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Weather aanndd CClliimmaattee aanndd AAssssoocciiaatteedd 
HHaazzaarrddss AAQQAA
CCoonntteennttss 
1. Major climate controls 
2. The climate of the British Isles 
3. The climate of one tropical region: Tropical 
monsoon climate 
4. Urban climates 
5. Global climate change
Major CClliimmaattee CCoonnttrroollss:: 
TThhee ssttrruuccttuurree ooff tthhee aattmmoosspphheerree 
Atmosphere (air) a layer of transparent gases 
surrounding the earth held in place by gravitational 
pull. 
Mesosphere 
Extends to 85km above the earths surface. The 
layers in which most meteors will burn up. 
Stratosphere 
The ozone layer (O³) is mainly concentrated at 
15 – 35km in the stratosphere. The stratosphere 
extends to 51km above the earths surface. 
Troposphere 
Ranges from the Earth’s surface to 7km at the 
poles to 17km at the equator. An unstable layer 
containing the majority of the earths climate and 
weather. 99% of the total mass of the 
atmosphere is found in this layer; 50% of it is 
below 5.6 km, and contains 99% of water vapour. 
Thermosphere 
Extends to over 
640km from the 
earth’s surface. 
The 
International 
Space station 
orbits at around 
350km. 
Mesospause 
Stratopause 
Tropopause 
An isothermal 
layer: constant 
temperatures.
TThhee ssttrruuccttuurree ooff tthhee aattmmoosspphheerree:: 
TTeemmppeerraattuurree 
• Lapse Rate the decrease of temperature with height. 
• Troposphere the temperature 
decreases by 6.4°C every 1000m. At 
the tropopause temperatures drop 
to - 60°C. 
• Stratosphere a temperature 
inversion occurs: temperatures 
steadily increase reaching almost 
0°C due to the ozone layer absorbing 
ultra-violet radiation. 
• Mesosphere the temperature 
decreases to almost -100°C as 
radiation can not be absorbed. 
• Thermosphere an inversion as 
temperature rises due to solar 
radiation being absorbed by the 
presence of atomic oxygen.
TThhee ssttrruuccttuurree ooff tthhee aattmmoosspphheerree:: 
CCoommppoossiittiioonn 
N² Nitrogen important for plant growth 
O² Oxygen product of photosynthesis 
Ar Argon 
CO² Carbon dioxide used for 
photosynthesis 
Ne Neon 
He Helium 
CH4 Methane 
Kr Krypton 
H² Hydrogen
2 W&C OVERVIEW PPT
TThhee aattmmoosspphheerriicc hheeaatt bbuuddggeett 
Solar energy affects: 
• Temperature 
• Climate 
• Atmospheric motion 
• Precipitation 
• Ocean currents 
The incoming solar radiation is short-wave; 
insolation. As the Earth heats up it radiates its 
own heat in the form of long-waves (infra-red); 
terrestrial. 
The albedo is the percentage of radiation that is 
reflected. This depends on the type of surface.
• There are several 
aspects that control 
the amount of 
incoming solar 
radiation: 
– Sunspot activity 
– Elliptical Earth’s orbit 
– Day and night 
– Latitude
Average net radiation (w/m²) 
125 
100 
50 
25 
0 
25 
50 
100 
125 
Radiation balance at Earth’s surface 
Net radiation gain 
80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 
degrees from equator 
How is the positive heat balance (net gain in heat radiation from the sun) 
within the Tropics transferred? 
1. Air Horizontally 
movements, including winds, jet stream, cyclones, depressions. These 
account for 80% of heat transferred. Ocean currents transfer the remaining 20%. 
2. Vertically 
Conduction, convection and radiation. 
positive 
balance 
negative 
balance 
TThhee aattmmoosspphheerriicc hheeaatt bbuuddggeett 
Radiation balance in atmosphere
GGeenneerraall aattmmoosspphheerriicc cciirrccuullaattiioonn 
Energy deficit 
Energy surplus 
Energy deficit 
Heat is re-distributed by 
ocean currents and wind 
Winds blow from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. 
If the Earth did not rotate a single convection cell would operate 
in both hemispheres.
GGeenneerraall aattmmoosspphheerriicc cciirrccuullaattiioonn 
As air moves from high to low pressure in 
the northern hemisphere, it is deflected to 
the right by the Coriolis force. In the 
southern hemisphere, air moving from high 
to low pressure is deflected to the left by 
the Coriolis force. 
All points on the earth’s surface have the 
same rotational velocity (they go round 
once per day). 
An object travelling away from the 
equator (e.g. wind) will eventually be 
heading east faster than the ground 
below it and will seem to be moved east 
by some mysterious "force". This 
movement is eastwards in the northern 
hemisphere and westwards in the 
southern hemisphere. 
The diagram illustrates how it 
affects winds in both hemispheres. 
High pressure 
Low pressure 
due to the 
earth’s rotation 
UK 
Equator low 
high 
high 
low 
low 
60 
60
Air that does not 
travel to next cell 
returns to Equator 
as trade winds 
Hadley 
cell 
Warm air from the tropics 
meets cold air from the pole 
at the POLAR FRONT 
Ferrel 
cell 
causing depressions 
Warm air 
rises 
Polar 
cell 
North Pole 30o 
Equator 
High pressure 
Divergence zone 
Low pressure 
Convergence zone 
60o 
Low pressure 
Convergence zone 
High pressure 
Divergence zone 
North-east trade winds 
Heat from the Sun 
most intense at 
the Equator 
ITCZ 
Heavy 
convection 
rainfall 
Air cools 
and sinks 
Air gets 
deflected 
northwards 
Warm air 
rises and 
becomes 
unstable 
Easterlies (winds) South-westerlies (winds) 
Cold air 
sinks 
Dry and 
stable 
Dry and 
stable 
AAttmmoosspphheerriicc cciirrccuullaattiioonn:: tthhee ttrriicceelllluullaarr mmooddeell 
Trade winds pick 
up latent heat 
The Hadley cell is the largest due to the intense heating of 
the Earth’s surface at the Equator.
2 W&C OVERVIEW PPT
TThhee IInntteerrttrrooppiiccaall ccoonnvveerrggeennccee zzoonnee ((IITTCCZZ)) 
• The ITCZ is the region that circles the Earth, near the Equator, where the 
trade winds of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres come together. 
• The intense sun and warm water at the Equator heats the air in the ITCZ, 
raising its humidity and causing it to rise. 
• As the air rises it cools, releasing the accumulated moisture in an almost 
constant series of storms. 
• Variation in the location of the ITCZ drastically affects rainfall in many 
equatorial nations, resulting in the wet and dry seasons of the tropics 
rather than the cold and warm seasons of higher latitudes. 
• A shift in the ITCZ can have serious ramifications delaying the rainy 
season resulting in drought, for example the drought in the Sahel during 
the 1980s. 
Cumulo-nimbus clouds along 
the ITCZ
The location ITCZ changes seasonally; south in January and 
north in July. This causes monsoons.
PPllaanneettaarryy ssuurrffaaccee wwiinnddss 
• Winds are the movement of air in the 
atmosphere. 
• Wind speed is affected by a number of factors 
that operate on a variety of scales. These 
include: 
• the pressure gradient, 
• Rossby waves. 
• jet streams. 
• and local weather conditions such as sea 
breezes and urban winds. 
• Wind speed depends on how large the 
difference is because the greater the difference, 
the faster the wind moves between the two 
points as it attempts to equalise the pressure. 
• Local weather conditions can also influence wind 
speed as the formation of tropical storms and 
hurricanes can drastically affect the velocity of 
the wind. 
Jet stream
RRoossssbbyy WWaavveess 
These are bands of strong winds blowing around the globe in the upper atmosphere (about 
10km to 15km above the surface). They drive surface weather systems like depressions. A 
slight change in their path is what caused the very wet summer in 2007.
Jet streams are bands of even faster winds (300km/hr) within the Rossby 
waves at about 10km above the surface. Commercial airlines often make use 
of them to reduce fuel consumption. 
There are two jet streams: 
• The Polar Jet above the 
Polar Front (the 
boundary between polar 
and mid-latitude cells). 
• The Subtropical Jet 
(between Ferrel and 
Hadley cells) which 
exists as a mechanism to 
transport moisture and 
energy from the tropics 
polewards. 
JJeett ssttrreeaammss
OOcceeaann CCuurrrreennttss 
Atmospheric processes are closely linked to the oceans because they store massive 
amounts of heat energy (and water) which has a major influence on weather and 
climate. They are involved in the horizontal transfer of heat with warm currents carrying 
water towards the poles and cold currents towards the Equator. This has the effect of 
raising or cooling the surrounding sea and air temperature which affects coastal 
climate.
Why does temperature decrease wwiitthh aallttiittuuddee?? 
Temperature drops by 6.5°C 
every 1000 metres.
The cclliimmaattee ooff tthhee BBrriittiisshh IIsslleess 
The British Isles has a Cool Temperate Western Maritime Climate. 
It has: 
• Clearly defined 
seasons 
• Warm summers; 
12°C to 20°C 
• Mild winters 
• Low temperature 
ranges
Climatic cchhaarraacctteerriissttiiccss:: pprreecciippiittaattiioonn 
West: Areas of high 
land are parallel to the 
coast 
East: Drier 
conditions. 
Area of rain 
shadow
OOrrooggrraapphhiicc rraaiinnffaallll
CClliimmaattiicc ccoonnddiittiioonnss:: tteemmppeerraattuurree 
60° 
55° 
50° 
Due to the influence of 
latitude the south of the 
British Isles has warmer 
summers and milder 
winters than the north. 
Due to continentality the 
east of the British Isles has 
warmer summers and 
colder winters than the 
west. 
