as a challenge:

You become more open to alternative ideas for solving it

You will persist toward finding solutions

If you see a problem as difficult or hard, you will most likely stop working on it

The Third Step in the Decision-Making Process Carefully Define the Problem How a problem is initially stated guides and directs the way you’ll approach and attempt to solve it How to adequately define a problem Isolate and Locate the Source of the Problem It might be other people in your life It might be some object in your environment It might be a relationship Avoid Vague Problem Definitions or Those that Contain a Solution Be careful of generalizations or specific solutions Reframe or Restructure a Problem Definition Changing the way a problem is conceptualized refocuses your energy and motivates you find a solution State the problem in a positive and optimistic manner A problem can become a challenge and opportunity for change

Carefully Define the Problem

How a problem is initially stated guides and directs the way you’ll approach and attempt to solve it

How to adequately define a problem

Isolate and Locate the Source of the Problem

It might be other people in your life

It might be some object in your environment

It might be a relationship

Avoid Vague Problem Definitions or Those that Contain a Solution

Be careful of generalizations or specific solutions

Reframe or Restructure a Problem Definition

Changing the way a problem is conceptualized refocuses your energy and motivates you find a solution

State the problem in a positive and optimistic manner

A problem can become a challenge and opportunity for change

The Fourth Step in the Decision-Making Process Identify the Important Facts Sorting through relevant information is important to solving problems and making decisions It depends on how we perceive the world and our ability to isolate stimuli and ideas from the background in which they appear How you perceive your environment and process information is your Cognitive Style It is related to your ability to solve problems and make decisions

Identify the Important Facts

Sorting through relevant information is important to solving problems and making decisions

It depends on how we perceive the world and our ability to isolate stimuli and ideas from the background in which they appear

How you perceive your environment and process information is your Cognitive Style

It is related to your ability to solve problems and make decisions

More on Identifying Important Facts Identify Who Owns the Problem Who is responsible for resolving the issue? Avoid taking the responsibility for solving someone else’s problem Develop and Employ Appropriate Representations of Elements in a Problem Identifying the important facts and critical elements may not be easy You need to find a way to select the elements, summarize and combine them, and organize them so you can work on them Convert them to auditory or visual images or representations Internal representations provide a model that guides your approach toward solving the problem Also necessary to create external representations of the issues as well Use charts, figure drawings, diagrams, maps, etc. to help visualize and verbalize the components of a problem

Identify Who Owns the Problem

Who is responsible for resolving the issue?

Avoid taking the responsibility for solving someone else’s problem

Develop and Employ Appropriate Representations of Elements in a Problem

Identifying the important facts and critical elements may not be easy

You need to find a way to select the elements, summarize and combine them, and organize them so you can work on them

Convert them to auditory or visual images or representations

Internal representations provide a model that guides your approach toward solving the problem

Also necessary to create external representations of the issues as well

Use charts, figure drawings, diagrams, maps, etc. to help visualize and verbalize the components of a problem

The Fifth Step in the Decision-Making Process Generate a Range of Alternative Solutions or Courses of Action Many fail to do this because they opt for the first or the most simplistic solution Functional Fixedness = assuming familiar objects cannot be used in nontraditional ways Generating alternatives Form an Idea Tree Use metaphors Brainstorm ideas List attributes Use a checklist Work backward

Generate a Range of Alternative Solutions or Courses of Action

Many fail to do this because they opt for the first or the most simplistic solution

Functional Fixedness = assuming familiar objects cannot be used in nontraditional ways

Generating alternatives

Form an Idea Tree

Use metaphors

Brainstorm ideas

List attributes

Use a checklist

Work backward

More on Generating Alternatives Forming an Idea Tree Many problems have a number of possible answers as well as the actual solution Begin with the problem and put possible solutions in a “tree” diagram Use Metaphors A metaphor is an analogy Three ways to create metaphors Fantasy analogy: Imagine an ideal but farfetched solution to the problem Direct analogy: Imagine a solution based on something that already solves the problem Personal analogy: Imagine yourself as an element in the problem

Forming an Idea Tree

Many problems have a number of possible answers as well as the actual solution

Begin with the problem and put possible solutions in a “tree” diagram

Use Metaphors

A metaphor is an analogy

Three ways to create metaphors

Fantasy analogy: Imagine an ideal but farfetched solution to the problem

Direct analogy: Imagine a solution based on something that already solves the problem

Personal analogy: Imagine yourself as an element in the problem

More on Generating Alternatives Brainstorming Ideas Rules for brainstorming * List as many ideas as you can within a specified time period * Don’t be overly concerned about how practical the ideas are * Hold any evaluations or criticisms of the ideas until after they are listed * After listing them, try to combine and improve the ideas so they will be more useful * After combining and improving the ideas, eliminate the ideas you feel are not useful, can’t be improved, or are not desirable List Attributes New ideas can come from the improvement of characteristics or attributes of existing ones or by transferring attributes from one situation to another Breaking problems into their components can generate ideas leading to a solution