Summer: 14 °C 
Summer: 14 °C Winter: 3 °C 
Winter: 6 °C 
Summer: 16 °C 
Winter: 7 °C 
Summer: 18 °C 
Winter: 4 °C Prevailing wind
CClliimmaattiicc ccoonnddiittiioonnss:: wwiinnddss 
Anabatic flow (day) Katabatic flow (night) 
Surface is heated by 
insolation. 
Warm air 
becomes 
unstable. Clouds 
are formed 
Warm air rises up 
the gradient. 
Descending 
cool air leaves 
the centre of 
the valley clear 
At night the air cools and as it 
become denser it sinks down the 
valley sides into the valley. 
Fog may form in 
winter
Air masses aaffffeeccttiinngg tthhee BBrriittiisshh IIsslleess 
An air mass is a large body of air in which temperature and humidity are almost 
uniform horizontally but change vertically within. They are classified by their 
surface temperature and humidity. 
The temperature, 
humidity and 
stability of an air 
mass alters as 
they are 
influenced by the 
surface over 
which they travel.
2 W&C OVERVIEW PPT
Air masses aaffffeeccttiinngg tthhee BBrriittiisshh IIsslleess 
Polar Maritime Air 
Mass 
Source region: Canada 
and Arctic Ocean. 
Tropical Maritime Air Mass 
Source Region: the Azores 
Polar continental Air Mass 
Source Region: Siberia & East 
Europe. 
Tropical continental Air Mass 
Source Region: North Africa 
Arctic Maritime Air Mass 
Source Region: Arctic Ocean. 
Frontal depressions occur 
when Pm and Tm meet 
See Teacher’s notes for more information
OOrriiggiinn aanndd nnaattuurree ooff ddeepprreessssiioonnss 
Depressions occur along the polar front where Tm and Pm air masses meet. 
They are low pressure weather systems; how low the pressure falls is determined by the 
rate at which air rises from the surface. Average pressure is 1013mb. 
The speed at which a depression travels is determined by the speed of the jet stream 
in the troposphere. The life cycle of a depression is normally 3-5 days.
FFoorrmmaattiioonn ooff aa ddeepprreessssiioonn
Weather changes associated wwiitthh ddeepprreessssiioonnss
Weather cchhaannggeess aatt tthhee wwaarrmm ffrroonntt
Origin and nnaattuurree ooff aann aannttiiccyycclloonnee 
Source of anticyclones: Dry air in the upper layers of the atmosphere. 
Dew point 
As cool dry air descends 
its temperature increases 
at the dry adiabatic lapse 
rate DLRA. High pressure 
is created at surface. 
Weather is drier and more 
stable at the surface. The 
pressure gradient is gentle 
resulting in light clockwise 
winds.
OOrriiggiinn aanndd nnaattuurree ooff aann aannttiiccyycclloonnee 
In the UK anticyclones are associated with extended warm, dry conditions in 
the summer and cold, frosty and sometimes foggy conditions in the winter. 
An anticyclone may be 2500 km in diameter, although many are smaller. 
clockwise 
The satellite image shows the 
cloudless skies associated with high 
pressure systems. They may remain 
for a number of weeks causing heat 
waves across many parts of Europe 
during the summer. 
The synoptic chart for a mid-latitude 
anticyclone
Origin and nnaattuurree ooff aann aannttiiccyycclloonnee
Associated wweeaatthheerr ccoonnddiittiioonnss ooff 
aannttiiccyycclloonneess iinn wwiinntteerr aanndd ssuummmmeerr 
Anticyclonic weather in the UK 
Winter conditions (Polar source Summer conditions (tropical source) 
Conditions Impacts Conditions Impacts 
Cold day time conditions 
Usually below freezing 
Ice. Increase in accidents 
particularly elderly 
Increased power use 
Hot daytime conditions 
over 23o 
Increase in heart 
attacks/heat stroke 
Increase in sales of 
lettuce/ice cream/soft dinks 
Hose pipe bans/drought 
Very cold at night with frosts Roads need gritting Warm at night Sleeping difficulties 
Clear skies Temperatures remain low Generally clear skies Sunburn/sunstroke 
Stable conditions may 
produce fog 
Car accidents 
Disruption to transport 
(aircraft, ferries, trains) 
Some early morning mists 
especially at coast 
May take a while to clear 
impacted tourists 
High levels of pollution due 
to lack of wind 
Breathing difficulties Thunderstorms may form 
in evenings due to 
convection 
Flash flooding effects 
homes and transport 
Subsiding air traps pollutants Hospitals admissions 
increase 
Photo-chemical smog and 
low level ozone trap heat 
Increase in deaths from 
asthma/breathing 
conditions
• June to August 2003 
• Over 2,000 died in the UK 
between 4–13 August 
2003. 
• Highest temperature 
recorded in Kent : 38.5°C 
• Over 30,000 deaths in 
Europe. 
• £7 billion in crop loss. 
• Railway tracks buckled. 
The map shows the temperature variations 
from normal in Summer 2003.
Storm eevveennttss iinn tthhee BBrriittiisshh IIsslleess:: 
BBoossccaassttllee 22000044 
• August 16th 2004 
• Large depression in Eastern Atlantic, sucking in 
warm moist air – including the remnants of 
Hurricane Alex 
• Blew in from the sea in prevailing SW direction 
• Met with SW wind and created convergence 
• Also, intense uplift that morning in Cornwall 
due to warm, sunny conditions – cumulonimbus 
rose to 40,000ft. 
• Intense, very localised storms. 
• 200mm of rain in 24 hours, over 300mm per 
hour at peak intensity. 
• Most between midday and 5pm on the 16th on 
high ground to the east. 
• Already saturated catchment – rapid runoff. 
• Boscastle lies in a deep valley just downstream 
of the confluence of the rivers Valency and 
Jordan.
SSttoorrmm eevveennttss:: BBoossccaassttllee 22000044 -- iimmppaaccttss 
• 2 metre rise in river levels in one hour, floodwater velocity of 10mph. 
• Est. 2million tonnes of water flowed through Boscastle that day. 
• Debris caught under narrow bridge caused 3m high wave of water which 
burst down main street when bridge collapsed. 
• 84 cars recovered after being swept away; 32 never seen again! 
• Significant structural damage – 58 properties affected, 4 swept away. 
• 100 people air lifted to safety but no loss of life. 
• 300 metres of sewers damaged or destroyed. 
• Cost of damage estimated at £2million.
Storms eevveennttss:: BBoossccaassttllee 22000044 -- rreessppoonnssee 
The flood management improvements in 
Boscastle since the 2004 floods: 
• Large relief culvert completed in April 2005 to 
divert flood water from River Jordan. 
• Widening and deepening of the River Valency 
upstream of Boscastle.. 
• Car park raised in December 2006, using 
stones removed from bed of River Valency 
during widening and deepening works. 
• Old stone lower bridge demolished – it was 
over 100 years old and trapped 14 cars 
beneath and behind it in the 2004 flood. 
The cost of the River Valency works, car park and 
bridge work is about £4.6 million, although it will still 
not prevent a flood as severe as the 2004 event, 
which has a chance of about 1 in 400 of occurring in 
any one year.
The location ooff ttrrooppiiccaall cclliimmaatteess 
Equator 
The ITCZ influences the location of 
tropical climates. Its northerly and 
southerly limits are shown on the map. 
Tropical climates are 
located between the 
Tropic of Cancer and 
Tropic of Capricorn. 
Tropic of Cancer 
Tropic of Capricorn 
ITCZ 
ITCZ
TThhee cclliimmaattee ooff aa ttrrooppiiccaall rreeggiioonn:: 
tthhee MMoonnssoooonn CClliimmaattee 
Monsoon is the reversal of wind direction 
that results in a clearly defined wet and 
dry season. 
Locations that receive the majority of 
their rainfall in one season have a 
monsoon climate. They are found in 
coastal regions of south Asia, Southeast 
and north east Brazil, northern Australia, 
West Africa. 
Monsoon rainfall, Kerela, India 
Gujarat, India July 2005 under monsoon 
rains and suffering from serve floods 
Gujarat before the start of monsoon
The cause of the mmoonnssoooonn cclliimmaattee -- IInnddiiaa 
In mid- summer 
the ITCZ has 
move north over 
India. 
Air cools and sinks over ocean 
Strong insolation causes 
surface temperatures to 
increase; low pressure causes 
rapid uplift of warm air. 
Moist air is sucked in 
to replaced rising air. 
Heavy orographic 
rainfall can occur. 
In winter the 
ITCZ has 
moved south. 
The North 
easterly trade 
winds blow 
south into 
Equatorial Low. 
Trade winds cause off shore 
winds to blow across India 
High pressure over 
land as cool air 
descends from the 
Himalayas. Dry 
conditions prevail.
TThhee cchhaarraacctteerriissttiiccss ooff tthhee 
MMoonnssoooonn cclliimmaattee 
March – May: Highest 
temperatures and very dry. A 
period of drought. 
June – September: Heavy 
rainfall. High humidity as the 
temperatures remain hot. 
October to February: Dry 
season. Little precipitation. 
Temperatures not as hot as 
in March to May period. 
Monsoon clouds over Lucknow, India.
Climate statistics ffoorr MMuummbbaaii && NNeeww DDeellhhii 
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec 
Average 
Temp. 
(°C) 
23. 
5 
23.5 26 28 30 29 27 26.5 26.5 28 27.5 26 
Precipita 
tion 
(mm) 
2.5 2.5 2.5 0 18 485 617 340 264 64 13 2.5 
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec 
Average 
Temp. 
(°C) 
14 16.5 22.5 28 33.5 33.5 31.5 30 29 26 20 15.5 
Precipita 
tion 
(mm) 
23 18 13 8 13 74 180 173 117 10 3 10 
Mumbai 
New 
Delhi
SSuubb--ttrrooppiiccaall aannttiiccyycclloonneess 
30°N 
30°S 
Sahara Desert 
Namib Desert 
Kalahari Desert 
Equator 
The Sahel 
Prolonged period 
of drought during 
the 1980s. The 
fluctuating location 
of the ITCZ and its 
progression south 
linked to El Nino 
events is one 
cause of droughts 
in this region.
TTrrooppiiccaall rreevvoollvviinngg ssttoorrmmss 
Tropical depression 
(winds less than 38 mph) 
Tropical revolving storms 
are very low pressure 
weather systems with strong 
winds and heavy rainfall. 
They get their energy from 
the sea and begin to die out 
when they are over land. 
Tropical storm (winds 39 – 73 mph) 
Hurricane (winds >74 mph) 
The aftermath of a tropical storm
TTrrooppiiccaall rreevvoollvviinngg ssttoorrmmss 
Tropical storms 1994 - 2005 
Hurricanes: 
Atlantic Ocean 
Typhoons: 
Pacific Ocean 
Cyclones: 
Indian Ocean Willy-willies: 
Australia
TThhee ooccccuurrrreennccee ooff ttrrooppiiccaall rreevvoollvviinngg ssttoorrmmss 
named storms 
major 
hurricanes 
2005 was the worst year 
on record for hurricanes 
An average of 7.7 named storms and 3.6 major hurricanes since 1995 compares to 
5 storms and 1.5 major hurricanes from 1970-1994.
FFoorrmmaattiioonn ooff aa ttrrooppiiccaall ssttoorrmm 
Colder air sinks in the centre – the 
‘eye’ 
Rising air spirals, cools and 
condenses – cumulonimbus clouds 
bring torrential rain and thunder 
Strong upward movement of air 
draws water vapour up 
Warm (> 27°C), shallow (<60m) 
seas
CCaassee ssttuuddyy:: HHuurrrriiccaannee KKaattrriinnaa 22000055 
Source; NOAA 
eye 
vortex of 
rotating clouds 
(300km across) 
eye wall 
Cirrus canopy 
torrential rain squally showers
CCaassee ssttuuddyy:: HHuurrrriiccaannee KKaattrriinnaa 22000055 
Hurricane Katrina first appeared on August 23 as a tropical depression just west of 
the Bahamas. 
August 25th Category 1* < 95 mph (< 155 km/ hr) 
August 26th Category 2* 100 mph (160 km/ hr) 
18 hours later Category 3* 115 mph (185 km/ hr) 
August 28th Category 4* 145 mph (235 km/ hr) 
Six hours later Category 5* 160 mph (255 km/ hr) 
* on the Saffir- 
Simpson scale
Case ssttuuddyy:: HHuurrrriiccaannee KKaattrriinnaa 22000055 
The animated sequence 
shows the path of Katrina 
on the 29th August 2005 
as it crossed the 
Caribbean and moved 
towards the southern 
states of the USA. 
Eventually it struck land 
with devastating 
consequences for the 
people of New Orleans 
and the surrounding 
areas. 
New 
Orleans
LLaannddffaallll 
Hurricane Katrina made landfall at 6.10am in Louisiana 29th August 
Failure of the levées surrounding New 
Orleans caused the greatest damage. 
Winds speeds of 280 km per hour. 
Red = hurricane force winds. 
Up to 380mm of rain in places. 
Storm surges, peaking at 
8.5m high. 
Strongest ever recorded hurricane to make landfall in the USA.
HHuurrrriiccaannee KKaattrriinnaa:: IImmppaaccttss 
• By August 31st 80% of New Orleans lay 
under water. 
• 1.7 million people without electricity. 
• $150 billion estimated total economic 
impact. 
• 1464 died in Louisiana. 
• Almost everyone instantly unemployed! 
• Estimated 600,000 pets killed. 
• Lack of clean water, food and toilet 
facilities. 
• Oil and natural gas industry affected. 
• Communications and transport 
infrastructure damaged and failed.
WWhhyy wweerree tthhee iimmppaaccttss ssoo sseevveerree iinn 
NNeeww OOrrlleeaannss??
MMaannaaggiinngg tthhee rriisskk 
New Orleans waterfront 
To repair the defences in New Orleans they: 
• Repaired the levees – breached levees 
repaired and all levees to be raised by 2010. 
New floodgates to be built at canal entrances. 
• Restored the wetlands – The $14 billion, 30- 
year ‘Coast 2050’ plan to recreate the mixture 
of swamp, marshland and barrier islands to 
protect places inland as before. 
How can New Orleans be prepared for another hurricane like Katrina? 
• Preparation - National Hurricane Centre watches and produces warnings. It also runs a 
‘hurricane preparedness week’ every year for the public. DHL also run schools workshops on 
hurricane preparedness 
• Evacuation – evacuation order given on 28th August 2005 by Mayor. However, it’s hard to 
predict the path, very expensive and not everyone is able to leave. In advance of Hurricane 
Gustav – which was heading for New Orleans at the end of August 2008 – the Mayor of New 
Orleans ordered an evacuation to prevent a similar disaster. Over 90% of residents left the 
city.
CCaassee ssttuuddyy:: CCyycclloonnee NNaarrggiiss 22000088 
Convection increases, 
Changes direction eastwards 
April 27th: formed in 
Bay of Bengal 
May 1st 
Convection decreases 
Originally predicted to 
hit Bangladesh or SE India 
Landfall May 2nd Burma. 
Peak winds of 215 km/h 
Category 4 
Dies outs May 3rd
Cyclone NNaarrggiiss MMaayy 22000088:: TThhee iimmppaaccttss 
146,000 fatalities 
1000s missing. 
Many feared washed 
out to sea 
2.7% of projected GDP 
predicted lost by event 
1,163 temples 
destroyed 
Extensive destruction 
of buildings, e.g. Labutta 
town 75% buildings collapsed 
700,000 homes 
destroyed in delta 
5 regions declared 
a disaster area $10 estimated cost 
65% of paddy fields 
contaminated by 
salt water 
75% of health service 
& 4,000 schools 
damaged 
75% livestock killed 
100,000 fishing 
vessels destroyed
Cyclone NNaarrggiiss MMaayy 22000088:: tthhee rreessppoonnssee 
• 44 countries responded by 
donating money to the relief 
operation, food, shelter, 
volunteers, water and medicine. 
• Long term response has been to 
restore quality of life through 
projects working with farmers, 
rebuilding school and health 
centres and clean water supplies. 
• Improving road infrastructure to 
allow for quicker access to safer 
areas in future disasters. 
• Preparation to prepare people in 
most vulnerable areas and 
educate on appropriate response.
Climate on aa llooccaall ssccaallee:: uurrbbaann cclliimmaatteess 
UUrrbbaann hheeaatt iissllaanndd eeffffeecctt 
A micro climate is the climate of a small area. Temperature, precipitation, wind 
and atmospheric gases are distinctly different in an urban area to that of a rural 
area. An urban heat island describe how temperatures are highest at the centre 
of the urban area and decrease towards the suburbs. 
Urban areas are warmer because: 
• Industries, homes & vehicles burn 
fuel realising heat. 
• Pollution from industry and vehicles 
traps heat. 
• Dense and dark coloured surfaces 
of buildings and roads absorb heat. 
• Small amounts of water and 
vegetation so little energy is used in 
evapotranspiration. 
TTeemmppeerraattuurreess aarree ggrreeaatteesstt wwhheerree tthhee 
bbuuiillddiinngg ddeennssiittyy iiss hhiigghheesstt
Urban climates: PPrreecciippiittaattiioonn aanndd wwiinndd 
There is 5 – 30% more rain in urban areas than 
in rural area due to a greater density of 
condensation nuclei allowing for cloud 
formation 
There is 14% less chance of 
snow in urban areas than 
rural areas due to the 
increased temperatures 
Thunderstorms 
are 25% more 
likely urban areas 
due to strong 
convectional 
uplifts of warm air 
There is 10 times 
more condensation 
nuclei in urban areas 
and this can lead to a 
100% more likelihood 
of fog in winter and 
30% more in 
Wind speed is summer. 
20% less in 
urban areas 
are the building 
act as barriers. 
Tall buildings can 
channel wind 
resulting in strong 
Prevailing winds blow pollution and rain gusts. 
clouds. Consequently the west of 
London was traditionally more desirable
UUrrbbaann cclliimmaatteess:: aaiirr qquuaalliittyy 
Smog occurs during anticyclones. A 
temperature inversion is causes as cool air 
sinks to replace the rapid uplift of warm air. 
Pollution is trapped below the warm inversion 
layer causing a pollution dome to form. 
Photochemical smog is caused as 
above normal levels of nitrogen 
dioxide and ozone are produced when 
pollution and sunlight react.
GGlloobbaall CClliimmaattee CChhaannggee
EEvviiddeennccee ffoorr ppaasstt cclliimmaattee cchhaannggee 
Climate varies on all time scales from the short –term (the recent retreat of 
glaciers) to the long-term (deposition of desert sediments to form sandstone) in 
response to random and periodic forcing factors. 
Some of these could be due 
to short-term changes e.g. 
random variations in the 
climatic systems. 
Present day ice limit 
Extent of glacier 
retreat in little over 
50 years 
Ice limit in 1946
EEvviiddeennccee ffoorr ppaasstt cclliimmaattee cchhaannggee
EEvviiddeennccee ffoorr ppaasstt cclliimmaattee cchhaannggee 
Past sea levels 
The ice ages brought eustatic change. Sea levels fell as huge volumes of water 
were transferred to glaciers and ice caps. Subsequent melting would then cause 
an increase in sea level. Such changes are termed glacio-eustatic. 