Brainstorming Ideas

Rules for brainstorming

* List as many ideas as you can within a specified time period

* Don’t be overly concerned about how practical the ideas are

* Hold any evaluations or criticisms of the ideas until after they are listed

* After listing them, try to combine and improve the ideas so they will be more useful

* After combining and improving the ideas, eliminate the ideas you feel are not useful, can’t be improved, or are not desirable

List Attributes

New ideas can come from the improvement of characteristics or attributes of existing ones or by transferring attributes from one situation to another

Breaking problems into their components can generate ideas leading to a solution

More on Generating Alternatives Use a Checklist A checklist is a series of questions that directs your attention to components of the problem * List the attributes and characteristics of the problem. How can some of them be changed? Physical dimensions (long, tall, large, wide, etc.) Social dimensions (number of people, communications patterns, norms, goals, etc.) The order of things (right-left, up-down, first-last) Time element (faster-slower, longer-shorter) Cost (more-less, high-low) Texture (rough-smooth, hard-soft, wet-dry, heavy-light) Function (do more, do less) * What are the parts to the problem? * How can things be changed? * What are the two or three possible solutions? Which one do you like best; least? What are your reasons for the choice?

Use a Checklist

A checklist is a series of questions that directs your attention to components of the problem

* List the attributes and characteristics of the problem. How can some of them be changed?

Physical dimensions (long, tall, large, wide, etc.)

Social dimensions (number of people, communications patterns, norms, goals, etc.)

The order of things (right-left, up-down, first-last)

Time element (faster-slower, longer-shorter)

Cost (more-less, high-low)

Texture (rough-smooth, hard-soft, wet-dry, heavy-light)

Function (do more, do less)

* What are the parts to the problem?

* How can things be changed?

* What are the two or three possible solutions? Which one do you like best; least? What are your reasons for the choice?

More on Generating Alternatives Working Backward Sometimes we know what we want as an outcome to the problem, working backward becomes useful here Begin with the outcome. Then, work step-by-step backward to the point that you are at now. This technique breaks the problem down into manageable units as well as helping generate alternative solutions Often, when working backward you can see combinations that will work better than single steps This is also an excellent technique for goal-setting

Working Backward

Sometimes we know what we want as an outcome to the problem, working backward becomes useful here

Begin with the outcome. Then, work step-by-step backward to the point that you are at now.

This technique breaks the problem down into manageable units as well as helping generate alternative solutions

Often, when working backward you can see combinations that will work better than single steps

This is also an excellent technique for goal-setting

The Sixth Step in the Decision-Making Process Evaluate the Alternative Solutions Picking the best option is not always that easy You can become trapped by two facts associated with making a choice: You will probably never be aware of all the alternatives You will usually not be able to experience all of your alternatives before choosing You must take whatever alternatives are generated and make your decision A general guideline is to, first, evaluate the options that are available to you Evaluating alternatives Use criteria to evaluate alternatives Assess each alternative against whatever criteria apply to a situation

Evaluate the Alternative Solutions

Picking the best option is not always that easy

You can become trapped by two facts associated with making a choice:

You will probably never be aware of all the alternatives

You will usually not be able to experience all of your alternatives before choosing

You must take whatever alternatives are generated and make your decision

A general guideline is to, first, evaluate the options that are available to you

Evaluating alternatives

Use criteria to evaluate alternatives

Assess each alternative against whatever criteria apply to a situation

More on Evaluating Alternatives General criteria that can be applied to almost any problem Tangible and monetary benefits and costs Money, material supplies, equipment, the number of people required, travel, etc. Intangible and personal psychological benefits and costs Time and energy required, deadlines, emotional consequences, changes in attitudes and beliefs, effects on relationships, etc. Likely acceptance of ideas by others There are pros and cons to any alternative solutions to a problem Each alternative must be evaluated separately Select one option and brainstorm the pros and cons Use this list to develop a list of pros and cons for each of the other options If a new consideration develops while listing pros and cons, use it as a basis to evaluate all of the other alternatives

General criteria that can be applied to almost any problem

Tangible and monetary benefits and costs

Money, material supplies, equipment, the number of people required, travel, etc.

Intangible and personal psychological benefits and costs

Time and energy required, deadlines, emotional consequences, changes in attitudes and beliefs, effects on relationships, etc.