Measuring sea level change 
Accurate measurements can be made of past sea levels by observing one or 
more of the following features. 
1. Shoreline deposits such as shells, wood and peat found in marine cores. 
2. Exposed rock outcrops containing marine fossils. 
3. Vegetated tidal flats above the high water mark. 
4. Exposed coral reefs. 
5. Marine rocks displaying evidence of wind-borne erosion. 
Past sea levels were up to 200m 
above present during interglacials 
and 100-150m below present during 
glacials. 
Other techniques include studying glacial 
advances/retreat, ice cores, isotope 
analysis, geology, pollen, 
dendrochronology and 
archaeological/historical data.
TThhee ccaauusseess ooff cclliimmaattee cchhaannggee 
Climate change can take three forms: 
1. Short-term change 
Climate since the end of 
the last ice age 
(hundreds/thousands 
years) 
Very short-term: El Nino, 
La Nina. 
2. Long-term change 
Global climate over billions of 
years. 
3. Paleoclimates 
Climates from thousands / 
millions of years ago.
GGlloobbaall wwaarrmmiinngg:: ccaauusseess 
Shortwave radiation reaches 
Earth’s atmosphere 
Some is reflected 
Some of the re-radiated long wave 
radiation is trapped by water 
vapour and “Greenhouse gases” 
(CO2 CFCs, CH4, N2O) 
Earth absorbs the radiation 
Most gets through 
Earth’s surface warms up and emits longwave radiation (re-radiates energy)
GGlloobbaall wwaarrmmiinngg –– 
NNaattuurraall ccyyccllee vv hhuummaann iimmppaacctt 
The current scientific consensus is that global warming is a real threat and it is a result of 
human activity. However, some people continue to debate whether global warming actually 
exists and/or whether it is as a result of human activity. The evidence for past climate 
change is often cited to explain the current changing conditions. 
Carbon 
dioxide 
emissions 
since 1840
GGlloobbaall wwaarrmmiinngg 
Most scientists agree that global warming is being caused by human effects 
on the atmosphere, principally through carbon dioxide emissions. 
Rank Country 
1 USA 
2 China 
3 Russia 
4 Japan 
5 India 
6 Germany 
7 Canada 
8 UK 
9 Italy 
10 South Korea 
Top ten carbon dioxide emitters. 
USA and China are the 
two greatest emitters.
EEffffeeccttss ooff gglloobbaall wwaarrmmiinngg 
oonn aa gglloobbaall ssccaallee
2 W&C OVERVIEW PPT
The effects ooff gglloobbaall wwaarrmmiinngg oonn 
• Bangladesh is very 
densely populated. 
• Many fresh water 
fishing resources are 
under threat. 
• Fishing generates 
substantial income 
and any intrusion of 
salt water would 
disrupt the economy. 
• Storm surges are 
also a threat; 
cyclonic storms 
occur frequently and 
with devastating 
effects. 
BBaannggllaaddeesshh 
Sea level threats to Bangladesh
The eeffffeeccttss ooff gglloobbaall wwaarrmmiinngg 
oonn tthhee BBrriittiisshh IIsslleess
Response ttoo gglloobbaall wwaarrmmiinngg oonn aa 
iinntteerrnnaattiioonnaall,, nnaattiioonnaall aanndd llooccaall ssccaallee 
National/Local 
government policy 
Public / 
individuals 
International 
agreements 
Rio Earth 
summit 
IPCC 
Kyoto 
UK policy Local agenda 
21 
Pressure 
groups 
Changing 
lifestyles
CCooppiinngg wwiitthh cclliimmaattee cchhaannggee 
–– EEaarrtthh SSuummmmiitt 
In June 1992 at Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, the Rio Earth Summit, was the largest 
environmental conference ever held. It attracted more than 30,000 people and 
over 100 Heads of State. The aim of the conference was to address the growing 
global environmental problems and to agree major treaties on climate change, 
forest management and bio-diversity. A number of key principles came from the 
Rio Declaration including: 
A key outcome was The Framework Convention on Climate Change.
CCooppiinngg wwiitthh cclliimmaattee cchhaannggee –– 
KKyyoottoo PPrroottooccooll 
• On 16th February 2005 the 1997 Kyoto Protocol became international law. 
• The Protocol was agreed in Kyoto, Japan in 1997 to implement the United 
Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change . 
• Industrialised nations who signed up to the treaty were legally bound to 
reduce worldwide emissions of six greenhouse gases by an average of 5.2% 
below their 1990 levels by the period 2008-2012. 
• The agreement needed to be ratified 
by countries accounting for at least 
55% of 1990 carbon dioxide 
emissions. 
• The USA believes implementation 
will have a devastating effect on it’s 
economy. However, President 
Obama has taken steps forward in 
promoting renewable energy and 
reducing carbon emissions.
2 W&C OVERVIEW PPT
Coping wwiitthh cclliimmaattee cchhaannggee –– IIPPCCCC 
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was set up in 
1988 to assess information regarding climate change and the impact on the 
planet. Since 1988 it has produced four reports, the last in 2001. 
It is involved in a monitoring programme which carries out the following 
activities: 
• Remote observation of the atmosphere at surface and trophosphere level. 
• Monitoring and measuring ocean temperatures. 
• Monitoring and measuring greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere. 
• Monitoring sea-level rise and glacial and ice sheet retreat.
• Climate change summit 
held in Copenhagen in 
December 2009. 
• There was 
disappointment 
expressed by some 
environmental groups 
and observers at the 
outcomes of the summit. 
Demonstrators at the 
Copenhagen summit 
Photo credit: EPO on wikipedia.
2 W&C OVERVIEW PPT
Tackling cclliimmaattee cchhaannggee –– UUKK ppoolliiccyy 11 
So what are the present UK policies? 
• Sustainable energy usage, energy conserving 
houses, grants for efficient gas boilers etc. 
• Waste strategies including recycling to avoid 
methane from landfill. Currently, in 2004 around 17% 
of waste is recycled. 
• Move to renewable sources of power, combined 
heat and power systems and cleaner coal. 
• Green transport strategies (clean lean burn)- car 
engines, fuel efficiency, new fuels, car parking (e.g. 
Winchester’s extended Park & Ride and MIRACLES 
project) working patterns, public transport. Indirectly, 
London’s Congestion Charging will help.
Tackling cclliimmaattee cchhaannggee –– UUKK ppoolliiccyy 22 
• Air quality regulation- strict Environment Agency 
and EU requirements. 
• Planning regulations: encouragement of compact 
cities and avoidance of urban sprawl e..g through 
the Greenbelt policy. The map shows greenbelts in 
the UK. 
• Carbon emissions trading scheme - setting caps 
on emissions in industry. 
• Technological innovation - supporting research 
and development into new long term options. In 
March 2001, the Carbon Trust was launched to 
promote low-carbon technology and innovation in 
the UK. 
• The Climate Change Levy (CCL) is a tax on the 
use of energy in industry, commerce and the public 
sector.
CCooppiinngg wwiitthh cclliimmaattee cchhaannggee 
–– KKyyoottoo PPrroottooccooll 
As an NIC, China is considered an Annexe II country, which means it is not required to 
reduce emissions under the Protocol yet it emits more carbon dioxide than any nation 
in the region and 50% of emissions from all LEDCs. 
As with most LEDCs, China is more vulnerable to the effects of climate change than 
MEDCs. It has increasing hazards of coastal and river flooding, drought, landslides, 
storms and tropical cyclones. Rising sea levels could flood low lying areas along the 
Yellow and Yangtze rivers and the Pearl river delta which would affect 70% of the 
population and 80% of industrial output. 
River transport 
on the Yangtze.
CCooppiinngg wwiitthh cclliimmaattee cchhaannggee 
–– LLooccaall aaggeennddaa 2211 
To put sustainable development into practice at 
a local level each local authority must create a 
strategy. All local authorities must incorporate 
sustainable development into every aspect of 
their work. The strategies should not be 
designed to work along side projects, they 
should inform what the project should be. 
Agenda 21 was established during the 1992 Rio Earth Summit. A framework 
for future action on global sustainable development was agreed. However, 
sustainable development cannot be achieved on a global scale unless it is 
tackled at a local level, with all local authorities adopting Local Agenda 21 into 
their strategies. 'Think Globally, Act Locally.'
CCooppiinngg wwiitthh cclliimmaattee cchhaannggee 
–– LLooccaall aaggeennddaa 2211 
With the cooperation of local business, schools, transport companies and 
the wider community Oxford County Council has attempted to reduce road 
traffic intensity along with its associated pollution. The city of Oxford has 
been the main focus. 
Strategies aim to reduce the 60% car use within the city and involve two 
action plans – Travelwise and the Transport Action Plan. These include: 
• Funding for the Sustrans cycle network across the county 
• Increased funding for rural bus services. 
• Green commuter plans from employers such as car share / bus 
provision. 
• Walk to school week. 
• Provision of sustainable transport seminars for business 
• Car free days.
Coping wwiitthh cclliimmaattee cchhaannggee –– 
CChhaannggiinngg lliiffeessttyylleess 
There are a many small changes to our lifestyles that can be made to 
achieve a more sustainable society and help reduce climate change. 
Energy and resources 
Turn off electric and gas appliances such as TVs, lights and computers when 
not in use. Insulate/double glaze your home to save energy. Use low 
energy light bulbs and appliances. Only fill the kettle with the water you need. 
Transport 
Walk, cycle and use public transport whenever possible. Take fewer car 
journeys and share cars. 
Shopping 
Avoid products with lots of packaging and reuse carrier bags. Buy 
environmentally friendly products. Buy local food produce, think of food miles. 
Reduce Waste 
Reuse bags, bottles and containers. Have things repaired or try to fix 
them. Recycle rubbish. Raise environmental awareness.
CCooppiinngg wwiitthh cclliimmaattee cchhaannggee 
–– PPrreessssuurree ggrroouuppss 
Friends of the Earth – www.foe.co.uk 
The Climate Group – www.theclimategroup.org 
The Carbon Trust – www.thecarbontrust.co.uk 
Greenpeace – www.greenpeace.org 
The Global Climate Coalition (guided USA against Kyoto) - www.globalclimate.org 
World Wildlife Fund – www.wwf.org.uk
EExxaamm qquueessttiioonn 
Explain the conditions that lead to the formation of 
tropical storms. (6 marks) 
Tropical storms can be formed where low pressure 
weather systems occur over seas and oceans with 
surface temperatures greater than 27°C. For 
example in the tropical regions, (between the tropic 
of Cancer and tropic of Capricorn), of the Atlantic 
Ocean resulting in hurricanes and in the Indian 
ocean where they are known as cyclones. They 
require strong updrafts of warm moisture laden air 
that cools and condenses to form cumulo-nimbus 
clouds that bring torrential rainfall. The effect of the 
coriolis force causes the rotation of the air mass 
which is anti-clockwise in the northern hemisphere 
and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. 
2 specific 
facts 
Examples given 
provided 
Specific use 
of 
geographical 
terminology 
Good 
explanation 
to support 
facts.
EExxaamm qquueessttiioonn 
Essay question: Discuss the view that human activity is causing 
climatic change. 
Introduction 
How is the climate changing? 
What is global warming? 
What evidence is there for climatic change? 
Main Body 
Evidence to suggest 
change is due to human 
activity. 
Evidence to suggest 
change is due to factors 
other than human 
activity. 
Short term changes in climate 
since last ice age and impact of El 
Nino and La Nina 
Paleoclimate trends 
Sources of 
methane 
Source of green 
house gases from 
human activity and 
their relative 
importance. 
Sources of CO² 
Sources 
of CFCs 
Conclusion 
Evaluation of 
evidence and a 
personal opinion

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2 W&C OVERVIEW PPT

  • 1. Weather aanndd CClliimmaattee aanndd AAssssoocciiaatteedd HHaazzaarrddss AAQQAA
  • 2. CCoonntteennttss 1. Major climate controls 2. The climate of the British Isles 3. The climate of one tropical region: Tropical monsoon climate 4. Urban climates 5. Global climate change
  • 3. Major CClliimmaattee CCoonnttrroollss:: TThhee ssttrruuccttuurree ooff tthhee aattmmoosspphheerree Atmosphere (air) a layer of transparent gases surrounding the earth held in place by gravitational pull. Mesosphere Extends to 85km above the earths surface. The layers in which most meteors will burn up. Stratosphere The ozone layer (O³) is mainly concentrated at 15 – 35km in the stratosphere. The stratosphere extends to 51km above the earths surface. Troposphere Ranges from the Earth’s surface to 7km at the poles to 17km at the equator. An unstable layer containing the majority of the earths climate and weather. 99% of the total mass of the atmosphere is found in this layer; 50% of it is below 5.6 km, and contains 99% of water vapour. Thermosphere Extends to over 640km from the earth’s surface. The International Space station orbits at around 350km. Mesospause Stratopause Tropopause An isothermal layer: constant temperatures.
  • 4. TThhee ssttrruuccttuurree ooff tthhee aattmmoosspphheerree:: TTeemmppeerraattuurree • Lapse Rate the decrease of temperature with height. • Troposphere the temperature decreases by 6.4°C every 1000m. At the tropopause temperatures drop to - 60°C. • Stratosphere a temperature inversion occurs: temperatures steadily increase reaching almost 0°C due to the ozone layer absorbing ultra-violet radiation. • Mesosphere the temperature decreases to almost -100°C as radiation can not be absorbed. • Thermosphere an inversion as temperature rises due to solar radiation being absorbed by the presence of atomic oxygen.
  • 5. TThhee ssttrruuccttuurree ooff tthhee aattmmoosspphheerree:: CCoommppoossiittiioonn N² Nitrogen important for plant growth O² Oxygen product of photosynthesis Ar Argon CO² Carbon dioxide used for photosynthesis Ne Neon He Helium CH4 Methane Kr Krypton H² Hydrogen
  • 7. TThhee aattmmoosspphheerriicc hheeaatt bbuuddggeett Solar energy affects: • Temperature • Climate • Atmospheric motion • Precipitation • Ocean currents The incoming solar radiation is short-wave; insolation. As the Earth heats up it radiates its own heat in the form of long-waves (infra-red); terrestrial. The albedo is the percentage of radiation that is reflected. This depends on the type of surface.
  • 8. • There are several aspects that control the amount of incoming solar radiation: – Sunspot activity – Elliptical Earth’s orbit – Day and night – Latitude
  • 9. Average net radiation (w/m²) 125 100 50 25 0 25 50 100 125 Radiation balance at Earth’s surface Net radiation gain 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 degrees from equator How is the positive heat balance (net gain in heat radiation from the sun) within the Tropics transferred? 1. Air Horizontally movements, including winds, jet stream, cyclones, depressions. These account for 80% of heat transferred. Ocean currents transfer the remaining 20%. 2. Vertically Conduction, convection and radiation. positive balance negative balance TThhee aattmmoosspphheerriicc hheeaatt bbuuddggeett Radiation balance in atmosphere
  • 10. GGeenneerraall aattmmoosspphheerriicc cciirrccuullaattiioonn Energy deficit Energy surplus Energy deficit Heat is re-distributed by ocean currents and wind Winds blow from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. If the Earth did not rotate a single convection cell would operate in both hemispheres.
  • 11. GGeenneerraall aattmmoosspphheerriicc cciirrccuullaattiioonn As air moves from high to low pressure in the northern hemisphere, it is deflected to the right by the Coriolis force. In the southern hemisphere, air moving from high to low pressure is deflected to the left by the Coriolis force. All points on the earth’s surface have the same rotational velocity (they go round once per day). An object travelling away from the equator (e.g. wind) will eventually be heading east faster than the ground below it and will seem to be moved east by some mysterious "force". This movement is eastwards in the northern hemisphere and westwards in the southern hemisphere. The diagram illustrates how it affects winds in both hemispheres. High pressure Low pressure due to the earth’s rotation UK Equator low high high low low 60 60
  • 12. Air that does not travel to next cell returns to Equator as trade winds Hadley cell Warm air from the tropics meets cold air from the pole at the POLAR FRONT Ferrel cell causing depressions Warm air rises Polar cell North Pole 30o Equator High pressure Divergence zone Low pressure Convergence zone 60o Low pressure Convergence zone High pressure Divergence zone North-east trade winds Heat from the Sun most intense at the Equator ITCZ Heavy convection rainfall Air cools and sinks Air gets deflected northwards Warm air rises and becomes unstable Easterlies (winds) South-westerlies (winds) Cold air sinks Dry and stable Dry and stable AAttmmoosspphheerriicc cciirrccuullaattiioonn:: tthhee ttrriicceelllluullaarr mmooddeell Trade winds pick up latent heat The Hadley cell is the largest due to the intense heating of the Earth’s surface at the Equator.
  • 14. TThhee IInntteerrttrrooppiiccaall ccoonnvveerrggeennccee zzoonnee ((IITTCCZZ)) • The ITCZ is the region that circles the Earth, near the Equator, where the trade winds of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres come together. • The intense sun and warm water at the Equator heats the air in the ITCZ, raising its humidity and causing it to rise. • As the air rises it cools, releasing the accumulated moisture in an almost constant series of storms. • Variation in the location of the ITCZ drastically affects rainfall in many equatorial nations, resulting in the wet and dry seasons of the tropics rather than the cold and warm seasons of higher latitudes. • A shift in the ITCZ can have serious ramifications delaying the rainy season resulting in drought, for example the drought in the Sahel during the 1980s. Cumulo-nimbus clouds along the ITCZ
  • 15. The location ITCZ changes seasonally; south in January and north in July. This causes monsoons.
  • 16. PPllaanneettaarryy ssuurrffaaccee wwiinnddss • Winds are the movement of air in the atmosphere. • Wind speed is affected by a number of factors that operate on a variety of scales. These include: • the pressure gradient, • Rossby waves. • jet streams. • and local weather conditions such as sea breezes and urban winds. • Wind speed depends on how large the difference is because the greater the difference, the faster the wind moves between the two points as it attempts to equalise the pressure. • Local weather conditions can also influence wind speed as the formation of tropical storms and hurricanes can drastically affect the velocity of the wind. Jet stream
  • 17. RRoossssbbyy WWaavveess These are bands of strong winds blowing around the globe in the upper atmosphere (about 10km to 15km above the surface). They drive surface weather systems like depressions. A slight change in their path is what caused the very wet summer in 2007.
  • 18. Jet streams are bands of even faster winds (300km/hr) within the Rossby waves at about 10km above the surface. Commercial airlines often make use of them to reduce fuel consumption. There are two jet streams: • The Polar Jet above the Polar Front (the boundary between polar and mid-latitude cells). • The Subtropical Jet (between Ferrel and Hadley cells) which exists as a mechanism to transport moisture and energy from the tropics polewards. JJeett ssttrreeaammss
  • 19. OOcceeaann CCuurrrreennttss Atmospheric processes are closely linked to the oceans because they store massive amounts of heat energy (and water) which has a major influence on weather and climate. They are involved in the horizontal transfer of heat with warm currents carrying water towards the poles and cold currents towards the Equator. This has the effect of raising or cooling the surrounding sea and air temperature which affects coastal climate.