Likely acceptance of ideas by others

There are pros and cons to any alternative solutions to a problem

Each alternative must be evaluated separately

Select one option and brainstorm the pros and cons

Use this list to develop a list of pros and cons for each of the other options

If a new consideration develops while listing pros and cons, use it as a basis to evaluate all of the other alternatives

The Seventh Step in the Decision-Making Process Select a Solution or Course of Action Evaluating alternatives against a criteria can’t tell you the best solution, only the relative strengths and weaknesses of the options The role of perceived gains and losses To make a choice, you need to understand how your perceptions of how what you stand to gain and lose affect your capacity to choose Your personal stake is your potential gains or losses associated with a decision They can be tangible or intangible: money, property, friends, emotional, self- respect, confidence, etc. Sure gains brings acceptance; sure loss brings risky decisions Risky decisions are more likely to produce problems

Select a Solution or Course of Action

Evaluating alternatives against a criteria can’t tell you the best solution, only the relative strengths and weaknesses of the options

The role of perceived gains and losses

To make a choice, you need to understand how your perceptions of how what you stand to gain and lose affect your capacity to choose

Your personal stake is your potential gains or losses associated with a decision

They can be tangible or intangible: money, property, friends, emotional, self- respect, confidence, etc.

Sure gains brings acceptance; sure loss brings risky decisions

Risky decisions are more likely to produce problems

More on Selecting a Solution Making choices in the face of potential gains and losses Personal stakes are always present, what varies is the amount to be gained or lost and which is most important Need a decision-making strategy that can do: Help sort through the benefits and costs associated with each option Help to minimize the problems that sometimes occur from selecting a sure gain or overly risky alternative One strategy is to select the alternative that has the most benefits/pros and fewest costs/cons Second strategy is to choose the alternative that yields the highest numerical differences between the pros and cons Neither will produce a perfect solution but you can get the best possible solution

Making choices in the face of potential gains and losses

Personal stakes are always present, what varies is the amount to be gained or lost and which is most important

Need a decision-making strategy that can do:

Help sort through the benefits and costs associated with each option

Help to minimize the problems that sometimes occur from selecting a sure gain or overly risky alternative

One strategy is to select the alternative that has the most benefits/pros and fewest costs/cons

Second strategy is to choose the alternative that yields the highest numerical differences between the pros and cons

Neither will produce a perfect solution but you can get the best possible solution

More on Selecting a Solution If necessary, look for ways to get unstuck If you’re still feeling stuck: Put the problem aside for a while Provides rest and allows you to recover from fatigue This “incubation period” can give you a chance to consider parts of the problem while doing other activities Dream about the problem The content of your dreams may contain information in symbolic form that can give insight into the solution Examine your decision-making style It may be your personal style or preference for making decisions that’s the problem Follow your heart When all else fail, do what “feels right for you” Take care that your ego isn’t in control

If necessary, look for ways to get unstuck

If you’re still feeling stuck:

Put the problem aside for a while

Provides rest and allows you to recover from fatigue

This “incubation period” can give you a chance to consider parts of the problem while doing other activities

Dream about the problem

The content of your dreams may contain information in symbolic form that can give insight into the solution

Examine your decision-making style

It may be your personal style or preference for making decisions that’s the problem

Follow your heart

When all else fail, do what “feels right for you”

Take care that your ego isn’t in control

More on Selecting a Solution Managing the uncertainty that a decision will not work out as planned Unexpected events can come between the time a decision is made and the outcome you hope to achieve The likelihood that such intervening events will adversely affect your choice is called risk when it can be objectively assessed and uncertainty when it can’t. Uncertainty is always in the background and is seen in anxiety, hesitation, hunches that don’t work, and feeling overwhelmed Try to identify things that could go wrong Look for delays, added expenses, accidents, etc. Build in safeguards to protect yourself is something does go wrong Have a “back-up plan” Try to imagine what would happen if your solution fails

Managing the uncertainty that a decision will not work out as planned

Unexpected events can come between the time a decision is made and the outcome you hope to achieve

The likelihood that such intervening events will adversely affect your choice is called risk when it can be objectively assessed and uncertainty when it can’t.

Uncertainty is always in the background and is seen in anxiety, hesitation, hunches that don’t work, and feeling overwhelmed

Try to identify things that could go wrong

Look for delays, added expenses, accidents, etc.

Build in safeguards to protect yourself is something does go wrong

Have a “back-up plan”

Try to imagine what would happen if your solution fails

The Eighth Step in the Decision-Making Process Implement and Monitor Your Solution or Course of Action Sometimes corrections need to be made A choice doesn’t mean that it is the only way to go Remember, you need to monitor and evaluate your solution throughout its progress to see how it’s working out Circumstances change, and a good decision today may not be the best for the future Sometimes a “self-destruct” deadline may be a good option It can help you to monitor what you’re doing and you can make a better decision once you begin nearing your deadline

Implement and Monitor Your Solution or Course of Action

Sometimes corrections need to be made

A choice doesn’t mean that it is the only way to go

Remember, you need to monitor and evaluate your solution throughout its progress to see how it’s working out

Circumstances change, and a good decision today may not be the best for the future

Sometimes a “self-destruct” deadline may be a good option

It can help you to monitor what you’re doing and you can make a better decision once you begin nearing your deadline