  • 20. Why does temperature decrease wwiitthh aallttiittuuddee?? Temperature drops by 6.5°C every 1000 metres.
  • 21. The cclliimmaattee ooff tthhee BBrriittiisshh IIsslleess The British Isles has a Cool Temperate Western Maritime Climate. It has: • Clearly defined seasons • Warm summers; 12°C to 20°C • Mild winters • Low temperature ranges
  • 22. Climatic cchhaarraacctteerriissttiiccss:: pprreecciippiittaattiioonn West: Areas of high land are parallel to the coast East: Drier conditions. Area of rain shadow
  • 24. CClliimmaattiicc ccoonnddiittiioonnss:: tteemmppeerraattuurree 60° 55° 50° Due to the influence of latitude the south of the British Isles has warmer summers and milder winters than the north. Due to continentality the east of the British Isles has warmer summers and colder winters than the west. Summer: 14 °C Summer: 14 °C Winter: 3 °C Winter: 6 °C Summer: 16 °C Winter: 7 °C Summer: 18 °C Winter: 4 °C Prevailing wind
  • 25. CClliimmaattiicc ccoonnddiittiioonnss:: wwiinnddss Anabatic flow (day) Katabatic flow (night) Surface is heated by insolation. Warm air becomes unstable. Clouds are formed Warm air rises up the gradient. Descending cool air leaves the centre of the valley clear At night the air cools and as it become denser it sinks down the valley sides into the valley. Fog may form in winter
  • 26. Air masses aaffffeeccttiinngg tthhee BBrriittiisshh IIsslleess An air mass is a large body of air in which temperature and humidity are almost uniform horizontally but change vertically within. They are classified by their surface temperature and humidity. The temperature, humidity and stability of an air mass alters as they are influenced by the surface over which they travel.
  • 28. Air masses aaffffeeccttiinngg tthhee BBrriittiisshh IIsslleess Polar Maritime Air Mass Source region: Canada and Arctic Ocean. Tropical Maritime Air Mass Source Region: the Azores Polar continental Air Mass Source Region: Siberia & East Europe. Tropical continental Air Mass Source Region: North Africa Arctic Maritime Air Mass Source Region: Arctic Ocean. Frontal depressions occur when Pm and Tm meet See Teacher’s notes for more information
  • 29. OOrriiggiinn aanndd nnaattuurree ooff ddeepprreessssiioonnss Depressions occur along the polar front where Tm and Pm air masses meet. They are low pressure weather systems; how low the pressure falls is determined by the rate at which air rises from the surface. Average pressure is 1013mb. The speed at which a depression travels is determined by the speed of the jet stream in the troposphere. The life cycle of a depression is normally 3-5 days.
  • 30. FFoorrmmaattiioonn ooff aa ddeepprreessssiioonn
  • 31. Weather changes associated wwiitthh ddeepprreessssiioonnss
  • 32. Weather cchhaannggeess aatt tthhee wwaarrmm ffrroonntt
  • 33. Origin and nnaattuurree ooff aann aannttiiccyycclloonnee Source of anticyclones: Dry air in the upper layers of the atmosphere. Dew point As cool dry air descends its temperature increases at the dry adiabatic lapse rate DLRA. High pressure is created at surface. Weather is drier and more stable at the surface. The pressure gradient is gentle resulting in light clockwise winds.
  • 34. OOrriiggiinn aanndd nnaattuurree ooff aann aannttiiccyycclloonnee In the UK anticyclones are associated with extended warm, dry conditions in the summer and cold, frosty and sometimes foggy conditions in the winter. An anticyclone may be 2500 km in diameter, although many are smaller. clockwise The satellite image shows the cloudless skies associated with high pressure systems. They may remain for a number of weeks causing heat waves across many parts of Europe during the summer. The synoptic chart for a mid-latitude anticyclone
  • 35. Origin and nnaattuurree ooff aann aannttiiccyycclloonnee
  • 36. Associated wweeaatthheerr ccoonnddiittiioonnss ooff aannttiiccyycclloonneess iinn wwiinntteerr aanndd ssuummmmeerr Anticyclonic weather in the UK Winter conditions (Polar source Summer conditions (tropical source) Conditions Impacts Conditions Impacts Cold day time conditions Usually below freezing Ice. Increase in accidents particularly elderly Increased power use Hot daytime conditions over 23o Increase in heart attacks/heat stroke Increase in sales of lettuce/ice cream/soft dinks Hose pipe bans/drought Very cold at night with frosts Roads need gritting Warm at night Sleeping difficulties Clear skies Temperatures remain low Generally clear skies Sunburn/sunstroke Stable conditions may produce fog Car accidents Disruption to transport (aircraft, ferries, trains) Some early morning mists especially at coast May take a while to clear impacted tourists High levels of pollution due to lack of wind Breathing difficulties Thunderstorms may form in evenings due to convection Flash flooding effects homes and transport Subsiding air traps pollutants Hospitals admissions increase Photo-chemical smog and low level ozone trap heat Increase in deaths from asthma/breathing conditions
  • 37. • June to August 2003 • Over 2,000 died in the UK between 4–13 August 2003. • Highest temperature recorded in Kent : 38.5°C • Over 30,000 deaths in Europe. • £7 billion in crop loss. • Railway tracks buckled. The map shows the temperature variations from normal in Summer 2003.
  • 38. Storm eevveennttss iinn tthhee BBrriittiisshh IIsslleess:: BBoossccaassttllee 22000044 • August 16th 2004 • Large depression in Eastern Atlantic, sucking in warm moist air – including the remnants of Hurricane Alex • Blew in from the sea in prevailing SW direction • Met with SW wind and created convergence • Also, intense uplift that morning in Cornwall due to warm, sunny conditions – cumulonimbus rose to 40,000ft. • Intense, very localised storms. • 200mm of rain in 24 hours, over 300mm per hour at peak intensity. • Most between midday and 5pm on the 16th on high ground to the east. • Already saturated catchment – rapid runoff. • Boscastle lies in a deep valley just downstream of the confluence of the rivers Valency and Jordan.
  • 39. SSttoorrmm eevveennttss:: BBoossccaassttllee 22000044 -- iimmppaaccttss • 2 metre rise in river levels in one hour, floodwater velocity of 10mph. • Est. 2million tonnes of water flowed through Boscastle that day. • Debris caught under narrow bridge caused 3m high wave of water which burst down main street when bridge collapsed. • 84 cars recovered after being swept away; 32 never seen again! • Significant structural damage – 58 properties affected, 4 swept away. • 100 people air lifted to safety but no loss of life. • 300 metres of sewers damaged or destroyed. • Cost of damage estimated at £2million.
  • 40. Storms eevveennttss:: BBoossccaassttllee 22000044 -- rreessppoonnssee The flood management improvements in Boscastle since the 2004 floods: • Large relief culvert completed in April 2005 to divert flood water from River Jordan. • Widening and deepening of the River Valency upstream of Boscastle.. • Car park raised in December 2006, using stones removed from bed of River Valency during widening and deepening works. • Old stone lower bridge demolished – it was over 100 years old and trapped 14 cars beneath and behind it in the 2004 flood. The cost of the River Valency works, car park and bridge work is about £4.6 million, although it will still not prevent a flood as severe as the 2004 event, which has a chance of about 1 in 400 of occurring in any one year.
  • 41. The location ooff ttrrooppiiccaall cclliimmaatteess Equator The ITCZ influences the location of tropical climates. Its northerly and southerly limits are shown on the map. Tropical climates are located between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. Tropic of Cancer Tropic of Capricorn ITCZ ITCZ
  • 42. TThhee cclliimmaattee ooff aa ttrrooppiiccaall rreeggiioonn:: tthhee MMoonnssoooonn CClliimmaattee Monsoon is the reversal of wind direction that results in a clearly defined wet and dry season. Locations that receive the majority of their rainfall in one season have a monsoon climate. They are found in coastal regions of south Asia, Southeast and north east Brazil, northern Australia, West Africa. Monsoon rainfall, Kerela, India Gujarat, India July 2005 under monsoon rains and suffering from serve floods Gujarat before the start of monsoon
  • 43. The cause of the mmoonnssoooonn cclliimmaattee -- IInnddiiaa In mid- summer the ITCZ has move north over India. Air cools and sinks over ocean Strong insolation causes surface temperatures to increase; low pressure causes rapid uplift of warm air. Moist air is sucked in to replaced rising air. Heavy orographic rainfall can occur. In winter the ITCZ has moved south. The North easterly trade winds blow south into Equatorial Low. Trade winds cause off shore winds to blow across India High pressure over land as cool air descends from the Himalayas. Dry conditions prevail.
  • 44. TThhee cchhaarraacctteerriissttiiccss ooff tthhee MMoonnssoooonn cclliimmaattee March – May: Highest temperatures and very dry. A period of drought. June – September: Heavy rainfall. High humidity as the temperatures remain hot. October to February: Dry season. Little precipitation. Temperatures not as hot as in March to May period. Monsoon clouds over Lucknow, India.
  • 45. Climate statistics ffoorr MMuummbbaaii && NNeeww DDeellhhii Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Average Temp. (°C) 23. 5 23.5 26 28 30 29 27 26.5 26.5 28 27.5 26 Precipita tion (mm) 2.5 2.5 2.5 0 18 485 617 340 264 64 13 2.5 Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Average Temp. (°C) 14 16.5 22.5 28 33.5 33.5 31.5 30 29 26 20 15.5 Precipita tion (mm) 23 18 13 8 13 74 180 173 117 10 3 10 Mumbai New Delhi
  • 46. SSuubb--ttrrooppiiccaall aannttiiccyycclloonneess 30°N 30°S Sahara Desert Namib Desert Kalahari Desert Equator The Sahel Prolonged period of drought during the 1980s. The fluctuating location of the ITCZ and its progression south linked to El Nino events is one cause of droughts in this region.
  • 47. TTrrooppiiccaall rreevvoollvviinngg ssttoorrmmss Tropical depression (winds less than 38 mph) Tropical revolving storms are very low pressure weather systems with strong winds and heavy rainfall. They get their energy from the sea and begin to die out when they are over land. Tropical storm (winds 39 – 73 mph) Hurricane (winds >74 mph) The aftermath of a tropical storm
  • 48. TTrrooppiiccaall rreevvoollvviinngg ssttoorrmmss Tropical storms 1994 - 2005 Hurricanes: Atlantic Ocean Typhoons: Pacific Ocean Cyclones: Indian Ocean Willy-willies: Australia
  • 49. TThhee ooccccuurrrreennccee ooff ttrrooppiiccaall rreevvoollvviinngg ssttoorrmmss named storms major hurricanes 2005 was the worst year on record for hurricanes An average of 7.7 named storms and 3.6 major hurricanes since 1995 compares to 5 storms and 1.5 major hurricanes from 1970-1994.
  • 50. FFoorrmmaattiioonn ooff aa ttrrooppiiccaall ssttoorrmm Colder air sinks in the centre – the ‘eye’ Rising air spirals, cools and condenses – cumulonimbus clouds bring torrential rain and thunder Strong upward movement of air draws water vapour up Warm (> 27°C), shallow (<60m) seas
  • 51. CCaassee ssttuuddyy:: HHuurrrriiccaannee KKaattrriinnaa 22000055 Source; NOAA eye vortex of rotating clouds (300km across) eye wall Cirrus canopy torrential rain squally showers
  • 52. CCaassee ssttuuddyy:: HHuurrrriiccaannee KKaattrriinnaa 22000055 Hurricane Katrina first appeared on August 23 as a tropical depression just west of the Bahamas. August 25th Category 1* < 95 mph (< 155 km/ hr) August 26th Category 2* 100 mph (160 km/ hr) 18 hours later Category 3* 115 mph (185 km/ hr) August 28th Category 4* 145 mph (235 km/ hr) Six hours later Category 5* 160 mph (255 km/ hr) * on the Saffir- Simpson scale
  • 53. Case ssttuuddyy:: HHuurrrriiccaannee KKaattrriinnaa 22000055 The animated sequence shows the path of Katrina on the 29th August 2005 as it crossed the Caribbean and moved towards the southern states of the USA. Eventually it struck land with devastating consequences for the people of New Orleans and the surrounding areas. New Orleans
  • 54. LLaannddffaallll Hurricane Katrina made landfall at 6.10am in Louisiana 29th August Failure of the levées surrounding New Orleans caused the greatest damage. Winds speeds of 280 km per hour. Red = hurricane force winds. Up to 380mm of rain in places. Storm surges, peaking at 8.5m high. Strongest ever recorded hurricane to make landfall in the USA.
  • 55. HHuurrrriiccaannee KKaattrriinnaa:: IImmppaaccttss • By August 31st 80% of New Orleans lay under water. • 1.7 million people without electricity. • $150 billion estimated total economic impact. • 1464 died in Louisiana. • Almost everyone instantly unemployed! • Estimated 600,000 pets killed. • Lack of clean water, food and toilet facilities. • Oil and natural gas industry affected. • Communications and transport infrastructure damaged and failed.
  • 56. WWhhyy wweerree tthhee iimmppaaccttss ssoo sseevveerree iinn NNeeww OOrrlleeaannss??
  • 57. MMaannaaggiinngg tthhee rriisskk New Orleans waterfront To repair the defences in New Orleans they: • Repaired the levees – breached levees repaired and all levees to be raised by 2010. New floodgates to be built at canal entrances. • Restored the wetlands – The $14 billion, 30- year ‘Coast 2050’ plan to recreate the mixture of swamp, marshland and barrier islands to protect places inland as before. How can New Orleans be prepared for another hurricane like Katrina? • Preparation - National Hurricane Centre watches and produces warnings. It also runs a ‘hurricane preparedness week’ every year for the public. DHL also run schools workshops on hurricane preparedness • Evacuation – evacuation order given on 28th August 2005 by Mayor. However, it’s hard to predict the path, very expensive and not everyone is able to leave. In advance of Hurricane Gustav – which was heading for New Orleans at the end of August 2008 – the Mayor of New Orleans ordered an evacuation to prevent a similar disaster. Over 90% of residents left the city.
  • 58. CCaassee ssttuuddyy:: CCyycclloonnee NNaarrggiiss 22000088 Convection increases, Changes direction eastwards April 27th: formed in Bay of Bengal May 1st Convection decreases Originally predicted to hit Bangladesh or SE India Landfall May 2nd Burma. Peak winds of 215 km/h Category 4 Dies outs May 3rd
  • 59. Cyclone NNaarrggiiss MMaayy 22000088:: TThhee iimmppaaccttss 146,000 fatalities 1000s missing. Many feared washed out to sea 2.7% of projected GDP predicted lost by event 1,163 temples destroyed Extensive destruction of buildings, e.g. Labutta town 75% buildings collapsed 700,000 homes destroyed in delta 5 regions declared a disaster area $10 estimated cost 65% of paddy fields contaminated by salt water 75% of health service & 4,000 schools damaged 75% livestock killed 100,000 fishing vessels destroyed
  • 60. Cyclone NNaarrggiiss MMaayy 22000088:: tthhee rreessppoonnssee • 44 countries responded by donating money to the relief operation, food, shelter, volunteers, water and medicine. • Long term response has been to restore quality of life through projects working with farmers, rebuilding school and health centres and clean water supplies. • Improving road infrastructure to allow for quicker access to safer areas in future disasters. • Preparation to prepare people in most vulnerable areas and educate on appropriate response.
  • 61. Climate on aa llooccaall ssccaallee:: uurrbbaann cclliimmaatteess UUrrbbaann hheeaatt iissllaanndd eeffffeecctt A micro climate is the climate of a small area. Temperature, precipitation, wind and atmospheric gases are distinctly different in an urban area to that of a rural area. An urban heat island describe how temperatures are highest at the centre of the urban area and decrease towards the suburbs. Urban areas are warmer because: • Industries, homes & vehicles burn fuel realising heat. • Pollution from industry and vehicles traps heat. • Dense and dark coloured surfaces of buildings and roads absorb heat. • Small amounts of water and vegetation so little energy is used in evapotranspiration. TTeemmppeerraattuurreess aarree ggrreeaatteesstt wwhheerree tthhee bbuuiillddiinngg ddeennssiittyy iiss hhiigghheesstt
  • 62. Urban climates: PPrreecciippiittaattiioonn aanndd wwiinndd There is 5 – 30% more rain in urban areas than in rural area due to a greater density of condensation nuclei allowing for cloud formation There is 14% less chance of snow in urban areas than rural areas due to the increased temperatures Thunderstorms are 25% more likely urban areas due to strong convectional uplifts of warm air There is 10 times more condensation nuclei in urban areas and this can lead to a 100% more likelihood of fog in winter and 30% more in Wind speed is summer. 20% less in urban areas are the building act as barriers. Tall buildings can channel wind resulting in strong Prevailing winds blow pollution and rain gusts. clouds. Consequently the west of London was traditionally more desirable
  • 63. UUrrbbaann cclliimmaatteess:: aaiirr qquuaalliittyy Smog occurs during anticyclones. A temperature inversion is causes as cool air sinks to replace the rapid uplift of warm air. Pollution is trapped below the warm inversion layer causing a pollution dome to form. Photochemical smog is caused as above normal levels of nitrogen dioxide and ozone are produced when pollution and sunlight react.
  • 65. EEvviiddeennccee ffoorr ppaasstt cclliimmaattee cchhaannggee Climate varies on all time scales from the short –term (the recent retreat of glaciers) to the long-term (deposition of desert sediments to form sandstone) in response to random and periodic forcing factors. Some of these could be due to short-term changes e.g. random variations in the climatic systems. Present day ice limit Extent of glacier retreat in little over 50 years Ice limit in 1946
  • 66. EEvviiddeennccee ffoorr ppaasstt cclliimmaattee cchhaannggee
  • 67. EEvviiddeennccee ffoorr ppaasstt cclliimmaattee cchhaannggee Past sea levels The ice ages brought eustatic change. Sea levels fell as huge volumes of water were transferred to glaciers and ice caps. Subsequent melting would then cause an increase in sea level. Such changes are termed glacio-eustatic. Measuring sea level change Accurate measurements can be made of past sea levels by observing one or more of the following features. 1. Shoreline deposits such as shells, wood and peat found in marine cores. 2. Exposed rock outcrops containing marine fossils. 3. Vegetated tidal flats above the high water mark. 4. Exposed coral reefs. 5. Marine rocks displaying evidence of wind-borne erosion. Past sea levels were up to 200m above present during interglacials and 100-150m below present during glacials. Other techniques include studying glacial advances/retreat, ice cores, isotope analysis, geology, pollen, dendrochronology and archaeological/historical data.
  • 68. TThhee ccaauusseess ooff cclliimmaattee cchhaannggee Climate change can take three forms: 1. Short-term change Climate since the end of the last ice age (hundreds/thousands years) Very short-term: El Nino, La Nina. 2. Long-term change Global climate over billions of years. 3. Paleoclimates Climates from thousands / millions of years ago.
  • 69. GGlloobbaall wwaarrmmiinngg:: ccaauusseess Shortwave radiation reaches Earth’s atmosphere Some is reflected Some of the re-radiated long wave radiation is trapped by water vapour and “Greenhouse gases” (CO2 CFCs, CH4, N2O) Earth absorbs the radiation Most gets through Earth’s surface warms up and emits longwave radiation (re-radiates energy)
  • 70. GGlloobbaall wwaarrmmiinngg –– NNaattuurraall ccyyccllee vv hhuummaann iimmppaacctt The current scientific consensus is that global warming is a real threat and it is a result of human activity. However, some people continue to debate whether global warming actually exists and/or whether it is as a result of human activity. The evidence for past climate change is often cited to explain the current changing conditions. Carbon dioxide emissions since 1840
  • 71. GGlloobbaall wwaarrmmiinngg Most scientists agree that global warming is being caused by human effects on the atmosphere, principally through carbon dioxide emissions. Rank Country 1 USA 2 China 3 Russia 4 Japan 5 India 6 Germany 7 Canada 8 UK 9 Italy 10 South Korea Top ten carbon dioxide emitters. USA and China are the two greatest emitters.
  • 72. EEffffeeccttss ooff gglloobbaall wwaarrmmiinngg oonn aa gglloobbaall ssccaallee
  • 74. The effects ooff gglloobbaall wwaarrmmiinngg oonn • Bangladesh is very densely populated. • Many fresh water fishing resources are under threat. • Fishing generates substantial income and any intrusion of salt water would disrupt the economy. • Storm surges are also a threat; cyclonic storms occur frequently and with devastating effects. BBaannggllaaddeesshh Sea level threats to Bangladesh
  • 75. The eeffffeeccttss ooff gglloobbaall wwaarrmmiinngg oonn tthhee BBrriittiisshh IIsslleess
  • 76. Response ttoo gglloobbaall wwaarrmmiinngg oonn aa iinntteerrnnaattiioonnaall,, nnaattiioonnaall aanndd llooccaall ssccaallee National/Local government policy Public / individuals International agreements Rio Earth summit IPCC Kyoto UK policy Local agenda 21 Pressure groups Changing lifestyles
  • 77. CCooppiinngg wwiitthh cclliimmaattee cchhaannggee –– EEaarrtthh SSuummmmiitt In June 1992 at Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, the Rio Earth Summit, was the largest environmental conference ever held. It attracted more than 30,000 people and over 100 Heads of State. The aim of the conference was to address the growing global environmental problems and to agree major treaties on climate change, forest management and bio-diversity. A number of key principles came from the Rio Declaration including: A key outcome was The Framework Convention on Climate Change.
  • 78. CCooppiinngg wwiitthh cclliimmaattee cchhaannggee –– KKyyoottoo PPrroottooccooll • On 16th February 2005 the 1997 Kyoto Protocol became international law. • The Protocol was agreed in Kyoto, Japan in 1997 to implement the United Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change . • Industrialised nations who signed up to the treaty were legally bound to reduce worldwide emissions of six greenhouse gases by an average of 5.2% below their 1990 levels by the period 2008-2012. • The agreement needed to be ratified by countries accounting for at least 55% of 1990 carbon dioxide emissions. • The USA believes implementation will have a devastating effect on it’s economy. However, President Obama has taken steps forward in promoting renewable energy and reducing carbon emissions.
  • 80. Coping wwiitthh cclliimmaattee cchhaannggee –– IIPPCCCC The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was set up in 1988 to assess information regarding climate change and the impact on the planet. Since 1988 it has produced four reports, the last in 2001. It is involved in a monitoring programme which carries out the following activities: • Remote observation of the atmosphere at surface and trophosphere level. • Monitoring and measuring ocean temperatures. • Monitoring and measuring greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere. • Monitoring sea-level rise and glacial and ice sheet retreat.
  • 81. • Climate change summit held in Copenhagen in December 2009. • There was disappointment expressed by some environmental groups and observers at the outcomes of the summit. Demonstrators at the Copenhagen summit Photo credit: EPO on wikipedia.
  • 83. Tackling cclliimmaattee cchhaannggee –– UUKK ppoolliiccyy 11 So what are the present UK policies? • Sustainable energy usage, energy conserving houses, grants for efficient gas boilers etc. • Waste strategies including recycling to avoid methane from landfill. Currently, in 2004 around 17% of waste is recycled. • Move to renewable sources of power, combined heat and power systems and cleaner coal. • Green transport strategies (clean lean burn)- car engines, fuel efficiency, new fuels, car parking (e.g. Winchester’s extended Park & Ride and MIRACLES project) working patterns, public transport. Indirectly, London’s Congestion Charging will help.
  • 84. Tackling cclliimmaattee cchhaannggee –– UUKK ppoolliiccyy 22 • Air quality regulation- strict Environment Agency and EU requirements. • Planning regulations: encouragement of compact cities and avoidance of urban sprawl e..g through the Greenbelt policy. The map shows greenbelts in the UK. • Carbon emissions trading scheme - setting caps on emissions in industry. • Technological innovation - supporting research and development into new long term options. In March 2001, the Carbon Trust was launched to promote low-carbon technology and innovation in the UK. • The Climate Change Levy (CCL) is a tax on the use of energy in industry, commerce and the public sector.
  • 85. CCooppiinngg wwiitthh cclliimmaattee cchhaannggee –– KKyyoottoo PPrroottooccooll As an NIC, China is considered an Annexe II country, which means it is not required to reduce emissions under the Protocol yet it emits more carbon dioxide than any nation in the region and 50% of emissions from all LEDCs. As with most LEDCs, China is more vulnerable to the effects of climate change than MEDCs. It has increasing hazards of coastal and river flooding, drought, landslides, storms and tropical cyclones. Rising sea levels could flood low lying areas along the Yellow and Yangtze rivers and the Pearl river delta which would affect 70% of the population and 80% of industrial output. River transport on the Yangtze.
  • 86. CCooppiinngg wwiitthh cclliimmaattee cchhaannggee –– LLooccaall aaggeennddaa 2211 To put sustainable development into practice at a local level each local authority must create a strategy. All local authorities must incorporate sustainable development into every aspect of their work. The strategies should not be designed to work along side projects, they should inform what the project should be. Agenda 21 was established during the 1992 Rio Earth Summit. A framework for future action on global sustainable development was agreed. However, sustainable development cannot be achieved on a global scale unless it is tackled at a local level, with all local authorities adopting Local Agenda 21 into their strategies. 'Think Globally, Act Locally.'
  • 87. CCooppiinngg wwiitthh cclliimmaattee cchhaannggee –– LLooccaall aaggeennddaa 2211 With the cooperation of local business, schools, transport companies and the wider community Oxford County Council has attempted to reduce road traffic intensity along with its associated pollution. The city of Oxford has been the main focus. Strategies aim to reduce the 60% car use within the city and involve two action plans – Travelwise and the Transport Action Plan. These include: • Funding for the Sustrans cycle network across the county • Increased funding for rural bus services. • Green commuter plans from employers such as car share / bus provision. • Walk to school week. • Provision of sustainable transport seminars for business • Car free days.
  • 88. Coping wwiitthh cclliimmaattee cchhaannggee –– CChhaannggiinngg lliiffeessttyylleess There are a many small changes to our lifestyles that can be made to achieve a more sustainable society and help reduce climate change. Energy and resources Turn off electric and gas appliances such as TVs, lights and computers when not in use. Insulate/double glaze your home to save energy. Use low energy light bulbs and appliances. Only fill the kettle with the water you need. Transport Walk, cycle and use public transport whenever possible. Take fewer car journeys and share cars. Shopping Avoid products with lots of packaging and reuse carrier bags. Buy environmentally friendly products. Buy local food produce, think of food miles. Reduce Waste Reuse bags, bottles and containers. Have things repaired or try to fix them. Recycle rubbish. Raise environmental awareness.
  • 89. CCooppiinngg wwiitthh cclliimmaattee cchhaannggee –– PPrreessssuurree ggrroouuppss Friends of the Earth – www.foe.co.uk The Climate Group – www.theclimategroup.org The Carbon Trust – www.thecarbontrust.co.uk Greenpeace – www.greenpeace.org The Global Climate Coalition (guided USA against Kyoto) - www.globalclimate.org World Wildlife Fund – www.wwf.org.uk
  • 90. EExxaamm qquueessttiioonn Explain the conditions that lead to the formation of tropical storms. (6 marks) Tropical storms can be formed where low pressure weather systems occur over seas and oceans with surface temperatures greater than 27°C. For example in the tropical regions, (between the tropic of Cancer and tropic of Capricorn), of the Atlantic Ocean resulting in hurricanes and in the Indian ocean where they are known as cyclones. They require strong updrafts of warm moisture laden air that cools and condenses to form cumulo-nimbus clouds that bring torrential rainfall. The effect of the coriolis force causes the rotation of the air mass which is anti-clockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. 2 specific facts Examples given provided Specific use of geographical terminology Good explanation to support facts.
  • 91. EExxaamm qquueessttiioonn Essay question: Discuss the view that human activity is causing climatic change. Introduction How is the climate changing? What is global warming? What evidence is there for climatic change? Main Body Evidence to suggest change is due to human activity. Evidence to suggest change is due to factors other than human activity. Short term changes in climate since last ice age and impact of El Nino and La Nina Paleoclimate trends Sources of methane Source of green house gases from human activity and their relative importance. Sources of CO² Sources of CFCs Conclusion Evaluation of evidence and a personal opinion

Editor's Notes

  1. Atmosphere definition 1st. Diagram 2nd the boxes in following order, troposphere, tropopause, Stratosphere, stratopause, mesosophere, mesospause, thermosphere.
  2. Wikipedia image
  3. CCEA AS ppt
  4. 62
  5. Photos © Gregory Hernandez